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A Presentation by GROUP 9
Group Members
bullCOLLINS BROBBEYbullROSE PUPLAMPUbullMARY ADJEIbullRISCILLA A ASAREbullBENEDICTA bullTAMAKLOE
10 DEFINITION20 THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP30 LEADERSHIP TRAITS40 CONTEXTS OF LEADERSHIP50 STYLES OF LEADERSHIP60 OTHER LEADERSHIP STYLES70 AFRICAN LEADERS AND THEIR LEDERSHIP
STYLESNELSON MANDELAKWAME NKRUMAHJULIUS NYEREREROBERT MUGABEOTHERS LEADERS
80 LEADERSHIP SECRETS OF ATTILA THE HUN90 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
ldquothe process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common taskrdquo Chemers M M (2002)
Leadership is organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal wwwwikipediaorg
Leadership is the ability to influence people towards the attainment of organizational goals (Richard L Daft 2006)
There cannot be one all-encompassing definition of leadership This is because
Leadership involves using a whole range of skills attitudes and behaviours
and The way in which people perceive
leadership varies from person to person and from organization to organization (University of Leicester 2002)
We would define Leadership as ldquothe process of directing the behaviour of others in a co-ordinated effort towards The accomplishment of some common objectivesrdquo
As an element in social interaction leadership is a complex activity involving
a process of influence actors who are both leaders and followers a range of possible outcomes the achievement of
goals but also the commitment of individuals to such goals and the enhancement of group cohesion
21 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY)
It was once common to believe that leaders were
born rather than made
Galton (1869) concluded that leadership was inherited In other words leaders were born
not developed
21 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY
For decades this trait-based perspective dominated empirical and theoretical work in leadership Zaccaro S J (2007) Using early research techniques researchers
conducted over a hundred studies proposing a number of
characteristics that distinguished leaders from nonleaders
Intelligence Dominance Adaptability Persistence Integrity Socioeconomic status Self-confidence just to name a few(Bass BM amp Bass R
2008)
22 RISE OF ALTERNATIVE THEORIES
In the 1940-1950s a series of qualitative reviews of these studies prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership
In reviewing the extant literature Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies the overall evidence suggested that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations Subsequently leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring
individual trait as situational approaches posited that individuals can be effective
in certain situations but not others
This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades
23 REEMERGENCE OF TRAIT THEORY
New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately re-establish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership
Additionally during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive and parsimonious picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past
Equipped with new methods leadership researchers revealed the following
Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks (Kenny DA amp Zaccaro SJ 1983)
Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits
Specifically Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still
1 Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality to the neglect of cognitive abilities motives values social skills expertise and problem-solving skills
2 Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3 Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by and bound to situational influences
4 Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioural diversity necessary for effective leadership
24 ATTRIBUTE PATTERN APPROACH
In contrast to the traditional approach the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated
totality rather than a summation of individual variables
In other words the leader attribute pattern approach argues That combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes or
by additive combinations of multiple attributes
25 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours evaluating
the behaviour of successful leaders determining behaviour taxonomyand identifying broad leadership styles
Kurt Lewin Ronald Lipitt and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate In each the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making praise and criticism (feedback) and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles (1) authoritarian (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
10 DEFINITION20 THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP30 LEADERSHIP TRAITS40 CONTEXTS OF LEADERSHIP50 STYLES OF LEADERSHIP60 OTHER LEADERSHIP STYLES70 AFRICAN LEADERS AND THEIR LEDERSHIP
STYLESNELSON MANDELAKWAME NKRUMAHJULIUS NYEREREROBERT MUGABEOTHERS LEADERS
80 LEADERSHIP SECRETS OF ATTILA THE HUN90 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
ldquothe process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common taskrdquo Chemers M M (2002)
Leadership is organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal wwwwikipediaorg
Leadership is the ability to influence people towards the attainment of organizational goals (Richard L Daft 2006)
There cannot be one all-encompassing definition of leadership This is because
Leadership involves using a whole range of skills attitudes and behaviours
and The way in which people perceive
leadership varies from person to person and from organization to organization (University of Leicester 2002)
We would define Leadership as ldquothe process of directing the behaviour of others in a co-ordinated effort towards The accomplishment of some common objectivesrdquo
As an element in social interaction leadership is a complex activity involving
a process of influence actors who are both leaders and followers a range of possible outcomes the achievement of
goals but also the commitment of individuals to such goals and the enhancement of group cohesion
21 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY)
It was once common to believe that leaders were
born rather than made
Galton (1869) concluded that leadership was inherited In other words leaders were born
not developed
21 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY
For decades this trait-based perspective dominated empirical and theoretical work in leadership Zaccaro S J (2007) Using early research techniques researchers
conducted over a hundred studies proposing a number of
characteristics that distinguished leaders from nonleaders
Intelligence Dominance Adaptability Persistence Integrity Socioeconomic status Self-confidence just to name a few(Bass BM amp Bass R
2008)
22 RISE OF ALTERNATIVE THEORIES
In the 1940-1950s a series of qualitative reviews of these studies prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership
In reviewing the extant literature Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies the overall evidence suggested that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations Subsequently leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring
individual trait as situational approaches posited that individuals can be effective
in certain situations but not others
This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades
23 REEMERGENCE OF TRAIT THEORY
New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately re-establish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership
Additionally during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive and parsimonious picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past
Equipped with new methods leadership researchers revealed the following
Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks (Kenny DA amp Zaccaro SJ 1983)
Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits
Specifically Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still
1 Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality to the neglect of cognitive abilities motives values social skills expertise and problem-solving skills
2 Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3 Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by and bound to situational influences
4 Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioural diversity necessary for effective leadership
24 ATTRIBUTE PATTERN APPROACH
In contrast to the traditional approach the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated
totality rather than a summation of individual variables
In other words the leader attribute pattern approach argues That combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes or
by additive combinations of multiple attributes
25 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours evaluating
the behaviour of successful leaders determining behaviour taxonomyand identifying broad leadership styles
Kurt Lewin Ronald Lipitt and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate In each the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making praise and criticism (feedback) and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles (1) authoritarian (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
ldquothe process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common taskrdquo Chemers M M (2002)
Leadership is organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal wwwwikipediaorg
Leadership is the ability to influence people towards the attainment of organizational goals (Richard L Daft 2006)
There cannot be one all-encompassing definition of leadership This is because
Leadership involves using a whole range of skills attitudes and behaviours
and The way in which people perceive
leadership varies from person to person and from organization to organization (University of Leicester 2002)
We would define Leadership as ldquothe process of directing the behaviour of others in a co-ordinated effort towards The accomplishment of some common objectivesrdquo
As an element in social interaction leadership is a complex activity involving
a process of influence actors who are both leaders and followers a range of possible outcomes the achievement of
goals but also the commitment of individuals to such goals and the enhancement of group cohesion
21 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY)
It was once common to believe that leaders were
born rather than made
Galton (1869) concluded that leadership was inherited In other words leaders were born
not developed
21 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY
For decades this trait-based perspective dominated empirical and theoretical work in leadership Zaccaro S J (2007) Using early research techniques researchers
conducted over a hundred studies proposing a number of
characteristics that distinguished leaders from nonleaders
Intelligence Dominance Adaptability Persistence Integrity Socioeconomic status Self-confidence just to name a few(Bass BM amp Bass R
2008)
22 RISE OF ALTERNATIVE THEORIES
In the 1940-1950s a series of qualitative reviews of these studies prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership
In reviewing the extant literature Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies the overall evidence suggested that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations Subsequently leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring
individual trait as situational approaches posited that individuals can be effective
in certain situations but not others
This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades
23 REEMERGENCE OF TRAIT THEORY
New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately re-establish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership
Additionally during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive and parsimonious picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past
Equipped with new methods leadership researchers revealed the following
Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks (Kenny DA amp Zaccaro SJ 1983)
Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits
Specifically Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still
1 Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality to the neglect of cognitive abilities motives values social skills expertise and problem-solving skills
2 Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3 Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by and bound to situational influences
4 Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioural diversity necessary for effective leadership
24 ATTRIBUTE PATTERN APPROACH
In contrast to the traditional approach the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated
totality rather than a summation of individual variables
In other words the leader attribute pattern approach argues That combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes or
by additive combinations of multiple attributes
25 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours evaluating
the behaviour of successful leaders determining behaviour taxonomyand identifying broad leadership styles
Kurt Lewin Ronald Lipitt and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate In each the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making praise and criticism (feedback) and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles (1) authoritarian (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
There cannot be one all-encompassing definition of leadership This is because
Leadership involves using a whole range of skills attitudes and behaviours
and The way in which people perceive
leadership varies from person to person and from organization to organization (University of Leicester 2002)
We would define Leadership as ldquothe process of directing the behaviour of others in a co-ordinated effort towards The accomplishment of some common objectivesrdquo
As an element in social interaction leadership is a complex activity involving
a process of influence actors who are both leaders and followers a range of possible outcomes the achievement of
goals but also the commitment of individuals to such goals and the enhancement of group cohesion
21 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY)
It was once common to believe that leaders were
born rather than made
Galton (1869) concluded that leadership was inherited In other words leaders were born
not developed
21 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY
For decades this trait-based perspective dominated empirical and theoretical work in leadership Zaccaro S J (2007) Using early research techniques researchers
conducted over a hundred studies proposing a number of
characteristics that distinguished leaders from nonleaders
Intelligence Dominance Adaptability Persistence Integrity Socioeconomic status Self-confidence just to name a few(Bass BM amp Bass R
2008)
22 RISE OF ALTERNATIVE THEORIES
In the 1940-1950s a series of qualitative reviews of these studies prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership
In reviewing the extant literature Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies the overall evidence suggested that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations Subsequently leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring
individual trait as situational approaches posited that individuals can be effective
in certain situations but not others
This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades
23 REEMERGENCE OF TRAIT THEORY
New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately re-establish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership
Additionally during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive and parsimonious picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past
Equipped with new methods leadership researchers revealed the following
Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks (Kenny DA amp Zaccaro SJ 1983)
Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits
Specifically Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still
1 Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality to the neglect of cognitive abilities motives values social skills expertise and problem-solving skills
2 Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3 Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by and bound to situational influences
4 Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioural diversity necessary for effective leadership
24 ATTRIBUTE PATTERN APPROACH
In contrast to the traditional approach the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated
totality rather than a summation of individual variables
In other words the leader attribute pattern approach argues That combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes or
by additive combinations of multiple attributes
25 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours evaluating
the behaviour of successful leaders determining behaviour taxonomyand identifying broad leadership styles
Kurt Lewin Ronald Lipitt and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate In each the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making praise and criticism (feedback) and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles (1) authoritarian (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
We would define Leadership as ldquothe process of directing the behaviour of others in a co-ordinated effort towards The accomplishment of some common objectivesrdquo
As an element in social interaction leadership is a complex activity involving
a process of influence actors who are both leaders and followers a range of possible outcomes the achievement of
goals but also the commitment of individuals to such goals and the enhancement of group cohesion
21 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY)
It was once common to believe that leaders were
born rather than made
Galton (1869) concluded that leadership was inherited In other words leaders were born
not developed
21 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY
For decades this trait-based perspective dominated empirical and theoretical work in leadership Zaccaro S J (2007) Using early research techniques researchers
conducted over a hundred studies proposing a number of
characteristics that distinguished leaders from nonleaders
Intelligence Dominance Adaptability Persistence Integrity Socioeconomic status Self-confidence just to name a few(Bass BM amp Bass R
2008)
22 RISE OF ALTERNATIVE THEORIES
In the 1940-1950s a series of qualitative reviews of these studies prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership
In reviewing the extant literature Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies the overall evidence suggested that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations Subsequently leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring
individual trait as situational approaches posited that individuals can be effective
in certain situations but not others
This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades
23 REEMERGENCE OF TRAIT THEORY
New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately re-establish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership
Additionally during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive and parsimonious picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past
Equipped with new methods leadership researchers revealed the following
Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks (Kenny DA amp Zaccaro SJ 1983)
Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits
Specifically Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still
1 Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality to the neglect of cognitive abilities motives values social skills expertise and problem-solving skills
2 Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3 Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by and bound to situational influences
4 Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioural diversity necessary for effective leadership
24 ATTRIBUTE PATTERN APPROACH
In contrast to the traditional approach the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated
totality rather than a summation of individual variables
In other words the leader attribute pattern approach argues That combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes or
by additive combinations of multiple attributes
25 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours evaluating
the behaviour of successful leaders determining behaviour taxonomyand identifying broad leadership styles
Kurt Lewin Ronald Lipitt and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate In each the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making praise and criticism (feedback) and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles (1) authoritarian (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
21 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY)
It was once common to believe that leaders were
born rather than made
Galton (1869) concluded that leadership was inherited In other words leaders were born
not developed
21 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY
For decades this trait-based perspective dominated empirical and theoretical work in leadership Zaccaro S J (2007) Using early research techniques researchers
conducted over a hundred studies proposing a number of
characteristics that distinguished leaders from nonleaders
Intelligence Dominance Adaptability Persistence Integrity Socioeconomic status Self-confidence just to name a few(Bass BM amp Bass R
2008)
22 RISE OF ALTERNATIVE THEORIES
In the 1940-1950s a series of qualitative reviews of these studies prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership
In reviewing the extant literature Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies the overall evidence suggested that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations Subsequently leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring
individual trait as situational approaches posited that individuals can be effective
in certain situations but not others
This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades
23 REEMERGENCE OF TRAIT THEORY
New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately re-establish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership
Additionally during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive and parsimonious picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past
Equipped with new methods leadership researchers revealed the following
Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks (Kenny DA amp Zaccaro SJ 1983)
Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits
Specifically Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still
1 Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality to the neglect of cognitive abilities motives values social skills expertise and problem-solving skills
2 Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3 Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by and bound to situational influences
4 Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioural diversity necessary for effective leadership
24 ATTRIBUTE PATTERN APPROACH
In contrast to the traditional approach the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated
totality rather than a summation of individual variables
In other words the leader attribute pattern approach argues That combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes or
by additive combinations of multiple attributes
25 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours evaluating
the behaviour of successful leaders determining behaviour taxonomyand identifying broad leadership styles
Kurt Lewin Ronald Lipitt and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate In each the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making praise and criticism (feedback) and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles (1) authoritarian (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
21 EARLY HISTORY (TRAIT THEORY
For decades this trait-based perspective dominated empirical and theoretical work in leadership Zaccaro S J (2007) Using early research techniques researchers
conducted over a hundred studies proposing a number of
characteristics that distinguished leaders from nonleaders
Intelligence Dominance Adaptability Persistence Integrity Socioeconomic status Self-confidence just to name a few(Bass BM amp Bass R
2008)
22 RISE OF ALTERNATIVE THEORIES
In the 1940-1950s a series of qualitative reviews of these studies prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership
In reviewing the extant literature Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies the overall evidence suggested that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations Subsequently leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring
individual trait as situational approaches posited that individuals can be effective
in certain situations but not others
This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades
23 REEMERGENCE OF TRAIT THEORY
New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately re-establish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership
Additionally during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive and parsimonious picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past
Equipped with new methods leadership researchers revealed the following
Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks (Kenny DA amp Zaccaro SJ 1983)
Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits
Specifically Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still
1 Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality to the neglect of cognitive abilities motives values social skills expertise and problem-solving skills
2 Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3 Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by and bound to situational influences
4 Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioural diversity necessary for effective leadership
24 ATTRIBUTE PATTERN APPROACH
In contrast to the traditional approach the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated
totality rather than a summation of individual variables
In other words the leader attribute pattern approach argues That combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes or
by additive combinations of multiple attributes
25 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours evaluating
the behaviour of successful leaders determining behaviour taxonomyand identifying broad leadership styles
Kurt Lewin Ronald Lipitt and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate In each the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making praise and criticism (feedback) and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles (1) authoritarian (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
22 RISE OF ALTERNATIVE THEORIES
In the 1940-1950s a series of qualitative reviews of these studies prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership
In reviewing the extant literature Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies the overall evidence suggested that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations Subsequently leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring
individual trait as situational approaches posited that individuals can be effective
in certain situations but not others
This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades
23 REEMERGENCE OF TRAIT THEORY
New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately re-establish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership
Additionally during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive and parsimonious picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past
Equipped with new methods leadership researchers revealed the following
Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks (Kenny DA amp Zaccaro SJ 1983)
Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits
Specifically Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still
1 Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality to the neglect of cognitive abilities motives values social skills expertise and problem-solving skills
2 Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3 Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by and bound to situational influences
4 Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioural diversity necessary for effective leadership
24 ATTRIBUTE PATTERN APPROACH
In contrast to the traditional approach the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated
totality rather than a summation of individual variables
In other words the leader attribute pattern approach argues That combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes or
by additive combinations of multiple attributes
25 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours evaluating
the behaviour of successful leaders determining behaviour taxonomyand identifying broad leadership styles
Kurt Lewin Ronald Lipitt and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate In each the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making praise and criticism (feedback) and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles (1) authoritarian (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
23 REEMERGENCE OF TRAIT THEORY
New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately re-establish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership
Additionally during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive and parsimonious picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past
Equipped with new methods leadership researchers revealed the following
Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks (Kenny DA amp Zaccaro SJ 1983)
Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits
Specifically Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still
1 Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality to the neglect of cognitive abilities motives values social skills expertise and problem-solving skills
2 Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3 Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by and bound to situational influences
4 Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioural diversity necessary for effective leadership
24 ATTRIBUTE PATTERN APPROACH
In contrast to the traditional approach the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated
totality rather than a summation of individual variables
In other words the leader attribute pattern approach argues That combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes or
by additive combinations of multiple attributes
25 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours evaluating
the behaviour of successful leaders determining behaviour taxonomyand identifying broad leadership styles
Kurt Lewin Ronald Lipitt and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate In each the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making praise and criticism (feedback) and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles (1) authoritarian (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Equipped with new methods leadership researchers revealed the following
Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks (Kenny DA amp Zaccaro SJ 1983)
Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits
Specifically Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still
1 Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality to the neglect of cognitive abilities motives values social skills expertise and problem-solving skills
2 Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3 Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by and bound to situational influences
4 Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioural diversity necessary for effective leadership
24 ATTRIBUTE PATTERN APPROACH
In contrast to the traditional approach the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated
totality rather than a summation of individual variables
In other words the leader attribute pattern approach argues That combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes or
by additive combinations of multiple attributes
25 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours evaluating
the behaviour of successful leaders determining behaviour taxonomyand identifying broad leadership styles
Kurt Lewin Ronald Lipitt and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate In each the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making praise and criticism (feedback) and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles (1) authoritarian (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Specifically Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still
1 Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality to the neglect of cognitive abilities motives values social skills expertise and problem-solving skills
2 Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3 Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by and bound to situational influences
4 Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioural diversity necessary for effective leadership
24 ATTRIBUTE PATTERN APPROACH
In contrast to the traditional approach the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated
totality rather than a summation of individual variables
In other words the leader attribute pattern approach argues That combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes or
by additive combinations of multiple attributes
25 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours evaluating
the behaviour of successful leaders determining behaviour taxonomyand identifying broad leadership styles
Kurt Lewin Ronald Lipitt and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate In each the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making praise and criticism (feedback) and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles (1) authoritarian (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
24 ATTRIBUTE PATTERN APPROACH
In contrast to the traditional approach the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated
totality rather than a summation of individual variables
In other words the leader attribute pattern approach argues That combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes or
by additive combinations of multiple attributes
25 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours evaluating
the behaviour of successful leaders determining behaviour taxonomyand identifying broad leadership styles
Kurt Lewin Ronald Lipitt and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate In each the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making praise and criticism (feedback) and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles (1) authoritarian (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
25 STYLE THEORIES
Theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviours evaluating
the behaviour of successful leaders determining behaviour taxonomyand identifying broad leadership styles
Kurt Lewin Ronald Lipitt and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance
They evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under
different types of work climate In each the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making praise and criticism (feedback) and the management of the group tasks (project
management) according to three styles (1) authoritarian (2) democratic and (3)
laissez-faire
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
26 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
BF Skinner is the father of BehaviourModification and developed the concept ofpositive reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented inresponse to behaviour increasing the likelihoodof that behaviour in the future (MiltenbergerRG 2004)
Organizations such as Frito-Lay 3M Goodrich
Michigan Bell and Emery Air Freight have all used
reinforcement to increase productivity
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
The managerial grid model is based on a behaviouraltheory The model was developed by Robert Blake
and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different
Leadership styles based on the leaders
concern for people and their
concern for goal achievement
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
27 SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to
the trait theory of leadershipThis falls underbull Fiedler contingency modelbull Vroom-Yetton decision modelbull Path-goal theorybull Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
28 FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviours expected to contribute to organizational or uniteffectiveness
A leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to
group effectiveness and cohesion
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Morgeson(2005) Klein Zeigert Knight and Xiao
(2006) observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organisations effectiveness These functions include 1 environmental monitoring2 organizing subordinate activities 3 teaching and coaching subordinates4 motivating others5 intervening actively in the groups work
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
29 TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORIES
Eric Berne analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
bull Transactional Analysis bull Transformational Analysis
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
The transactional leader (Burns 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
The transformational leader (Burns 1978)
Motivates its team to be effective and efficient
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment
This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
210 EMOTIONSLeadership can be perceived as a particularly
emotion-laden process with emotions entwined with the
social influence process (George JM 2000) In an
organization the leaders mood has some effects on hisher group
These effects can be described in 3 levelsbull The mood of individual group members Group
members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood
bull The affective tone of the group Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis
bull Group processes like coordination effort expenditure and task strategy Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
211 NEO-EMERGENT THEORY
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is created through the
emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders not through the true actions of the leader himself In other words the reproduction
of information or stories form the basis of the perception of
leadership or by the majority
In modern society the press blogs and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality but
may also be based on a political command a payment or an inherent interest of the author media or leader
Therefore it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and
in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
212 ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
The Environmental leadership model describes leadership from a
Group dynamics perspective incorporating group psychology and
self awareness to nurture Environments that promote self sustaining group leadership
Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of
the group or individual but in the cultivation of an environment
that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group
It is not the ability to influence others to do something they are notcommitted to but rather to nurture a culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly as well as to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal Action is the mark of a leader A leader does not suffer ldquoanalysis paralysisrdquo but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision inspiring others to do the same
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Beyond these basic traits leaders of today must also possess traits which will help them motivate others and lead them in new directions
Leaders of the future must be able to envision the future and convince others that their vision is worth following To do this they must have the following personality traits
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
High energy Intuitiveness Maturity Team orientation Empathy Charisma
However the list is ever growing and no definitivelist is possible Intrinsic traits such as
intelligence good looks height and so on are not necessary to become a leader Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
41 ORGANIZATIONS
The bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
42 MANAGEMENT
Over the years the philosophical terminology of management and leadership have in the organisational context been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms
should be restricted and generally reflects an awareness of
the distinction made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterised by eg emphasis on procedures contingent reward management by exception) and transformational leadership (characterised by eg charisma
personal relationships creativity)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
43 GROUP LEADERSHIPIn contrast to individual leadership some organizations haveadopted group leadership In this situation more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity reducing costs or downsizing
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional
teams A team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project A team structure can involve sharing power equally on all issues but more
commonly uses rotating leadership
The team member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s) Additionally as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
44 PRIMATES
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals from leadership in ants and bees to baboons andchimpanzees
They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can
be found in other social species too
Many animals beyond apes are territorial compete exhibit violenceand have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions wolves etc) suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical
However we must examine other species as well including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female) meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal) and many others
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Leadership style refers to a leaders behaviour It is
the result of the philosophy personality and experience of the leader
In Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates Journal of Social Psychology 10 271ndash301 Kurt Lewin and colleagues identified different styles of leadership
Autocratic Participative or democratic Laissez-Faire
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
51 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE
The classical approachbull Manager retains as much power and
decision making authority as possiblebull Does not consult staff nor allow them to
give any inputbull Staff expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanationsbull Structured set of rewards and
punishments
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Autocratic leadersbull Rely on threats and punishment to
influencestaff
bull Do not trust staffbull Do not allow for employee input
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
bull Sometimes the most effective style to use
When1048713 New untrained staff do not know which tasks to
perform or which procedures to follow1048713 Effective supervision provided only through
detailed orders and instructions1048713 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style1048713 Limited time in which to make a decision1048713 A managerrsquos power challenged by staff1048713 Work needs to be coordinated with another
department or organization
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Should not be used
When1048713 Staff become tense fearful or resentful1048713 Staff expect their opinions heard1048713 Staff depend on their manager to make
all their decisions1048713 Low staff morale high turnover and
absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Democratic Leadership StyleAlso known as participative style
bull Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
bull Keeps staff informed about everything thataffects their work and shares decision makingand problem solving responsibilities
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
The leaderA coach who has the final say but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
bull Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
bull Staff like the trust they receive and respondwith cooperation team spirit and high morale
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
The democratic leaderDevelops plans to help staff evaluate theirown performancebull Allows staff to establish goalsbull Encourages staff to grow on the job and
be promotedbull Recognizes and encourages achievement
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Not always appropriate
bull Most successful when used with highlyskilled or experienced staff or whenimplementing operational changes orresolving individual or group problems
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Most effective
When1048713 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect
them1048713 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-
solving duties1048713 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a
high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction1048713 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to
solve1048713 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect
staff1048713 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Democratic leadership should not be used when hellip
bull Not enough time to get everyonersquosinputbull Easier and more cost-effective for the
manager to make the decisionbull Canrsquot afford mistakesbull Manager feels threatened by this type of
leadershipbull Staff safety is a critical concern
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the ldquohands-offuml stylebull The manager provides little or no directionand gives staff as much freedom aspossiblebull All authority or power given to the staff andthey determine goals make decisions andresolve problems on their own
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
An effective style to use hellip
bull Staff highly skilled experienced andeducatedbull Staff have pride in their work and the driveto do it successfully on their ownbull Outside experts such as staff specialists orconsultants usedbull Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Should not be used hellip
bull Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
bull The manager cannot provide regular feedback tostaff on how well they are doing
bull Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
bull The manager doesnrsquot understand his or herresponsibilities and hoping the staff cover for him or her
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
Manages ldquoby the bookuml
bull Everything done according to procedure or policy
bull If not covered by the book referred to the next levelabove
A police officer not a leader Enforces the rules
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Most effective
When
1048713 Staff performing routine tasks over and over1048713 Staff need to understand certain standards
or procedures1048713 Safety or security training conducted1048713 Staff performing tasks that require handling
cash
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
IneffectiveWhen1048713 Work habits form that are hard to break
especially if they are no longer useful1048713 Staff lose their interest in their jobs and in
their co-workers1048713 Staff do only what is expected of them
and no more
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Transformational Leadership
bull Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities
bull Facilitate multiple levels of transformation and
bull Align them with core values and a unified purpose
To respond to a dynamicenvironment
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Transactional Leadership
bull Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
bull In opposition to transformational leadershipbull ldquoBy the book approach - the person works
within the rulesbull Commonly seen in large bureaucratic
organizations
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Creative Leadership
bull Ability to uniquely inspire peoplebull To generate shared innovative responses
and solutions
To complex and readily changing situations
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Corrective Leadership
bull Empowers staff to facilitate collaborative and synergism
bull Working with and through other people instead of bowing to authoritarianism
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Change Leadership
bull Endorses alterationbull Beyond thinking about individuals and
individual organization single problems andsingle solutions
bull Rethinking systems to introduce change on parts of the whole and their relationship to one another
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Intelligence Leadership
bull To navigate the future by embracing ambiguity and reframing problems as opportunities
bull A proactive stance in taking their organizations into uncharted territory
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Multicultural Leadership
bull Fosters team and individual effectivenessbull Drives for innovation by leveraging
multicultural differencesbull Teams work harder in an atmosphere of
understanding and mutual respect
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Pedagogical Leadership
bull Paradigm shift from leaderteacher centeredorientation to an interactive connectiveorganizational system using a democratic
bull learning and communicative style
An alternative to instructional leadership by enabling
the learning and intellectual growth of those led
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Servant Leadership
bull A practical philosophy focusing on people whochoose to serve first and then lead as a wayof expanding service
Servant leaders are servants first with the object of
making sure that other peoples highest priority needs
are being servedbull Leaders put the needs of their followers first
these leaders rare in business
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Bridging leadershipFostering synergy and reinforcing behavior
and motivation through the use of
communication to create climate of trust and confidence
Projection of confidence on the face of a difficult
challenge
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Purposeful Leadership
Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive authority and commitment to undertake projects
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Mandela has won a number of political hearts for as indicated earlier four most frequent That is
1 National political activist2 Continental diplomat3 The conscience of the globe4 A combination of philanthropist and
social development practitioner
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
KWAME NKRUMAH
Kwame Nkrumahrsquos ambition soared above that of all others Having successfully challenged the might of British rule in Africa and opened the way to independence for a score of other African countries he saw himself as a messianic leader destined to play an even greater role
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
JULIUS NYERERE
Nyerere joined the Tanganyika African Association Under Nyereres leadership the organization espoused peaceful change social equality and racial harmony and rejected tribalism and all forms of racial and ethnic discrimination
He was a strong advocate of economic and political measures in dealing with the apartheid policies of South
Africa Nyerere was chairman of a group of five frontline African presidents who advocated the overthrow of white supremacy in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) South Africa and South West Africa now Namibia
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
ROBERT MUGABE
Indeed Mugabersquos intransigence maybe precisely because Zimbabweanrsquos opposition to Zanu-PF is more deeply democratic than in most of Africa Pose against the ruling party not democratic enough to have developed an evolutionary and ordered succession procedures (one reason Mugabe does not leave) the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) and its base may not allow Mugabe the compromises facilitating many African presidentsrsquo departures
They would not allow a truth and justice commission to slide away (note the word ldquojusticerdquo rather than ldquoreconciliationrdquo Mugabersquos critics do not want him to gain amnesty for his crimes)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
OTHER AFRICAN LEADERS
Inamdi Azikewersquos value based leadership allows him to delegate power and authority when need be He does not Apart from Mandela Khama and Ramgoolam African leaders and elites did not establish political systems that bore any resemblance to indigenous systems
By the end of the 1980s not a single African head of state in three decades had allowed himself to be voted out of office Out of some 150 heads of state who had trodden the African stage only six had managed to voluntarily relinquish power
Seretse Khama like Dawda Jawara and Ramgoolam preached the gospel of
inclusive democracy and he aptly showed his commitment to democratic
principles
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Attila embarked immediately upon a series of warsextending Hun rule from the Rhine across the north of the Black Sea as far as the Caspian Sea
Finally Attila forged an alliance with the Franks and Vandals and in Spring 451 unleashed his long-threatened attack into the heart of Western Europe
Near Troyes the opposing forces joined battle at Chalons in one
of the decisive battles of European history Though the margin
of victory was slim the Western army prevailed precipitating Attilas withdrawal back across the Rhine and avoiding a decisive shift in the course of political and economic development in Western Europe
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
LESSONS OR SECRETS OF ATTILA
1 LUST FOR LEADERSHIP ldquoYOUrsquoVE GOT TO WANT TO BE IN
CHARGErdquo
2 NEVER CONDONE A LACK OF MORALE OR DISCIPLINE
3 MAKE OTHERS ADAPT TO YOUR CUSTOMS
4 ALWAYS APPEAR AS THE ONE IN CHARGE
5 LEADING THE CHARGE ldquoRESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHIEFTAINrdquo
6 THE ESSENTIALS OF DECISIVENESS
7 USE TIMING IN MAKING DECISIONS
8 EXPLOIT THE DESIRE TO ENJOY THE SPOILS OF WAR
9 EXPECT CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
10 THE ART OF DELEGATION
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Varying Leadership Style
We believe that three factors that influence which leadership style use in an organization
10 The managerrsquos personal background What personality knowledge values ethics and experiences does
the manager have What does he or she think will work
20 Staff being supervised Staff individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds the leadership style used will vary depending on the individual staff and what he or she will respond best to
30 The organization The traditions values philosophy and concerns of
the organization influence how a manager acts
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Determining the best leadership Style Different situations call for different leadership styles In an
emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a
designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the
rest of the team an autocratic leadership style may be most effective
however in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective The
style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the
objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members
Managers need to be leaders
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
Final thoughts
A good leader uses all three styles depending on what forces are involved between the followers the leader and the situation Some examples
include
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job the leader is competent and a good coach The employee is motivated to learn a new skill The situation is a new environment for the employee
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job the leader knows the problem but does not have all the information The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you you cannot do everything and the employee needs to take ownership of her job In addition this allows you to be at other places doing other things
Using all three telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian) asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative) then delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative)
