Chapter2:CoalinAustralianHistory

MarionDiamond

CammandMcQuilton,1987

CaptainCooktoconvicts

ThefirstinhabitantsofAustraliausedfireformanypurposes,forcookingandhunting,infire-stickfarmingtoencourageparticulartypesofgrazinganimals,tomakecharcoalfordecorativeandritualpurposes.Buttheyhadnouseforcoal.Withanabundanceofwoodavailable,therewasnoneedforcoal-firedburning.

ThehistoryofcoalinAustraliagoesbacktothefirstarrivalofLieutenantJamesCookinHMSEndeavourin1770.Bothmanandshiphadahistoryofinvolvementinthecoaltrade.Yorkshire-bornCookservedhisapprenticeshipunderaWhitbyshipownerwhoseshipsworkedintheNorthSeacoaltrade,andtheEndeavourbeganlifeasaWhitbycollier,theEarlofPembroke,before–

possiblyonCook’sadvice–theRoyalNavyboughther,refittedherforexploration,andrenamedherEndeavour.

CoalwasanimportantsourceoffuelinEngland.Coalwasusedfordomesticpurposessuchascookingandheating;itwasusedfortraditionalmetallurgicalactivities,suchasblacksmithing;andwiththedevelopmentoftheprocessofcokingcoal,itwasusedmorewidelyinironsmelting.Aboveall,itwasusedtoheatsteamforthenewsteamenginesthatgraduallytookoverfromwindandwaterpowertowardstheendoftheeighteenthcentury.CoalisdistributedwidelyacrossnorthernEnglandandWales,butNewcastle-on-Tynewasthecentreofthetradefrommedievaltimes,hencethephrase‘takingcoalstoNewcastle’.

In1788,theBritishestablishedthecolonyofNewSouthWales,atfirstnomorethanathousandorsoconvictsandsoldierscampedontheedgeofSydneyHarbour.Thesefirstsettlershadlittleuseforcoalsince,unlikeinBritain,therewaslittleindustrialactivity,andplentyofwoodavailablefor

cookingandheating.Wherenecessaryforrudimentaryindustrialprocessessuchas

grindingcorn,windandwatermillswerebuilt.Withalargeconvictlabourforce,too,therewaslittleneedtolaboursavingdevices,andattimesconvictsdidtheworkofmachinery.InearlyBrisbane,forinstance,convictswerepunishedbyworkingatreadmilltogrindcorn.InVanDiemen’sLand,theypulledtruckloadsofcargoalongrailwaytracks.Whilesuchlabourwastohand,therewaslittleneedforsteamengines.

Howeversomecoalwasneededtoprovidethegreaterheatrequiredformetalwork,particularlyblacksmithing.Shipsalsoneededamoreenergydensefuelthanwood,andas

Sydneybegantodevelopasaport,coalwassoldtovisitingships,thusbecomingAustralia’soldestexporttrade.Whalingshipsinparticularneededcoaltofueltheboilersthatoperated24hoursadayduringthehuntingseason,boilingdownblubberintowhaleoil.

CoaldepositswerefoundinNewSouthWalesin1797.OntheirjourneybackfromcircumnavigatingTasmania,BassandFlinderssawwhattheythoughtwerecoaldepositsalongthecoastsouthofSydney,intheareathatwouldeventuallybecomeWollongong.Meanwhile,inearlySeptemberagroupofconvictsescapedfromPortJacksonbyboat,andLieutenantShortlandwassentnorthtobringthemback.Heneverfoundtheconvicts,butduringhissearch,hefoundanoutcropofcoalatariverhenamed‘theCoalRiver’.Hechippedoffafewsamples,andreportedbacktothegovernmentthat‘Inthisharbourwasfoundaveryconsiderablequantityofcoalofaverygoodsort,andlayingsonearthewatersideastobeconvenientlyshipped.’(WindsorandRalston,1897)

Coalminingbeganonasmallscalethefollowingyear,1798,whentwogovernmentshipscametothenewlydiscoveredriverandloaded45tonsofcoalforthesettlementatPortJackson(Windsor

SydneyGazette5May1805

andRalston,1897).In1804,apermanentconvictsettlementbeganontheCoalRiver,nowrenamedtheHunterRiverafterGovernorHunter.ThisnewsettlementwascalledNewcastle,afterBritain’sforemostcoalcity.InAustralia,asinBritain,miningatthistimewasdirtyandoftendangerouswork,soitwasnaturalthattheNewcastlesettlementbecameaplaceofsecondarypunishment,adestinationforconvictswhohadre-offendedinNewSouthWales.

Atfirst,coalwasminedfromtheseamthatShortlandhadseenfromthesea:aseam3foot1inchwide–knownastheYardSeam–whichextrudedfromthesandstone,onthesideofthehillnowcalledFortScratchley.Laterapitwasdugthateventuallyreached111feetbelowthesurface.Theseearlymineswereprimitiveaffairs,notleastbecauseneithersoldiersnorconvictsknewanythingaboutmining,soitwasagodsendwhenBenjaminGrainger,aminerfromSedgely,Staffordshire,wastransportedforlifein1807.GraingerwassentimmediatelytoNewcastle,wherehebecametheSuperintendentofCoalMines;by1813,thoughstillaconvict,hewasonthepayroll.

In1819GraingerdescribedtheminingoperationstoCommissionerBigge.Inall,twenty-sevenmenwereemployed.Eightmen–thehewers–descendedthepitbyladderorwindlass,andthencrawledonehundredyardstothecoalface.Therestofthecrewbailedoutwater,wheeledthecoaltotheshaftinbarrows,raiseditbywindlass,andcarrieditbybullockwagontothewharf.Theyworkedatenhourday,andthehewersreceivedadoublefoodrationfortheirefforts.Miningaffectedthemen’shealth.Theyworkedinwetconditions,withoutachangeofclothing.Oneoftheminers,JohnAllen,toldBiggethatcoalmininghadgivenhimasthma,andSurgeonEvanscriticisedthepoorairquality(Turner,1973).

Graingerclaimedthatthehewerscouldproduce2.5tonsofcoalperman,perday.Howeverexportfiguressuggestthislevelofproductionwasveryrarelymet:

Tonsraised Governmentvesselstons

Value(in£sd)

Privatevesselstons

Value(in£sd)

1805 150 20 10-0-0 64 32-0-01806 420 121 60-10-0 253 126-10-01807 400 66 33-0-0 237 118-10-01808 500 160 80-0-0 233 116-10-01809 800 357 178-10-0 308 154-0-01810 800 380 190-0-0 328 164-0-01811 1,400 641 320-10-0 700 350-0-01812 1,400 493 246-10-0 632 316-0-01813 1,800 922 461-0-0 647 323-10-01814 [blank] 455 227-10-0 1,738 869-0-01815 1,750 750 375-0-0 727 363-10-01816 1,450 917 458-10-0 340 170-0-01817 1,500 836 418-0-0 479 239-10-01818 1,300 947 473-10-0 95 59-7-61819 2,250 1,887 943-10-0 125 72-2-61820 3,915 2,903 1,451-10-0 150 93-15-6ReturnofcoalraisedatandexportedfromNewcastletoSydneyfromJanuary1805toDecember1820inclusive.(HistoricalRecordsofNewcastle,p.278)Coals10shillingspertonuntil1818,then12/6toprivatevessels‘inconsequenceofbeingloadedbygovernmentgangs’

By1812,threesmallsailingvesselsweretradingwithcoaltoSydney.NearlyallthecoalproducedwasburnedlocallyinNewcastle,orinSydney,butgraduallyanexporttradedeveloped.In1824anAmericanschoonertook250tonsofcoaltoRiodeJaneiro,andsomecoalwasexportedtoMauritius,Batavia[Jakarta]andBombay,oftenasballast,(WindsorandRalston,1897)butthequalitywaslow,andAsianmarketswereunenthusiastic.EveninNewSouthWales,thedemandforcoalwaslimited,especiallyatthehighpriceof10shillingsatthepit,andin1822theconvictsettlementwasdisbanded.GovernorBrisbaneexplainedthat‘Newcastlecouldaffordbutinadequatesupplyofwork,asthedemandforcoalwaslimited’(WindsorandRalston,1897).Asmallnumberofconvicts–‘theNewGang’–remainedbehindtominecoal,butin1826,thegovernmentabandonedcoalminingaltogether,decidingthatconvictscouldbebetteremployedinroadbuilding.

Industryanddevelopment

In1824,thefirsttwoincorporatedcompanieswerecreatedbytheBritishParliamenttoinvestinNewSouthWales:theAustralianAgriculturalCompany(whichstillexists)andtheVanDiemen’sLandCompany.Thedirectorswerewellconnected,andgenerousintheirgiftstopoliticians,andtheywerewellrewarded.Bothcompaniesreceivedlargelandgrantsandallocationsofconvictlabour;inreturn,theywereexpectedtobringcapitaltoinvestinthecolony.TheAACwasgrantedonemillionacresofland[400,000hectares]northandwestfromNewcastle,betweenPortStephensandthePeelRiver,containingmostoftheknowncoal

reservesofNSW.Afeatureofthislandgrantwasthatlandtitlewasnotlimitedtothesurfaceoftheland,asistrueofAustralianfreeholdtitletoday;instead,pre-1825landgrantsincludedmineralrights.

TheAACmovedintocoalmining,leasedthegovernmentminesinNewcastle,andgainedamonopolyonthesaleofcoalinNewSouthWales.Forthenexttwentyyears,theAACsuppliedallcoaltothecolony.Atfirst,coalwasnotparticularlyprofitable,fordemandremainedlimited,howevertonnagesgraduallyrose:974tonsin1828,780tonsin1829,and4000tonsin1830In1831,achangeofpolicyinBritainmeantthatfreeimmigrantsbegantocometoNewSouthWales;oncetheseimmigrantswereunloadedinSydney,someoftheimmigrantvesselsheadednorthtoNewcastletotakeoncoalasfreighttoanotherport.By1840theAAC’ssuperintendent,P.P.King,reportedthat‘Therearebetween2000and3000tonsofshippinginNewcastleharbourwaitingforcoals.’In1841,theAACsold34,841tonsofcoalat12shillingsaton,foratotalof£20,905.(WindsorandRalston,1897).

Althoughthemineswerestillworkedbyconvicts,theAACinvestedinsomeimprovements,sothatcoalminingbecamemoreefficient.On31December1831theSydneyGazettedescribedsomeof

SydneyGazette31December1831

theseimprovements:asteamenginewasimportedfromNewcastle-on-Tynetopumpoutwaterandrailswerelaidtohelptransportcoaltothewharves.In1840,asconvicttransportationwascomingtoanendinNewSouthWales,thecompanysponsoredtheimmigrationof‘afewpracticalminers’fromEngland(WindsorandRalston,1897).

Demandforcoalexpandedfromthe1830sbecauseofthegrowthofpopulation,butalsobecausefrom1831,steamshipsbegantooperateinAustralianwaters.Thefirstlocallybuiltsteamship,WilliamtheFourth,ranbetweenNewcastleandtheClarenceRiver,whiletheSophiaJanewasimportedfromLondonfortheNewcastle-Sydneyrun.By1840,theshipsoftheHunterRiverSteamNavigationCompanycouldsailbetweenNewcastleandSydneyin6or6½hours(WindsorandRalston,1897).Increasingnumbersofsteamshipsmeantagrowingdemandforcoal.

CoalproductionwenthandinhandwithindustrialdevelopmentandNewcastleconsequentlybecameAustralia’sfirstindustrialtown.Saltandlimeproductionbeganinconvicttimes;laterindustrialproductsincludedsulphuricacid,iron(1840),copper(1853)andbrass(1866)foundries,soapandcandleworks(1866),cloth(1840)andflourmills(1844)andmore(WindsorandRalston,1897).1NewcastleexportedcoaltoothercentresinAustralia,andinreturnimportedrawmaterialsforprocessing,suchascopperorefromtheSouthAustralianmines.

Bythelate1840s,theAAC’smonopolyoncoalmininginNewSouthWaleshadbecomeaproblem,restrictingsupplyatatimeofgrowingdemandtomeetnewuses.Newsourcesofcoalhadbeendiscovered,bothintheNewcastleregionandelsewhere,andthecompanyfounditdifficulttoenforceitsmonopoly.SmallamountsofcoalwerediscoveredsoonaftersettlementinTasmania(thenVanDiemen’sLand).In1833thecommandantatPortArthurexaminedaseamofcoalatNorfolkBay,andacoalminewasopened,usingconvictlabour,andbroughttoHobartwhereitsoldwell‘thoughtendingtocrackandthrowoutburningpieceswheninthegrate’.ZephaniahWilliams,amineralsurveyorandcoalmerchantfromWalestransportedforhisChartistpolitics,becamethesuperintendentatthePortArthurcoalmines.HelaterstartedhisowncompanyandbegantheDenisoncollieryin1853.HeimportedskilledminersfromEngland,builtatramwayanddeep-waterjetty,buttheenterprisefailed,andWilliamsspenttherestofhislifeasapublican(Robson,1990).Ingeneral,thecolonystagnatedeconomically,itscoalreservesweresmallandlocallyconsumed,andTasmaniaremainedanetimporterofcoal

SimilarlycoalseamswerediscoverednearIpswichintheMoretonBayDistrict(laterQueensland)whileminingforlimestoneduringconvicttimes.Whentheregionwasopenedtofreesettlementin1842,thedemandforcoalrose,andthefirstrecordedcoalmineopenedatRedbankin1843.ThecoalontheBremerRiverwaseasilyaccessiblebywater,andduringthe1840ssmallsteamersontheBrisbaneandBremerriversusedlocalcoal,buttheriverchannelbelowBrisbanewastooshallowforocean-goingsteamers,andtheWestMoretoncoalreserveswereonlyoflocaluseforsteamshipsuntilthe1860s,whentherivermouthwasdredged.OutsidetheBrisbaneareacoalwasdiscoveredwestofRockhamptonin1862,inLaidleyandatBurrumin1863,atBlairAtholin1864andontheBowenRiverin1867.Forthetimebeing,noneoftheseareaswascommerciallysignificant(Whitmore,1981).

1Thesearethedatesfortheestablishmentofcompanies.Unincorporatedindustrialdevelopmentsexistedmuchearlier,especiallyinthecaseoflowcapitalindustriessuchasflourmilling,butleavelittlerecordbehind.

Ipswich,likeNewcastle,becameanimportantindustrialtowninthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury.Queensland’srailwayworkshopswerebasedthere,togetherwiththebulkofthecolony’scoalmines,andIpswichthereforebecameacentreofengineeringexpertise.EasyaccesstocoalmeantthatIpswich,likeNewcastle,becameacentreforindustriessuchassteamdrivensawmills,flourmills,woollenmills,andblacksmithing.Ipswichwasalsopotentiallyradical.Thecoal-miningelectorateofBundambawasthefirstinQueenslandtoelectaLabourmember,ThomasGlassey,in1888(Bowden,1997).

InthePortPhillipdistrict,laterVictoria,coalwasdiscoveredatWesternPortbytheexplorerWilliamHovellin1827,andrediscoveredbyRobertMassiein1837(Shaw,1996).Howevercoalproductiondidnotbegininearnestuntilthe1860s.Victoriahassomeofthelargestreservesoflignitecoalintheworld,butbrowncoalcouldnotcompetewiththeblackcoalavailableinNewSouthWales,particularlyatatimewhentheefficiencyofsteamengineswaspoor.Newcastlecoalremainedthepreferredoptionuntilafterthegoldrushes(1851-60),whentheVictoriangovernmentembarkedonapolicyofexportreplacementbehindhightariffbarriers.Localcoalwasgivenpreferentialtreatment,despiteitsinferiorquality,especiallywhenstrikesinNewcastlein1861madetheVictoriansquestionthedependabilityofsupplyfromNSW.

Populationrecordedincensus1851(Linge,1979)

Gasandlighting

Afurthernewuseforcoalcamewiththedevelopmentofcoalgas,firstlyforstreetlighting,andlaterforwiderdomesticpurposes.In1836,agroupofSydneybusinessmenformedtheAustralianGasandLightCompanytosupplyreticulatedgasinSydney,thefirstprivatecompanydesignedtoinvestinapublicutility:urbanstreetlighting.Ittookfiveyearsbeforethecompanyachieveditsplan,buton24May1841–QueenVictoria’sbirthday–acrowdofover2000peoplewatchedtheascentofagasfilledballoon,followedbyilluminationsincludingathirtyfootstructurewith‘alarge

crownwiththeletterVononesideandRontheother’abovethecompany’sheadquarters(Broomham,1987).

TheAGLCbeganoperationswithoneengineersupervisingtheworkoftwostokerswhoworked12hourshifts,dayandnight,foraweeklywageof45shillings.Bytheendofthedecade,theworkforcehadrisenfrom2to8stokers.Coalwasshovelledfromtheship’sholdintobaskets,heavedontothejettyattheCompanywharfonDarlingHarbour,andwheeledtoastockpilewithinshovelreachoftheretorts,wherethecoalwasheated,thegasreleasedandbubbledthroughlimewater.Thestoredgaswasdistributedthroughpipestothestreetlamps,whichwereliteachnightbyalamplighteremployedbytheAGLC.Partoftheengineer’sjobwastopatrolthestreetsonhorseback,checkingthatthelamplighterwasdoinghisjob(Broomham,1987).AsSydneygrew,sodidthedemandforgaslighting,andothertownsfollowedsuit.Newcastlegotgasstreetlightingin1856(WindsorandRalston,1897).Thenewindustryproducedby-products;cokewassoldforashillingabushel,andcoaltaratashillingagallonwas‘foundusefulasanasphaltmixturewithsandorgravel’forfootpathsandgardenpaths(Ellis,1969).

Demandforcoalforgaslights,steamshipsandindustrymadeitincreasinglydifficultfortheAACtosustainitsmonopolyoncoalproduction.Then,in1846,businessmeninSydneybegantotalkaboutbuildingarailwaylinetoGoulburn.In1847,followinganinquiryintothecoalmonopolybytheNewSouthWalesLegislativeCouncil(SelectCommittee,1847),theAACbowedtotheinevitableandagreedtoabandonitsmonopolyoncoalproduction,althoughtheirNewcastleminescontinuedtodominateproductionformanyyears.

SteamshipsandCoalingStations

Withtheintroductionofsteamships,thetyrannyofdistancewhichhadisolatedAustraliafromtherestoftheworld,andtheportsofAustraliafromoneanother,begantodiminish.Sincesteamshipsdidnotdependonwindconditions,theyweremuchmorereliable,fortheycouldsailwhetherthewindwasblowingornot,andtheycouldsaildirectfromporttoport,ratherthantackingaccordingtothedirectionofthewind.Shippingtimetablesbecamecommonplace.Howeversteamshipsweremoreexpensivetooperate,andwereusedforhigh-valuecargo,inparticularpassengersandmail,whilesailingshipscontinuedtotransportbulkyfreightsuchaswheat,wooland–ironically–coal.Coalhadtobedepositedatcoalingstationswheresteamshipswouldrefuel,andwithintheAsia-Pacificregion,muchofthatcoalcamefromAustraliansources.In1862,theBritishAdmiraltyconductedtestsoncoalfromNewcastle,andreportedfavourablyonitsquality.‘WehavealreadydespatchedourcoalstoChina,Batavia,India,California,andSouthAmerica’,theSydneyMorningHeraldreportedon28August1861.‘Butthisisamerefragmentoftheprobabledemand,asthemininginterestbecomesstableandreliable.’

By1870,onethirdofNewcastle’scoalproductionwasexported,muchofitforcoalingstationsintheAsia-PacificregionsuchasSingaporeandColomboandSuva,keyportslinkingAustraliatothewiderworld.CoalwasalsoexportedtoIndiaforuseintheIndianrailways(MoretonBayCourier,3January1861).

CoastalshippinghadalwaysbeenimportantinAustralia,butfromthe1840sregularsteamtrafficbecamecommonplace.TheHunterRiverSteamNavigationCompanywasformedin1839withacapitalof£40,000;in1851itbecametheAustralasianSteamNavigationCompany(Ellis,1969).Such

companieswereabletodevelopreliablepassengerservicesfromporttoport.‘ThesteamerBreadalbanemadeanextraordinarilyfastpassagetoIpswichandbackonThursdaylast,’announcedtheMoretonBayCourierinNovember1859.‘LeavingMcCabe'sWharf[Brisbane]at6o'clock,am,shestoppedatRedbankforcoal,thenwentontoIpswichanddischargedabout10tonsofcargo,reloadedwithwoolandreturnedtoBrisbane(notwithstandingseveralstoppages),by1.45pmthusaccomplishingthejourneyof110milesin8hours45minsinclusiveofvariousdetentions.’

Astechnologyimproved,thesesteamersusedcoalmoreefficiently.Thelow-pressureside-levermarineenginesofthe1840swerereplacedbyenginesusinghigh-pressuresteam.Therectangularboilerswerereplacedbyfire-tubetypeswithimprovedheatexchange,whilejetcondensersgavewaytosurfacecondenserswhichallowedtheboilerstorunonrecirculatedwater(particularlyimportantforocean-goingsteamers,whichhadpreviouslyusedsaltwater).Thusthe75kwtenginesoftheShamrock,whichsankinMoretonBayin1847,consumedcoalatarateofsome4.8kg/kW/hour,theDiamantinawhichcameintoserviceinBrisbanein1861,hadafuelconsumptionofabouthalfthisfigure(Whitmore,1981).

SteamshipsalsotransformedinternaltransportinAustralia,allowingcargoandpassengerstomovemorequicklyandreliablyalongtheinlandwaterways.Fromthe1850s,paddlesteamersoperatedalongtheMurray-Darlingriversystem,andtheportofEchucaontheMurrayRiverbecameAustralia’slargestinlandport,takingwooldownstreamtoAdelaideandreturningwithsuppliesforthepastoralindustry.In1863,H.S.Chapmanreportedthattherewere‘tensteamboatsandasmanybarges’operatingontheMurray.2Bythemid-1870s,thatnumberhadrisento23steamersand25bargesbasedinEchuca,andanother16bargesand19bargesofSouthAustralianoriginbasedinGoolwa.Someofthesesteamerswerewoodfired,butasthetimberalongtheMurraywasconsumed,theyreliedincreasinglyoncoalforfuel,especiallyafter1864,whentheVictoriangovernmentbuiltarailwaylinkingEchucatoMelbourne,makingiteasiertoaccesscoalfromVictoria(Gunn,1989).

2ChapmanwasVictoria’sattorneygeneralin1858.

Mappingthetyrannyofdistance.Maildepartureanddeliverytimesbycoachandhorse.(Davison,1993).MapbyGarrySwinton.

FrederickGrosse,THEMURRAYATECHUCA,September25,1865.ReproductionrightsownedbytheStateLibraryofVictoria,AccessionNumber:IAN25/09/65/9,ImageNumber:mp000932.PictureAustraliahttp://www.slv.vic.gov.au/miscpics/0/0/0/doc/mp000932.sh

Railways

ThefirstprivaterailwaycompanyinAustraliawasfloatedin1848,theAustralian,SouthernandWesternRailwayCompany,whichplannedinthefirstinstancetobuildalinefromSydneywesttoGoulburn.TheGovernor’sdaughterturnedthefirstsodatRedfernin1850,butthis,andother,companies,cametogrief.Thepopulationwastoosmall,andthedistancestoogreat,foranyprivatecompanytomakeaprofitfromrail,anditwasonlyfromthe1860sthatrailwaystookoff,builtandoperatedbycolonialgovernmentsratherthanprivatecompanies.Tobeginwith,thesteamenginesthatdrewthetrainswerepoweredbywood,butin1861,JohnWhitton,theengineer-in-chiefforNSWRailways,undertooktrialsusingcoalontheCampbelltownline.Thesetrialsweresuccessful,andcoalreplacedwoodasthestandardfuelonalllines.

Therelationshipbetweenrailandcoalwassymbiotic:coalfuelledtherailways,butrailwaysalsomovedcoal.In1861theWallsendCoalMineopenedinNewcastleandshipped5420tonsofcoalbyrailthatyear,andbetween1866and1870,theNorthernLinemadeaprofitof£110,000forthecarriageof2,341,500tonsofcoal,whileaprivatebranchlinecarriedanothermilliontonsfromtheAACandWaratahmines.Astherailwaynetworksgrew,theylinkedintotherivernetwork,supplyingcoalfortheriversteamersatkeyriverports:theVictorianrailwayreachedEchucain1864;Bourke(NSW)andGoolwa(SA)followed(Gunn,1989).

Railwaysallowedcoaltobetransportedmuchmorecheaplythaneverbefore,oftenatsubsidisedrates.TheNSWandVictoriancolonialgovernmentsusedcompetingfreightratestoenticetradefromonesideoftheMurraytotheother.Elsewhere,governmentsubsidiesonrailwayconstructionopenednewopportunitiesbyprovidingcheapfreightrates.TheLithgowline,forinstance,wasparticularlyexpensivetobuild,travellingthroughhillyterrain,includingthefamous‘LithgowZigzag’whichinitsdaywasanengineeringmasterpiece.YetthearrivaloftherailwayintheLithgowvalleyin1869madeitpossibletoopentheLithgowcoalmine,andledtorapidindustrialisationinthe

valley(Patmore,2000).In1883coalfromLithgowwastransportedtoSydneyforonlyapennypertonpermile(Gunn,1989).

MeanwhileinQueensland,railwayconstructionbeganin1865,withthefirstlinelinkingIpswichtoWarwickandToowoomba.Thefirstlocomotivesburnedwood,butfrom1870coalbegantoreplacewoodasfuel.Bythe1880s,seriouseffortswereunderwaytotransfercoalfromtheIpswichminestoBrisbanebyrail.Between1875and1900,theminingregionswereconnectedtotherailwaysystemandexportingfacilities(Whitmore,1981).

Untilthedevelopmentofroadtransportinthe1920s,railwaysdominatedlandtransportinAustralia(andtheywouldcontinuetohandlemostfreightuntilthetruckingindustrybegantodevelopinthe1950s).Beyondtheriversandtherailways,productssuchaswoolmovedslowlybybullockwagontothenearestrailhead.RailwaysfacilitatedtheexportofrawmaterialsfromruralAustraliaandtheimportintoruralAustraliaoffinishedproductfromcolonialcitiesandbeyond.Railtiedeveryonetothesameclock,too,forwithrailwaytimetables,forthefirsttimeeachsmalltownhadtokeeptothesametimeasthemetropolis(Davison,1993).Everywhere,inHenryLawson’swords,‘Withironbands,themightybushistetheredtotheworld.’(Lawson,1901).

TheElectricTelegraphandElectricityGeneration

ThefirstuseofelectricityinAustraliacameintheformofthe‘electrictelegraph’.Telegraphwiresrolledoutacrossthelandfromthe1850s,andhadanimmediateimpactonthespeedofcommunicationbetweencityandcountry,andeventuallybetweenAustraliaandtherestoftheworld.Butthetelegraphdidnotinvolvethegenerationofpowerfromcoal.Thetelegraphused‘galvanicbatteries’andrepeaterstationsalongtheroute,withateamofoperatorsmanuallyinterruptingthecurrenttosendmessagesinMorsecode.

Between1851and1860thepopulationofNSWtrebled,mainlythroughimmigration,andtheVictorianpopulationrosesevenfold.Oncethegoldrushended,minersandothershadtolookforworkelsewhere;many,perhapsmost,ofthesenewimmigrantsfoundworkinfactories.Between1860andtheendofthecenturyindustrialdevelopmenttookplaceacrossAustralia,butmostparticularlyinVictoria.MostofthegoldminersandtheirfamilieshadgonetoVictoria,andtheVictoriancolonialgovernmentrespondedtotheendofthegoldrushbypinningitshopesonindustrialisation.

Thesenewfactoriesneededcheapfuel.Tobeginwith,theyreliedonblackcoalimportedbycolliersfromNewcastle,butsuppliescouldbeoccasionallydisruptedbystrikesinthemines,oronthewharvesorships.Bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,Victoriawasattemptingtoestablishacoalsupplybasedonitsownmines.AstateownedcoalminewasestablishedatWonthaggiin1909,whichsupplied‘inferiorblackcoal’totheVictorianrailwaysfornearlysixtyyears(Blainey,1984).

Therewereisolatedeffortstouseelectricityforlightinginthelatenineteenthcentury:electriclightwasinstalledinSydney’sGeneralPostOfficein1878(Broomham,1987),andelectricstreetlightingbegantoreplacegasfromthe1890s.Howevergasremainedthefuelofchoicefordomesticpurposes,whilecoal(orwood)waswidelyusedtogeneratesteampowerinfactories.LargescaleelectricitygenerationwithadistributivepowernetworkdidnotreallytakeoffuntilaftertheFirstWorldWar.

In1919,theVictoriangovernmentcreatedtheStateElectricityCommissionandappointedGeneralSirJohnMonashasgeneralmanagerandchairmanin1920.Monashhadbeenanengineerbeforehebecameageneral.ThechildofGermanJewishparents,hespokeGerman(Serle,1982),andthismayhavehelpedhimtoapplyGermantechnologytotheproblemsassociatedwithutilizingthebrowncoalreservesofGippslandforelectricitygeneration.ThefirstopencutcoalmineinAustraliawasestablishedatYallournunderMonash’ssupervision,andelectricityfromYallournwasturnedonin1924.Thatyear,MonashgaveaPresidentialAddresstotheAustralasianAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience,inwhichhesaid:

Electricalenergyhasbecometheservitorofhumanity…Inthecourseofasinglegeneration,wehavewitnessedthealmostcompleteobliterationofthesocialandeconomicconditionwhichwasthoughttohavebeentheacmeofprogress.Factories,industrialplantsandworkshopsbelchingforthpollutionthroughforestsofchimneystacksarealmostathingofthepast.Thehorse-drawntram,onlyveryrecentlythoughttobeanindispensablepublicutility,hasbecomearelicofthepast.Thedaysofthesteamrailwaylocomotivearenumbered(Monash,1924).

ThisenthusiasmforprogresswasreflectedinthedevelopmentofYallournitself.ThetownwasdesignedbytheSECasa‘gardencity’,a‘modeltownwhereworkerslivedincontentment,andindustrialunrestwouldbeminimisedthroughtheemployer’scontrolofdomesticspaces.’3Itwasnottobe.

SteelCities:NewcastleandPortKembla

Bytheearlytwentiethcentury,coalproductioninNewSouthWaleswasconcentratedinthreeregions,allofthemonpartsofthesamegreatreserveofblackcoal,andeachwithaprincipalcitythathadbecomeahubofindustrybasedonaccesstocoal:Newcastletothenorth,Lithgowtothewest,andPortKemblatothesouthofSydney.CoppersmeltingwasimportantinNewcastleandPortKembla,usingcopperoreimportedfromSouthAustralia,andothermetallurgicalindustriesdevelopedsuchastheElectrolyticRefiningandSmeltingCoofAustraliawhichprocessedzincatPortKemblafrom1907.(Eklund,1994).

IronsmeltingbeganatLithgowinthe1870s.Thetowndevelopedasanindustrialcentrearoundcoalandiron,ablastfurnacewasbuiltin1907,employingonehundredmen,andin1911theAmericancompanyPrattandWhitneywonagovernmentcontracttoestablishtheLithgowSmallArmsFactory.(Eklund,2002)Howevertheinlandcitysufferedfromitsdependenceonrailanditsdistancefromaport,andin1926,theHoskinsfamily,whowerethemainsteelproducersinLithgow,formedtheAustralianIronandSteelCompany,andmovedtheiroperationstoPortKembla,wheretheybuiltnewandmoreefficientplant.(Eklund,2002)

3Instead,ironically,theopencutmineonwhichthismodeltowndependedforitsrationale,eventuallyexpandedtoabsorbthetownitself,andYallourn’spopulationwasmovedtootherlocations.

Wills(1950)

DespiteAustralia’slargeresourcesofironore,onlyasmallamountofsteelwasproducedbeforetheFirstWorldWar.Withtheoutbreakofwar,however,Australiansbecameconcernedwithimportreplacementofstrategiccommoditiessuchasironandsteel.Therewerealsonewopportunitiestoprofitfromtheshortagesbroughtaboutbyalackofshipping.BHP(BrokenHillProprietaryCompany)hadbeeninvolvedwithsilver,leadandzincproductionatBrokenHillsince1880;in1915,theyestablishedBHPSteelworksinNewcastle.ThewardidnotcauseBHPtomovetosteelproduction.TheNSWgovernmenthadalreadygrantedthecompanyasiteinNewcastlein1912,andplanswerewellunderwaywhenwarbrokeout,butitdidinfluencethedirectionthatBHPtook.Bytheearlytwentiethcentury,bothGermanyandtheUnitedStateshadmoreadvancedtechnologyinsteelproductionthanBritain.BHPchoseAmericanengineeringtechnologysincealternativeGermantechnologywasnotavailableatthattime.

ThekeymanbehindBHP’sinitiativeswastheengineerGuillaumeDelprat.DelpratcamefromaBasquefamily,wasbornintheNetherlands,andhadtrainedasanengineerinScotland–asanapprenticeontheill-fatedTayBridge–andlaterworkedinAmericaandMexico,beforehewasrecruitedbyBHPasamanager,andarrivedinAustraliain1898.HespokeseveralEuropeanlanguages,andmadegooduseofvisitstoKruppssteelworksintheRuhrValleyin1911andtoUSSteelin1912toinvestigatethenewestavailabletechnology.(Jay,1999)

ThefirstwartimeyearsofsteelproductionatNewcastlegavethecompanyanearlyboostinamarketartificiallyprotectedbylackofimports.Oncethewarended,however,importsfloodedbackin,andtheCommonwealthgovernmentrespondedbyintroducinghightariffstoprotectthefledglingindustryfromoverseascompetition.Behindthisprotectivebarrier,steelproductionincreasedgraduallyduringtheinterwaryears.

Duringthedepression,steelproductionwasconsolidated,firstwhenAustralianIronandSteelmovedfromLithgowtoPortKembla,andthen,in1935,BHPboughtoutAISandeffectivelyestablishedamonopolyinsteelproduction,inPortKemblaandNewcastle.BHP’ssuperiortechnologygaveitanadvantage:itsblastfurnaceswereelectrifiedby1927,whilethoseatPortKemblawerestillsteampowered,thoughinbothcases,ultimatelyreliantoncoal.(Eklund,2002)WhenBHPtookoverPortKembla,theyinvestedinnewplant:acokeovenin1937,anewblastfurnacein1938,newportfacilitiesandthetransformationofthefactoryfromsteamtoelectricity.(Cochrane,1989)

Thetimingwasimportant.InSeptember1939warbrokeout,andAustralia’sabilitytoproducesteelformilitarypurposesbecameofcriticalimportance.SteelfromNewcastlewentintotheproductionofcombatvessels,riflebarrels,bayonets,machetes,linkstripformachineguncartridgebelts,hightensileboltsteelforaircraft,gasbottlesandmuchmore.Duringthewar,30,000tonsofcoalwasusedweeklytomakeblastfurnacecoke,whichalsoyielded,asby-product,coaltar,benzol,naphthalene,ammoniaandotherproducts,including12mgallonsoftarthatwenttobuildstrategicroadsandairfields.SinceAustraliawascutoffbywarfromnormalimportsofoil,bitumenandfertilizers,theseproductswereparticularlyvaluablesubstitutes.(Jay,1999)

LabourRelationsandUnionism

WorkinearlyAustraliancoalmineswashard.Inconvicttimes,beingsenttoNewcastlewasapunishment,aboveandbeyondordinarytransportation,andtheearlyNewcastleminesweredangerousplaces,withpoorventilationandinadequatedrainage.Gettingcoalfromthecoalfacewasdifficult.Asaresult,eveninconvicttimesvariousworkingpatternsemergedthatweredesignedtoprotecttherightsoftheworker(howeverminimalthosemightbeinconvicttimes).MinersinNSWimportedfromEnglandtheideaofthedarg,ornormalday’swork,thecavil,designedtoequaliseopportunitiesbyrotatingaccesstothebestpartsoftheseamamongstalltheminers,andothertime-honouredworkingpractices.Thesebecamemoreentrenchedafterconvicttimes,whenminerswereoftenEnglishorWelshimmigrants,drawnintocloseknitcommunitiesinminingtowns(Gollan,1963).

Minersweredrawntounionism.Duringthegoldrushmanymenleftotherjobstoseektheirfortuneinthegoldfields.Thismadeitdifficultforminingcompaniestoretainworkers,demandforlabourwashigh,andwagesroseinconsequence.Butthelabourshortagewasshortlived.Between1851and1860thepopulationofNSWtrebled,mainlythroughimmigration,andtheVictorianpopulationrosesevenfold.Oncethegoldrushended,minersandothershadtolookforworkelsewhere.ConsequentlytheAACandotherHunterValleycompaniestriedtoreducewagestopre-rushlevels.Inretaliation,seriousconflictbrokeoutinNewcastlein1861andagainin1862.Thedetailsofthesedisputesarecomplexandcontentious,andwillnotbedealtwithhere,buttheyillustrateanumberofconstantlyrepeatedthemes.

OnefeatureofNewcastle–asofotherminingtownssubsequently–wasthatindustrialdisputesinvolvedeverybody:menandwomen,smallbusinesses,thepress,withreverberationsthroughoutthecommunity.Onthisoccasion,theNewcastleHeraldwas‘declaredblack’byunionists,whorefusedtopatronise‘anystoreorpublic-housethattookinthepaper’(Ellis,1969).Intransigencebylabourwasmetbyintransigencebythecompanies,andminerswerelockedoutoftheAACmineswhilethecompanytriedtoarrangetheimportationofcoalminersfromBritaintoreplacethem.Andthedetailsofthedispute,hereaselsewhere,dependedonspecificgeologicalandtechnologicalissues:minerswerepaidonpiecerates,sothequestionofhowmuchcoalcouldbetakenbyanyindividualworkerwascrucial,andrequiredadegreeoflocalknowledgeunlikelytobeavailabletoamemberoftheLondonBoardoftheAAC.

Anotherconstantthemeofstrikesinthecoalindustryisthattheconsumersofcoalrequirecertaintyofsupply.Bythe1860s,coalunderpinnedessentialpublicutilities–gas,shippingandrailways–aswellasagreatvarietyoffactories.IfNewcastle’scoalsuppliesdriedup,therestoftheeconomywasimmediatelyaffected,andtheimpactonemploymentwassevere.Therewerethereforepoliticalimplicationstoanyseriousdisruptionofthecoalindustry,notleastbecausecoalfuelledthetransportofexportstothecoast,andonwardsfromAustraliatotherestoftheworld.

Industrialdisputeswerethereforeoftenbitteraffairs,sometimesviolent,andoftenpolitical.PerhapsthemostnotoriousepisodeofviolencewithinthecontextofcoalminingwasthedeathofaminerfromaricochetingpolicebulletatRothburyinDecember1929.Theincidentoccurredduringabitterlockoutinthecoalmines.InFebruary1929,theNorthernCollieriesAssociation,representingfortyofthelargestcoalminesintheNewcastle-Maitlandwithnearlytenthousandworkers,gavetheirmenfourteendaysnoticethattheywouldbesackedunlesstheyacceptedadropof12.5%intheirwages.Thesubsequentlockoutlastedfifteenmonths,untilJune1930,whentheminersfinallyacceptedtheconditionsonoffer.Inthemiddleofthegreatdepressiontherewaslittlechoice.ThedeathofNormanBrownwasalmostcertainlyanaccident.Fortyyearslater,thehistorianMiriamDixsoninvestigatedtheincidentindetail,interviewingsomeofthemenwhorememberedtheevents,toreconstructtheaffair(Dixson,1969).

NormanBrown'sfuneral(JimComerford'scollectionofphotographs,inCulturalCollections,UniversityofNewcastle)

Atthisdistance,whatcomesthroughmostclearlyisthestrengthofcommunityaffiliationtotheunionmovementthatkeptmenoutofworkandrunningdowntheirsavings,growingvegetablesandcatchingrabbits,foroverayear.Smallminingtownswereisolated,closeknitplaces,withabundantcommunityconnections:NormanBrownwasamemberoftheMasonicBrethrenofExcelsiorMine,heworshippedattheAnglicanChurchwherehisstepfatherwaschurchwarden,hehadalocalgirlfriend.Today’stermis‘socialcapital’,andminingcommunitieshadthisinabundance.Thedrawbackofthissituationwasalackofsocialorgeographicalmobility.In1940,asociologicalstudyofCessnockbyAlanWalkerreportedthatof70marriagesinthetown,47ofthebridegroomsandallofthebridescamefromthetownitself.‘AndwhatelseisthereforagirltodoinCessnocksavemarry?Andthisshedoes,earlierthanelsewhereintheState,andtheparentsapprove.’WalkeralsointerviewedCessnockschoolchildren.Asked‘Wouldyouliketoworkinthepitswhenyougrowup?’,only17outof380said‘yes’(Walker,1945).

HealthandCoalMining

Thiswasamuchbleakervisionthantheoptimismthatcharacterisedthe‘gardencity’ofYallourninthe1920s,andreflectedtheimpactofthedepression.Howeveritalsoreflectedthedifferencesinhealthandsafetybetweenanopencutmine(Yallourn)andtheolder,deepminesoftheHunterregion.‘Toworkunderground,’saidWalker,‘meansdarkness,dampness,constantperilandbadventilation.Formanyitinvolvesmuchwalking,sometimesthreetofourmileseachway,fromthebottomofthemine-shafttothecoal-face.Thisitselfimposesitsphysicalstrainwithoutactuallabour.Modernmethodshavereducedtheeffectsofthedust-ladenatmosphere,butmanyanolderminersuffersfromhislongbreathingofthecoaldust.’(Walker,1945)Walkerwasonlypartlyrightaboutthe‘modernmethods’;infact,twotechnologicalimprovementsinthelatenineteenthcentury,pneumaticdrillsanddynamite,increasedtheamountofcoaldustintheatmosphere,leadingtomanypulmonarycomplaintsusuallylumpedunderthegenerictermof‘blacklung’.

Thenthereweretheaccidents.Spasmodicaccidentskilledandinjuredminersonaregularbasis,butitwastheoccasionalcatastrophicdisasterthatreverberatedthroughaminingcommunity:Bulliin1881(83dead),MountKemblain1902(95dead),MountMulliganin1921(70dead).ThesedisastersbecameapartofAustralianfolklore,andsearedthemselvesonthecollectivememoryofindividualcommunities.In1923,anexplosionoccurredintheBellbirdCollieryatCessnock.Twentymenweretrappedbelowground,andtheirbodieshadtobelefttherewhentheminewassealed;accordingtosomeonewhowasthereatthetime,‘ifonlythebodiescouldhavebeenrecovered,andburiedindueform,theemotionaltensionwouldhavebeenreleasedinthenormalway.Butthiscouldnotbe.Theeffectwastheadditionofastrongemotionaltonetothedemandforsafetymeasures,andtothereadinesstostopworkatanysignofdanger.’(Elkin,1945)4Inthisway,healthandsafetyissuesbecamesignificantindustrialmatters,withtheMinersFederationtakingupthecauseofimprovedconditionsinundergroundmines.

PostWorldWarIIandQueenslandcoalexports

ConflictbrokeoutagaininthecoalminesintheclosingmonthsofWorldWarII,andcontinuedintermittentlythereafter.Conflictreachedapeakin1949,whenasevenweekstrikeendedwhentheChifleyLaborGovernmentsenttroopsintothemines(Deery,1995).Chifleytooktheactionforpoliticalaswellaseconomicreasons,butitshowshowessentialitwastokeepthecoalminesopen.Bythe1940s,coalwasacommodityofsuchstrategicimportancetotheAustralianeconomythatalossofsupplywouldbecatastrophicinitsimpact.Coal,andcoalminers,couldmakeorbreakgovernments–andsureenough,Chifley’sgovernmentwasdefeatedlaterthatyear.

Duringthe1950s,coalcontinuedtobeessentialtotheAustralianeconomy,butchangesweretakingplacebothincoalminingandinAustralia’splaceintheworld.Coalminingchangedwiththeexpansionofopencutmining,whichrequiredgreaterinitialcapitalinvestment,butalsoproducedamuchsaferenvironmentforminers.Australiawaschangingtoo,lookingfornewAsiantradingpartnerstoreplaceherpreviousrelianceontheimperiallinkwithBritain.In1957AustraliasignedatradeagreementwithJapan.

TherevivaloftheJapanesesteelindustryduringthe1960screatedamarketforcokingcoal.OneAustraliancompanywiththeforesighttorecognisethispotentialwasThiessBrothers.Theybeganinthe1920sassub-contractorsintheDarlingDowns.Theywentintocoalinthe1940s,ascontractopen-cutminersforBlairAtholCoalandtheMuswellbrookCoalCompany.Bytheearly1950s,theyweresupplyingVictoriawithsteamingcoalfromtheiropen-cutmineatCallide,intheBowenBasin.

During1957LesThiessvisitedJapanforthefirsttimeandmetrepresentativesoftheJapanesesteelindustry.Twoyearslater,in1959,ThiessBros.discoveredreservesofhardcokingcoalatMoura.Thefirst12,000tonsofKianga-MouracoalwereexportedtoJapanin1961,andin1962acontractwasfinalisedwitheightJapanesecompaniestoexport2.4milliontonsofcoaloverfiveyears.Thefamilyfirmneededhelp,andThiessBros.joinedforceswithPeabodyCoalofAmericaandMitsuiofJapan.TPMbecamethelargestcorporateentityinthecoalindustryuntilanewarrival–Utah–in1968(Barry,BowdenandBrosnen,1998).Betweenthem,thesecompaniestransformedcoal4Elkin,laterProfessorofAnthropologyattheUniversityofSydney,wasanexceptiontothegeneralruleofsocialandgeographicalimmobilityincoaltowns.HewasborninWestMaitland,educatedatMaitlandEastBoys'HighSchool,andbecamewasAnglicanMinisteratWollombi(1922-5)andMorpeth(1929-30),beforetakingalectureshipatSydneyUniversityin1932.(Wise,1985)

productioninAustralia.WiththesupportoftheQueenslandgovernment,theymadetheBowenBasinthecentreofcokingcoalproductioninAustralia,withdedicatedrailwaysandportssuchasGladstonedesignedtofacilitatetheexportofcoaltonewmarkets.

Lifeforcoalminershasalsoundergoneatransformation.Thenewcoalminesweremostlyopencutmines,andtheworkofminersunderthisregimeisverydifferentfromthetraditionalexperienceunderground.Forcompanies,thevalueoftheirinvestmentissuchthatthecostofthelabourforceisarelativelyminorfactor,butgreatermechanisationmeansthatworkersaremorehighlytrained,andoncetrained,worthretaining.Wagesandconditionshavebeentransformedbythelogicofthisnewindustrialrelationship.Atthesametime,theold,bleakimmobilityofthelabourforceinthepre-

warcoalminingtownsoftheHunterhasgivenwaytonewtownswiththe

problemsandprospectsofallrecentimmigrantcommunities,thoughinthiscasetheimmigrationislargelyinternal,fromtheindustrialsouthtotheminingnorthofAustralia.

Replacingthetraditionalusesofcoal

Meanwhilethetraditionalusesofcoalwerechanging.Thefirstmoveawayfromcoalasafuelcameintheearlytwentiethcentury,whensteamshipsconvertedfromcoaltooil.Loadingcoalontoshipswasadirty,laboriousbusiness,anditwasslow.Oilcouldbepumpedonboardmuchquicker,allowingafasterturnaroundtimeinport.TheBritishNavyandthemajorpassengerlinesconvertedtooiljustbeforetheFirstWorldWar–andconsequentlygavenewstrategicimportancetotheMiddleEast,forwhilecoalisfoundinmanylocations,oilfieldsarefewer.

Railwayscontinuedtousecoalastheirfuelsourceformuchlonger,buttheytooeventuallyconvertedtodieselfromthe1950sonwards.Onthemostimportantlines,particularlyonurbannetworks,electricityhassincereplaceddiesel–andthuseffectivelyreturnedrailwaystotheiroriginalrelianceoncoal.Domesticuseofcoalgascontinuedintothe1950s,butthediscoveryoflargenaturalgasdepositsfromthe1960s,andthedevelopmentofpipelinetechnology,ledtothereplacementofcoalgasbysafernaturalgasforcooking,whiletheinnumerabledomesticappliancesthatcomplicateourlivestodayoperateonelectricity.

Barry(1998)

MostelectricityinAustraliatodayisgeneratedbycoal.Today,mostAustralianshavenodirectexperienceofcoal;theyhaveneverliftedalumpofcoal,smeltitburning,orbreathedthesmokyresiduesthatpollutednineteenthcenturytowns.Yetthroughelectricity,coalplaysalargerpartintheirlivesthaneverbefore.

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