African American Children Reflecting on Science, Mathematics, and Computers Through Creative Writing: Perspectives from a Saturday Science Academy

African American Children Reflecting on Science, Mathematics, and Computers Through Creative Writing: Perspectives from a Saturday Science Academy

Tona Dickerson, Elizabeth Bernhardt, Erica Brownstein, and Elizabeth

Copley, Ohio State University and The National Center for Science Teaching and

Learning; and Michelle McNichols, Ruby Thompson, Pauline Washington,

and Melvin Webb, Clark Atlanta University

A group of seventh graders (N = 23) enrolled in a weekend science enrichment program for African American youth explored concepts covered in their program activities using creative writing. Student writing samples were analyzedfor thematic choice, self-expression, career interest, racial/gender identity, and evidence of parental influence and expectations. Participants overwhelmingly selected to write about science-related topics. Their writings further reveal a keen interest in science-related careers, both anxiety and confidence about ability in these areas, and considerable parental influence and involvement. Few students chose to dwell on racial or gender issues. The authors conclude that creative writing provides an alternative means of reflecting upon and interpreting these students' interest in and grasp of scientific knowledge.

INTRODUCTION

One of the key issues articulated by Mullis and Jenkins (1988) in their critique of science education in the United States is the "status of science learning for at-risk populations" (p. 7). Their report also notes the presence of "substantial disparities" between the abilities of females of all racial and ethnic groups, racial/ethnic minorities, and White males to use and understand science, employ scientific thinking, and consider careers in science (p. 7). While socioeconomic status is cited frequently as a key variable in explaining this disparity (Johnson, 1992; Mullis & Jenkins, 1988), additional evidence indicates that females and minorities are provided with fewer opportunities to participate in science and to perceive themselves as potential members of the scientific community (Johnson, 1992).

Interpretations of National Assessment for Educational Progress (NAEP) data indicate that improved school experiences alone (i.e., better curricula, more modern laboratory equipment, more teachers with higher levels of science preparation) will not alleviate the substantial disparities noted above (Mullis & Jenkins, 1988). The social context for science learning and use, which sends "the message that most of the notable accomplishments in science are attributable to White males" (Mullis & Jenkins, 1988, p. 9), perpetuates the image that science is not an option for females and minorities. Hence, the social context must change along with improvements in school experiences in order to achieve educational equity for all.

Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 64, No. 2 (1995)

Copyright ? 1996, Howard University 141

One approach to the social context dilemma is to model more appropriate, equitable social contexts for female and minority children. Equitable social contexts are those that allow an array of persons to participate in science-oriented careers, gain success and esteem from such careers, and enjoy the knowledge and power scientific proficiency entails. These contexts also model scientific behavior and provide opportunities for underrepresented groups to gain access to a science-oriented culture. One program that creates such a context for African American children is the Saturday Science Academy (SSA) at Clark Atlanta University.

Established in the late 1970s, the SSA's mission is to bring African American children into a culturally compatible setting to facilitate their science learning. Since its inception in 1979, enrollment in the SSA has steadily increased from 110 children and 3 teachers to 200 participants and 7 teachers. Students enrolled in the Atlanta (Georgia) public schools interested in science, mathematics, and computers are encouraged to apply to the SSA. During 1993, the selection criteria for the 200 mostly African American attendees consisted of a teacher's recommendation and an essay describing reasons for desiring to attend the Academy. The Clark Atlanta program distinguishes itself from other academic enrichment programs in several ways: first, by targeting students in grades three through seven; second, by specializing in a science-, mathematics-, and computer-based curriculum; and third, by taking a uniquely holistic approach to education, in which opportunities for creative expression are integrated with physical science, computer science, and mathematics instruction.

The 10-week period of SSA instruction is student-centered and driven by the philosophy that all children can learn. In each instructional area, highly interactive teaching strategies are fundamental, creativity is a requirement, and motivation is a prerequisite. Each instructional approach used by the SSA is selected for its ability to embrace and complement hands-on experiences. To this end, commonly used teaching methods include cooperative learning, role-playing, discovery learning, experimentation, problem-solving, field trips, gaming and simulation, computer-assisted instruction, and peer tutoring. Each content area is allotted a three-hour period of instruction. Students are placed according to grade-level with third- and fourth-graders, fifth- and sixth-graders, and seventh- and eighth-graders forming three respective groups. These groups rotate between science, mathematics, computer, and "Creative Expressions" classes. All groups come together periodically for special events and activities.

After attending their science, mathematics, and computer classes, SSA students gather in a classroom with their Creative Expressions instructor, a local African American actor, who first engages them in creative movement exercises, followed by writing and art assignments. This latter segment includes activities such as making lists of topics and ideas relating to science, mathematics, and computer technology; illustrating the topics and ideas on these lists; learning about and employing various literary forms to write about science, mathematics, and computers; creating new words from terms learned in class; dramatizing the lives of famous scientists; and role-playing scientific situations.

The purpose of the SSA's Creative Expressions classes is to help African American children understand-through direct experience-the relationship between language, literacy, and science learning. Since the Academy's inception, students participating in Creative Expressions have discussed, illustrated, dramatized, and written about matters of interest and concern to them in the areas of science, mathematics, and computers. A pilot impact evaluation study of the program (Webb, McNichols, Thompson, & Washing- ton, 1993) reveals that former SSA participants who went on to attend college repeatedly indicated that the Creative Expressions component had a positive influence on their decision to choose a career in science and related fields.

142 The Journal of Negro Education

Students' output from these classes is the principal focus of this study, which examines African American children's attitudes concerning the sciences and the pursuit of careers in science as revealed through their writings about science and related topics. It is through the window of these and other SSA student experiences, and empirical analysis of students' output from recent Creative Expressions classes, that the present study examines the SSA as a model for altering the social context of science learning for African American children and developing prototypic science programs for African American populations.

LITERACY AND THE SCIENCE LEARNING OF AFRICAN AMERICAN CHILDREN

The concept of what literacy is has undergone a major shift reflective of the general shift in educational theory from text-based to interactional instructional approaches. The text-based definition of literacy recognizes it as a low-level activity consisting primarily of (a) decoding and finding the meaning of a text and (b) producing the written word (Langer, 1987). The contemporary interactive view of literacy is a much broader one based on "the variety of contexts and uses of literacy" (Langer, 1987, p. 2). This broader view, which encompasses a wider range of cultural backgrounds and expression, regards literacy as "a way of thinking, not a set of skills" (Langer, 1987, p. 4). It also recognizes the analysis and knowledge brought to the text by diverse groups of readers as an essential element of literacy. In this sense, then, writing is seen as an act by which "learners assume ownership for their literacy activities," and in which they engage in "using language to serve their own ends" (Langer, 1987, p. 7). The object of literacy teaching, and specifically writing instruction, is thus not to concentrate on the acquisition of low-level, culture- bound, and limiting subskills but to focus on "how to do something new and thoughtful" (Langer, 1987, p. 10).

As Langer avers, however, "the practices of literacy are embedded in a cultural way of thinking and learning" and can only be fully understood "in relation to ... social contexts" (p. 5). Indeed, he maintains that in this deeper understanding of literacy as a concept, literacy "cannot be detached from specific sociocultural contexts" (p. 13). Yet, he notes, "schools try to do this all the time" and "interpretations and meanings that are contiguous with ... the students' . . . first culture are ignored, as are cultural differences in ways of learning and assumptions about learning" (p. 13). This view is corroborated by literacy advocate David Cressy, who maintains that literacy will remain an "alien and external" activity to minority groups until they are presented with learning situations in which they can use it (quoted in Langer, 1987, p. 13).

Echoing Ogbu (1987) and others who have investigated literacy concerns among minority populations in the United States (Lu, 1990; Morgan, 1987), Langer concludes that literacy learning begins when people can see its advantages and benefits to them personally, and also when they are "empowered to use [their own ideas] for their purposes" (p. 13). Ladson-Billings and Henry (1990) have argued the importance of creating relevance in schools serving African American children by offering pedagogical choices that permit participants to discover and create meaning and understanding for themselves. When such pedagogical relevance exists, they claim, African American students gain ownership of the learning process; and where there is ownership, there is a positive return on the educational efforts invested.

Stepto (1979) contends that writing is a means of self-authentication. For students writing about-their experiences in and reactions to science and related fields, this validation process encourages them to explore who they are in relationship to the sciences and define this relationship by incorporating in their writing dimensions of their imaginations,

The Journal of Negro Education 143

obsessions, questions, fears, and motives. In this way, they can assume their own identity as members of the scientific community.

For these and other reasons, it is not only the academic content taught at the Saturday Science Academy that is important. The context of the instruction and the delivery of content are such that they help African American children develop ownership of their expression of scientific concepts. This ownership development transpires most dramati- cally through writing.

The conclusions drawn from this study are based upon empirical data obtained from the writings of a group of African American children. To preserve their authenticity, student samples have not been edited or altered. It must be noted, however, that while these writings form an important backdrop for the present study, any analysis of them will necessarily be sketchy because the corresponding curricular materials and teacher directions are not available. It must also be noted that generalization of these findings can only apply to similar populations in similar contexts. Yet, by listening closely to the voices of these children, we suggest that educators can learn to know and understand African American students better and use this enhanced insight to help greater numbers of them succeed in the increasingly technological environments of their present and future worlds.

METHOD

Collections of participating children's writings about science are available dating from the SSA's first year of operation. In all, 1,846 texts about science and mathematics, ranging in length from 10 to 352 words, have been compiled. Thirty-two percent of these writings are about mathematics, 23% address physics topics, 19% encompass science fiction and medicine, 15% relate to biological matters and children's concern for plants and animals, and 11% refer to children's general science concerns.

In the interest of garnering a much clearer picture of what contemporary African American children think about science, we analyzed the creative writing samples produced by the 1993 seventh-grade Creative Expressions class of the Saturday Science Academy. Thirty-four percent of the 23 students in this class was male; 65% were female. All were African Americans. Fifty-nine writing samples produced by these students during the first 5 weeks of this 10-week program were collected for analysis.

Qualitative analysis was used to derive answers from these samples to the following questions:

(1) On what themes did the participants choose to write?

(2) What were the participants attitudes toward science, mathematics, and computers? (3) Did students indicate an interest in science-related careers in their responses to the

question, "What do I want to be when I grow up?" (4) Are students' racial and gender identities factors in their writing about science, mathe-

matics, and computers?

(5) Are parental influences and expectations expressed in the students' writings about science, mathematics, and computers? The students' writing samples were alphabetized by name and numbered correspond-

ing to the writer. The samples were then coded by gender, theme, and type of literary form used. Other coding indicated the mention of specific science-, mathematics-, or computer-related topics; career plans (as well as the number of careers mentioned); family


influences; and racial or gender identity. The information derived from each sample was stored in a record in a customized dBase III + file.

RESULTS

Themes Chosen

Twenty percent of the SSA students' writings did not address science-, mathematics-, or computer-related themes. Their authors chose to write instead about other topics that interested them such as family, sports, and social issues; others wrote short fictional pieces. However, 61% of the writing samples contained the words "science," "mathematics," or "computer." Another 19%, while they did not specifically mention these terms, had science-, mathematics-, or computer-related themes (see Figure I).

FIGURE I

Percentage Distribution of Science-related Themes (including Mathematics and Computers) in the Writings of the 1993 Clark Atlanta University Saturday Science Academy Seventh-Grade Class

No science mentioned

20%

Science mentioned Science-related 19%

61%

Student Attitudes Toward Science, Mathematics, and Computers

The following samples represent writings by students interested in science-related careers:

Computer Bug

One day there was a computer bug that love to do math. So one day there was a new math game out and he decided to play tic-tac-toe instead of it, so when he went out he was so angry that he had a science book. Three weeks later he gave up math and went to science instead. But still he did the same old thing over and over again, so he went home and took up both subject and went down in history as the smartest computer bug in math and science.


Music Virus

Once upon a time there was a girl named Kaliba who loved to play music. She bought a cello and a piano from the Balkan Instrument Store. One day when Kaliba came home from school, she went to go play some music, but she saw all kinds of bacteria that causes disease and virus. Instead of getting it checked out she played it anyway. That's when she caught the music viruses, and the doctors had to dissect her body. The doctors put her to sleep and examined the bacteria they took a special formula and made an antibiotic for her to get well.

The poem below reflects the generally positive attitudes held by SSA students toward the subjects being taught in the program. Although its young African American male author does not explicitly state what he means by "the same path" or what rewards he expects to reap from learning these subjects, readers can infer that he is expecting good results.

Science Reading, Geometry Algabra an Math all of these lead to the same path

When your in schoole doing these things try to imagen what they

will bring

This optimistic outlook on the importance of these subjects can be seen in other student summations, some of which add a humorous twist:

Computers, Science, Art, and everything else goes with MATH, because MATH is one of the greatest

subject.

and:

Computers are the wave of the future. They talk, communicate, and

surprised to say they do not dance.

One young female poet used couplets to describe some of the SSA classroom activities and express her belief that intellectual growth is an outcome of the program:

Saturday Academy

In computer class we use computers, In science class we use metric rulers.

In math we'll play some chess, And then go home to get some rest.

At the beginning of each Saturday,

We get real happy cause we don't have to pay. As the day goes into the night,

with this education we become very bright.

Students' Career and Future Plans

Students responded in writing in a variety of ways to the question of what they want to be when they grow up. Seventy percent indicated that they knew the answer to this question. Many answered in two parts, writing first about their individual career


aspirations, then discussing their future family aspirations. As shown in Table I, the 23 participants mentioned 23 different career choices; however, because this number suggests that each participant named a different career, these results can be misleading. Fifty-five percent of the young writers discussed more than one career (20% named three careers, and 35% named two careers); only 45% named only one career choice.

Several of the writing samples collected reveal the students' awareness of the relationship between what they learned at the SSA and their future plans. The following are examples:

Math is a very important subject. Math helps you do lots of things, like counting money and budject your bills. Usually if you do not know your math you can not get a job. Any kind of job include math. I belive if you do not know your math you can not suceede. Math is important, but spelling is also. I can do math very will but spelling that is another thing.

Mathematics

Math is an interesting subject. Teachers seem to know every aspect of math. Most technology is math related. There are many possibilities for jobs for people who know math. Most students choose math as there favorite subject. Math is a complicated subject.

Other samples indicate that these students also view science-related fields as financially rewarding:

What I want to be ...

I want to be a Dermatologists. I want to be a dermatologist because I am interested in different kinds of skin disorders, rashes, and things like that. I also want to be a dermatologist because they make lots and

TABLE I

Career Choices of Seventh-Grade Students in the 1993 SSA Creative Expressions Class, by Gender (N= 23)

CAREER MALE FEMALE

Actor/Movie Star x Basketball Player x Businessman x Chemical Engineer x Computer Engineer x Computer Technician x Cosmetologist x Dermatologist x Doctor or Philosophy x Fashion Designer x Football Player x Screen Printer x Supreme Court Judge x Lawyer x x Mathematician x Medical Doctor x x Optometrist x Pediatrician x Rapper x Scientist x x Sports Agent x Veterinarian x Writer x


lots of money for doing just about nothing. They tell some one they have a rash, prescribe a medicine, then BAM! big money. I also want to be a part-time Cosmetologist.

What I want to be when I grow up

I have thought about being many things, recently I thought about becoming a doctor. Or maybe even a scientist. I really haven't thought about the subject to much, but when it does cross my mind I would probably be a scientist. This is because I stated making A's in science and even was accepted into a accelerated class. When I grow up I would like to be famous and become a millionaire. I would like to earn a scholarship so my parents don't have to pay for my college tuition. With this money I plan on buying a car. When I get older I plan to help others.

What I want to be....

I want to be a technician because technician work with computer and many other thing like machine. I like to be a technician cause I like computer. Technician do many thing with computers. Technician is the business company in the all round the U.S. State of American.

WHAT I WANT TO BE WHEN I GROW UP

When I grow up I want to be a lawyer and cosmetologist in my spare time. I would like to attend Princeton University. I would like to get a PH.D degree from Yale University. I want to have 2 children, a house with a jacuzzi, and a swimming pool in the back yard.

Although, the majority of SSA student-authors mentioned more than one career, having more than one occupation was seen as a means of achieving career goals. The need for a "backup job," as the author of the following piece describes, suggests that some students also foresee obstacles that may prevent them from achieving their goals.

MY FUTURE CAREER

When I grow up I would like to be an optometrist. An optometrist is an eye doctor. I plan to go to a high school and a college that majors in medicine like Benjamin E. Mays and Howard University. If I am unable to be an optermetrist, I would like to be a pediatrician. which is a child doctor. If I become an optermetrist I know I will be in demand, because people need their eyes for almost everything. If become a pediatrician it would a good job for me because I would like to work with children. As a backup job I would like to be a chemical engineer. I would like to work with many chemicals and may even think up a way to solve a problem forming around a disease maybe even think up a cure for AIDS. My second backup job would be a real estate agent. The reason why I picked this is because I have heard that this is a good backup job just in-case something fell through. You might think that I have my career life planned out to a T, if you think that then that's great because that is how I planned it!

As the following writing sample reveals, SSA students not only had typically "grand" career aspirations but also lofty aspirations for future family life:

AIN'T LIFE GRAND!!!

When I grow up I want to be a screen printer in college to pay my way through college. Then I will become a doctor with a P.H.D. in science and mathematics. Then I will be about 25 and married and have about four children, both twins and live happily ever after.

Racial and Gender Identity

Racial identity was not frequently mentioned in the writing samples obtained from the seventh-graders enrolled in the 1993 Saturday Science Academy. Only 5% of the samples mentioned race. The following essays typify the thoughts of those students who raised racial identity issues:

JAMIL LIFE

When I get older I would go to Morehouse for four years and then go to a law school for four years. when I am a lawyer I want to have my own law firm after that I want to become a judge. Later in my life I will be a civil rights leader and become a strong African American and I might want to join the NAACP. Also I would like to live in Africa when I go up ...

WHEN I GROW UP I WANT TO BE

A vetrianarian because I like dogs a lot I don't like cats because they will bite you if you touch them I like puppys and little baby dogs they would take care of me and I would feed them but if I couldn't get that


job I would try to be a rapper I would rap about how black people survive and live and what the white folks havent did for the black communitie and black brothers and sisters. Now if I cant get that job I would be a black movie star and if I could'nt get that job I would jest be me. but I really want to be a vaetrianarian to take care of animals.

Similarly, few students wrote about gender issues or indicated that their career choices were predicated on gender. Females and males alike selected careers in all fields, many of which (10 out of 23) were related to science, mathematics, or computers. The career choices sought in common by males and females were "lawyer," "medical doctor," and "scientist." One female writer, who indicated her preference for a non-science-related career as the first African American female Supreme Court justice, defined her career goals within the confines of her gender and race. Her writing also indicated that she was cognizant of sexism and male chauvinism.

Parental Influences

The writings of both male and female participants reveal that parental influences play a role in children's career selection choices. One young man interested in a mathematics- based career wrote the following about his parents:

Life's Good, Syke, Your minds play tricks on ya!! My parents told me to always have a plan in life, well by the age of 23, I'll be a doctor with a P.H.D. and major in mathematic skills by the time, I would have started my basketball career and became pro. I plan having children at the age of 85 and I will marry a lady that same age so that way if I die, I would have spent my money peacefully. And my children would have a dollar or two. If I marry a rich lady, I won't, I wont her to be 30 years old then me.

Similarly, a young woman's choice of career was apparently influenced by her family circumstances and parental expectations, as the following writing sample shows:

When I Grow-up

When I grow up I would like to be a Cosmetologist I would like to fix people hair I would like to attend Clark Atlanta University it is a fun school I am taking fun classing at Clark Atlanta I take Computer classes Mathematics, Science, Creative Expressions. Well I am working very hard to be [what] my parents wont me to be I am going to do all my school work my homework I am working hard to get all A's My mother will be so proud of me I have a brother and a sister my sister ain't nothing but a drop out she got a little girl and now find to have another baby I pray to god that I can go to school and get out of college and my mother will be old and I can help her out and work even harder to be Super Great for I can go ahead and go in and get my on Beauty Shop

Representative Student Profiles

Analysis of the writing samples of the 1993 seventh-grade SSA class led us to categorize the student participants into two groups. The first is comprised of students who had decided to pursue careers in a science-, mathematics-, or computer-related fields. The second consists of those who did not express interest in such careers, but who believed attending the Saturday Science Academy would enhance their success in whatever career they pursue. Melissa1 is representative of the students in the first group; Stephanie of those in the second.

The first of Melissa's writing samples succinctly reveals her career choice and her reason for choosing that career:

When I Grow Up

When I grow up I would like to be a scientist. I would like to be a scientist because I find it very interesting. In school we study microscopic organisms, fossils, plants, and animals. I like to make inventions and problem solve. Maybe one day I will find a cure for aids and other harmful diseases. Once I become a

'Pseudonyms are used to protect the identities of the students.


scientist I will have alot of money and a nice house, I would like to have a vegatable garden, a pool, and a lot of land.

Another sample of Melissa's writing reveals an understanding of the practical functions of mathematics:

Math is a part of every day life. You can use it to solve problems. If you go to the mall or to the grocery store it can help you add up the prices of things to see how much it cost. It helps you with taxes and balancing checks. Math helps you throughout every thing that you do.

Lastly, a science-fiction story of Melissa's shows that she understands how science can be used creatively:

The Fossil Bones

Once upon a time there was a dinosaur with bones. Then an astroid came and killed him and his family. Over the years the bones decayed except for Wally's bones. As I was walking in my back yard I heard noises under the ground. My feet started shake and my whole back yard splint in two. Trillons of bones came together and started to walk around. At first I was scared but then we became friends. I went outside everyday to see him. One day Wally felt very sick. He told me that he would have to go back under the ground. I still miss him to this day but he left a little bone for me to remember him.

Stephanie, on the other hand, did not plan to pursue a career in science. She indicated in her biographical writing that she wants to be a writer, among other things, and is preoccupied with developing and honing her writing skills and style.

When I get older I would like to be a writer. I am not sure I will choose this for a career because I would like to do other things also. I think I will mostly write realistic fiction. I have written a few short stories, poems, and have started a novel. I read avidly and see many different and similar writing styles. I am still working on my writing style I am trying to get is getting a message across but without taking away from the book. In conclusion, I plan to do many things with my life and writing is one of them.

For Stephanie and other students like her, however, the SSA's Creative Expressions class provided a forum for learning about and writing naturalistic fiction. Samples of Stephanie's prose reveal that, though she was not interested in pursuing a science-, mathematics-, or computer-related career, she fully understood the value of the subject matter covered in the Science Academy:

Tick-tock. Tick-tock. Tick-tock. Tick-tock. On and on it went its sound driving me crazy. Tick-tock, Tick- tock. The noise was tormenting me telling me that time was running out. Tick-tock. Tick-tock. I looked at the science book opened before me. It and the clock beside it held no intrest for me. In fact I found both annoying since they just meant work. I reached for the science book knocking the clock off the desk. It hit the floor and broke open. Oh boy. That was a brand new clock. Maybe I could glue it together. I looked down at the ruins. It was then I noticed the clockwork the gears and the fact that it was just the face that came off. Looking at the simplicity and complexity I realized that science might not be so bad.

and:

There was once a computer salesman who decided he hated computer so he quit his job. He wanted a job that didn't involve computers, math or science. He decided to try being a social studies teacher but latitude and longitude involved math. He then decided to be a janitor but all those cleaning chemical had to do with science. Finally he decided to be a librarian then he realized he had to use a computer to check out books. It was then he finally began to understand the importance of his education in these field to suceed.

DISCUSSION

The holistic approach employed by the Creative Expressions classes allowed this group of African American students to creatively relate to the content of their science, mathematics, and computer classes. In their writings, the students revealed their ideas about and attitudes toward science, mathematics, and computers as they were experienc- ing first-hand the application of science and technology in formal study and everyday life. Analysis of this writing data shows that these students' notions about science, mathematics, and computers were challenged and changed by their experiences in the SSA. Though they often acknowledged that study in these fields is difficult, they also affirmed


the importance of science, mathematics, and computer knowledge and showed that they recognized how indispensable a strong background in these subjects would be to their future success.

The finding that the majority of the writing samples produced by the seventh-grade SSA class of 1993 were science-, mathematics-, and computer-related differs from that of the 14 previous years of the program, in which the predominant theme of SSA student writing was about lifetime goals. This difference may suggest that SSA participants are gaining a progressively fuller understanding of the content matter and that they have more positive attitudes about these fields as the program proceeds.

Interestingly, there was no indication in the students' writing that the variables of race, gender, and parental influence and expectations played a significant role in their choices of science-, mathematics-, or computer-related career fields. The lack of emphasis of the first variable, race, could have been due to the fact that the racially homogenous environment of the SSA eliminated the need for the participants to distinguish themselves in terms of race. Similarly, the absence of attention paid to gender issues by the SSA students could be explained by the preponderance of females (65%) enrolled in the program and its programmatic emphasis on providing an equitable social content for learning. Lastly, although only a few students wrote about the values their parents instilled in them or the expectations their parents have for them, their very presence in the SSA indicates active parental involvement in steering their children toward certain career choices. The issue of parental influence might therefore have been a "given" on the part of all the students and not deemed worthy of mention.

CONCLUSION

While science seeks to systematically explain and describe the processes of the external world, creative writing responds to and makes manifest the internal and often abstract world of the individual, providing an alternative way to examine and understand phenom- ena. Eisner (1993) describes experience as private. He further maintains that experience becomes public by means of the concepts that characterize it, and that the act of character- ization gives definition and order to the experience. As SSA participants discover and interact with the world of science, they consider objects beyond themselves for which they must find a definition.

An outcome of the Creative Expressions portion of the SSA is that its participants reflect upon and interpret, from their individual perspectives, the science, mathematics, and computer knowledge gained, its meaning, and the various methods of explaining ideas and shaping principles. Creative Expressions acts as a prism through which the science learning experience is passed. The commentaries of the students can thus be likened to spectrums of fresh insight that reveal what has been learned and document the students' learning processes.

Student writing about science, mathematics, and computers can also be used for various purposes by students, instructors, and program administrators. As a means of self-analysis, students can use the writing process to cultivate and enhance their understanding of a particular phenomenon as well as develop their investigative skills. The Creative Expres- sions component allows African American students not only to perceive science as a relevant activity but also as something to think about and to write about. Instructors can use students' writings for diagnostic purposes, to judge how well or poorly students understand a topic or to maintain or modify course content. However, they should keep in mind that the topics not written about are as important as those that are; what students do not say is as important as what they say. Administrators can utilize the writings of


these participants as a means of evaluating the success of their programmatic approaches and efforts.

Analyzing the writing of the African American children participating in the SSA provides insightful and pertinent information to science educators, literacy proponents, and educational researchers. Overwhelmingly, the voices of these students affirm that academic success can be achieved when programs are culturally sensitive, when literacy skills are included as part of the program and placed in a social context compatible with students' background, and when students believe they are acquiring knowledge that can be applied toward economic gain.

This study does not profess to offer a panacea for the underrepresentation of African Americans in science and science-related fields; rather, it assesses the merits of a pedagogical method, one of incorporating creative writing into a science program, that has been used in an established science program. Analysis of the data obtained suggests that this method, in conjunction with a content-rich curriculum, can be effective in combatting the purported inability of minorities to understand science, employ scientific thinking, and perceive themselves as active participants in scientific careers.

Since the social revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, opportunities for underrepresented populations to "do science" have fluctuated with the political wind. However, some programs have survived to provide important legacies for examination and interpretation. The Clark Atlanta University Saturday Science Academy is one such program. It has successfully created an environment in which innovative science education enhances African American students' understanding and appreciation of this expanding field of knowledge. The students' experiences culminate not only in their expressing positive attitudes toward the sciences and contemplating careers in science-related fields but also in their finding encouragement and appropriate role models for pursuing science as a field of study and career choice. Creative Expressions has made science learning even more relevant for these students, who benefit affectively as well as intellectually from the inclusion of such a class in a science program.

Eisner (1993) maintains that the use of the mind is the way to its development. If that belief is accepted, then by increasing the ways the mind is used, the mind becomes more developed. Thus, as the Saturday Science Academy's African American students explore and extrapolate meaning from their experiences, they are expanding the capacities of their minds. As the data from this study suggest, writing about science, mathematics, and computers further authenticates African American students' science-learning experience. Most importantly, such efforts on these students' behalf can only facilitate their becoming better-prepared and more effectual participants in the dynamic world of high-technology opportunities ahead.

REFERENCES

Eisner, E. (1993). Forms of understanding and the future of educational research. Educational Researcher, 22, 5-9.

Johnson, R. C. (1992). Providing African-American students access to science and mathematics. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 361 456)

Ladson-Billings, G., & Henry, A. (1990). Blurring the borders: Voices of African liberatory pedagogy in the United States and Canada. Journal of Education, 172(2), 72-87.

Langer, J. A. (Ed.). (1987). Language, literacy and culture: Issues of society and schooling. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Lu, M. (1990). Writing as repositioning. Journal of Education, 172(1), 18-21. Morgan, A. (1987). The development of written language awareness in Black preschool chil-

dren. Journal of Reading Behavior, 19(1), 49-67.


Mullis, I. V. F., & Jenkins, L. B. (Eds.). (1988). The science report card: Elements of risk and recovery. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Ogbu, J. (1987). Opportunity structure, cultural boundaries and literacy. In J. Langer (Ed.), Language, literacy and culture: Issues of society and schooling (pp. 149-177). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Stepto, J. (1979). From behind the veil. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Webb, M., McNichols, M., Thompson, R., & Washington, P. (1993). A pilot impact evaluation

study of the Saturday Science Academy at Clark Atlanta University. Unpublished manuscript, Clark Atlanta University, Atlanta, GA.


Documents

African American Children Reflecting on Science, Mathematics, and Computers Through Creative Writing: Perspectives from a Saturday Science Academy