Chapter 5

5

Fire Fighter

Safety

5

Learning Objectives (1 of 13)

• Identify and analyze the major causes involved in on-duty fire fighter fatalities related to health, wellness, fitness, and vehicle operations.

• Analyze the trend in the number of fire fighter on-duty deaths over a 30-year period.

• Define frequency and severity as they relate to fire fighter injuries.

5


• Enumerate fire-ground safety issues

addressed in NFPA 1500.

• Compare and contrast fire trends and

fire fighter on duty deaths.

• Describe the relative risk to fire fighters

combating fires in different occupancy

types.

5


• Analyze the trend in number of fire

fighter injuries.

• Discuss risk management principles

applied to the fire ground.

• Discuss and give an example of an

imminent life-threatening situation.

5


• Use a probability analysis to assess the

occupied status of a building based on

time and occupancy.

• Estimate the collapse time based on

burn time, fire intensity, content load,

and construction type.

5


• Examine the difference between a managed

retreat and an evacuation due to an imminent

hazard.

• Evaluate the difference between lightweight

and heavy structural components.

• Discuss and contrast pre-fire and fire

conditions that contribute to structural

collapse.

• Examine hazards presented by suspended

ceilings.

5


• Compare construction methods in terms of structural stability, fire extension, and fuel contribution.

• Review the basics of building construction and how they relate to pre-fire planning.

• Estimate the collapse zone for a building in imminent danger of collapse.

5


• Describe exclusion zones other than collapse

zones.

• Develop zones and perimeters around a

structure fire.

• Define and explain the five time segments

from ignition to effective action.

• Evaluate the survivability, structural stability,

and flashover from ignition to effective action.

5


• Evaluate set-up time in regard to staffing on

the first-arriving engine company.

• Compute the staffing necessary to achieve

the tasks enumerated in NFPA 1710.

• Define and compare flashover and backdraft.

• Explain the relationship between NIMS and a

fire fighter accountability system.

5


• List situations when a personal accountability

report (PAR) should be initiated.

• Explain the importance of alternative egress

for fire fighters conducting an offensive

attack.

• Define rapid intervention crew (RIC).

• Explain the role of the RIC.

• Explain the importance of having a RIC

immediately available from initial attack and

throughout the operation.

5


• Determine the number of personnel to

be assigned to the RIC based on the

size and complexity of the building and

incident.

• Describe safe interior operations.

• Construct an emergency message for a

disoriented fire fighter needing

assistance.

5


• Explain measures that can be taken to

improve the chances of survival when fire

fighters are lost and out of air in a large

building.

• Describe methods used to supply air to a

trapped fire fighter who has exhausted his or

her air supply.

• List tools that should be available to a RIC.

5


• Compare the advantages and disadvantages of a mobile RIC versus a stationary RIC.

• Recognize hazards in operating opposing fire lines.

• Evaluate hazards to fire fighters during overhaul operations.

• Define immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) atmospheres and the relationship to SCBA usage.

5


• List factors the IC should consider when formulating an incident action plan to be used during overhaul.

• Describe informal rehabilitation at the fire scene.

• Describe hot weather rehabilitation

• Describe cold weather rehabilitation.

• List the signs of critical incident stress.

5

Overview

• Fire departments

– Dedicated to saving lives and property

– Saving lives is the highest priority.

• Safety closely related to risk-versus-

benefit analysis.

5

Fire Fighter Injuries and

Fatalities

• Identifying/analyzing data

– Critically important to reducing fire fighter

injuries and deaths

– The National Fire Protection Association

(NFPA) has compiled fire fighter fatality

statistics for 30 years—downward trend

5

Fire Investigative Reports

• National Fire Protection Association

(NFPA)

• National Institute for Occupational

Safety and Health (NIOSH)

• U.S. Fire Administration (USFA)

5

NFPA 1500 (1 of 5)

• Standard on Fire Department

Occupational Safety and Health

Program

• Can substantially reduce injury

frequency and severity

– Minimum safety measures

– ICs and safety officers must be familiar

with this standard.

5

NFPA 1500 (2 of 5)

• Important fire-ground safety issues:

– Risk management principles

– IC responsible for overall safety

– Incident management system must be

used at all scenes

– IC maintains command and control.

• Common strategy

• Based on situation analysis

5

NFPA 1500 (3 of 5)

• Important fire-ground safety issues

(continued):

– Situation analysis must be ongoing

• Changes in strategy consistent with the

changing situation

– Pre-established SOPs must be

implemented.

5

NFPA 1500 (4 of 5)


(continued):

– Accountability system

– Rapid Intervention Crews (RIC)

– Inexperienced members must be directly

supervised.

5

NFPA 1500 (5 of 5)


(continued):

– Medical treatment and rehab must be available as

needed.

– PPE must be worn.

– SCBA

– PASS devices

– CISD

– Post-incident analysis

5

Fire-Ground Safety

• Improvements

– Attention to safety

– Safe operation attitude

• Still experiencing a large number of

on-duty deaths

– Responding to fewer fires

– Dying at nearly same rate

5

Fire-Ground Fatalities

5

Increased Hazards (1 of 2)

• Lightweight construction

– Truss roofs

5

Increased Hazards (2 of 2)

• Heavy fuel loads

– Large amounts of plastics

• Very large buildings

5

Occupancy

• Plays a role in fire fighter safety

• No routine fires

• Most fatalities occur in residential fires.

• Risk increases twofold in a

manufacturing setting.

5

Single-Family Mindset

• Must be avoided

• Escape routes are closer and easier to

find.

• SCBA depletion or failure

5

On-Duty Deaths

• Leading causes:

– Sudden cardiac death

• Preventable

– Asphyxiation

– Crushing injuries and burns

5

Responsibility

• Administration

• Procedures

– Training

– Equipment

• ICs have overall safety responsibility.

– Must monitor, organize, coordinate, and

provide adequate safety measures

5

Personal Responsibility

• Fire fighters must take personal

responsibility through:

– Following procedures

– Maintaining firefighting skills

– Proper use of equipment

5

Risk Management

• Most important element

• NFPA 1500

– Risk management principles

– Must be applied to every situation

• IC weighs risk against possible benefits.

5

Two-in, Two-out Rule

• Exception:

– Imminent life-threatening situation

– Definition is not completely understood

• IC expected to exercise judgment

5

Probability

• Important concept to risk management

and size-up processes

– People being in the building considered as

a degree of probability

– Determining factors: time of day, day of

week, time of year

• Primary search is the only sure way of

knowing.

5

Fire Intensity

• Important in determining what there is to

save.

• Hazards increase as fire progresses

towards flashover.

– Building is getting weaker

– Flashover is unpredictable.

5

Flashover (1 of 2)

• Time to flashover depends on:

– Compartment size

– Ventilation

– Ignition source

– Fuel supply

– Fuel geometry

5

Flashover (2 of 2)

• Time to flashover depends on

(continued):

– Distance between fuel cells

– Location of the fuel

– Heat capacity of the fuel

– Geometry of the enclosure

5

Building Design Loads

• Loads imposed on buildings:

– Live loads

– Dead loads

– Seismic, wind, snow, and ice loads

• Affect structural stability

– High loads can result in premature

collapse.

– Loads placed on lightweight roof structures

5

Fuel Load

• Consists of fuels provided by:

– Contents

• Primary fuel load in structure fires

– Combustible building materials

• Wood frame construction

5

Structural Stability (1 of 4)

• IC/safety officer must watch for signs of

structural failure

• Should be considered in size up

– Failure can occur at any time.

• Must understand collapse dynamics

5


• IC must take into account when:

– Deciding on strategy

– Placing companies

• Cannot be reliably predicted

– No building is immune.

– Some withstand a large fire without

collapse.

– Others experience early collapse.

5


• Stability affected by:

– Fire intensity

– Burn time

– Content loads

– Construction methods and materials

5


• 20-minute rule

– Ordinary construction

– Structural collapse anticipated:

• Heavy volume of fire

• Two or more floors

• 20 minutes or longer

5

Time and Intensity

• Is it safe to enter?

– IC should “start the clock.”

– If fire is still not under control:

• IAP should be reviewed.

• Operation possibly changed to defensive

5

Managed Retreat • When changing from offensive to defensive

– Engine companies provide protection.

• If collapse is imminent, the offensive

operation should be abandoned immediately.

• All units notified by:

– Radio announcement

– Pre-planned signal

5

Construction Materials (1 of 2)

• Wide variety in use

– Behavior of buildings will vary significantly.

– Lighter weight structural members

• Provide same load-bearing capabilities

• Truss construction takes the place of large

wood beams or steel I-beams

• Structurally sound under normal conditions

5

Construction Materials (2 of 2)

• Lightweight members are affected by

fire sooner.

– Trusses lose load-bearing capacity once

they lose their triangular configuration.

– Failure with little warning

5

Structural Connections (1 of 2)

• Play a critical role in a building fire

– Gusset plates used in place of nails

• Nails form a stronger connection.

– Penetrate only a fraction of an inch

– Form a large surface area to collect heat

5

Structural Connections (2 of 2)

• Wood truss loses its stability as:

– Gusset plate teeth lose strength

– Fire burns through the wood connecting

surfaces

5

Gusset Plate Failure

5

Fire Spread

• Can occur through variety of openings

– Horizontal: joist/truss spaces

– Vertical: utility shafts

• Renovations affect fire spread:

openings in floors not always properly

sealed

5

Roof Operations

• Conscious decision regarding roof

safety

– Lightweight truss roofs are dangerous.

• Risk-versus-benefit decision

– Must be made before placing fire fighters

on or under roof

5

Pre-Fire Conditions (1 of 5)

• Factors for evaluating collapse potential

of a building:

– Weight – Renovations

– Fuel loads – Deterioration

– Damage – Support systems

– Truss construction

5


• Weight, live and dead loads including:

– Air conditioning units

– Tanks containing liquids

– Large signs and marquees

– False fronts (façades)

– Cantilever appendages

– Heavy machinery

5


• Fuel loads

– Type, location, and arrangement fuel loads

• Damage structural support system

– Previous fires, weather or collapse

5


• Renovations

– Older buildings

• Deterioration

– Buildings or areas in poor repair

– Vacant buildings

5


• Support systems

– Long spans (churches, warehouses)

• Truss construction

– Identified through pre-planning

5

Fire Conditions

• Sometimes difficult to read

• Failures occur without warning.

• Must recognize signs of imminent

collapse

– Maintain span of control

• Time and fire intensity are major factors.

5

Signs of Structural Collapse (1 of 2)

• Bulging, cracked, or unsupported walls

• Walls leaking water or smoke

• Falling bricks

• Floors holding large volumes of water or

stock soaked with water

5

Signs of Structural Collapse (2 of 2)

• Movement in floors or roof

• Other signs of structural movement,

including unusual noises

• Vertical structural members that are out

of plumb (columns, walls, etc.)

5

Fire Extension

• Some buildings limit fire spread better

than others.

• Concealed spaces

– Fire can extend to remote locations

• Results in a sudden increase in heat intensity

• Can break out at multiple locations

5

Concealed Spaces (1 of 2)

• Fire fighters without a hose line are at

high risk.

• Fire extension can cut off primary

means of egress.

• Proper venting will direct fire.

• Improper venting pulls fire.

5

Concealed Spaces (2 of 2)

• Fires in concealed ceiling areas can get

behind fire fighters.

– Hose streams can accelerate movement of

fire.

• Must be checked

– Thermal imaging cameras

– Opened up with tools

5

Truss Assemblies

• Floor assemblies

– Used to reduce construction costs

– Creates concealed space

– Less fire-resistive than heavier, solid beam

construction

• Have played a major role in fire fighter

fatalities

5

Truss Floor Assembly

5

Non-Combustible Buildings

• Mistaken for fire-resistive

– Modern, big-box retail stores

– May be masonry or metal on the exterior

– Lightweight metal truss roof structure

• Large open areas with long spans

– Expect imminent roof collapse if fire enters

spaces.

5

Automatic Sprinkler Systems

• Usually control fires

– Consider code variances or “trade-ups”

– If system is not controlling fire, consider

hazards in entering large-span truss space

with heavy fire load.

5

Fire Zones and Perimeters

• Establish collapse zone

• Collapse indicated by:

– Construction features

– Fire factors

• Cannot accurately predict:

– Type of collapse

– Collapse zone

5

Exclusion Zones

• Collapse zones = exclusion zones

– No one permitted to enter

– Can exist in buildings (suspect roof

structures)

– Other areas:

• Falling glass

• Flammable/combustible atmospheres

5

Cold Zone

• PPE is not required.

• Location of command post

– Staff and command functions

• Includes rehab and medical areas

5

Hot Zone

• Safe only when wearing appropriate

PPE

• Established and enforced by IC and

safety officer; everyone must abide by

their decision.

5

Warm Zone

• Not always necessary during a structure

fire

• Established as an intermediate zone

– Between hot and cold zones

– When different levels of PPE are needed

for various areas

5

Accountability System

• Must be established on the fire-ground:

– Ensures everyone entering the area has a

specific assignment

• Eliminates freelancing

– Tracks all personnel

• Identifies the location of any missing personnel

5

Time, Fire Intensity, and

Structural Stability

5

Time: Ignition to Effective

Actions

• Goal: To arrive prior to flashover and

intervene

– Interrupts fire’s progression

– Progression in small enclosures can be

fast.

• May occur prior to the arrival

• Objective is to contain the fire

5

Analyzing Time

• It is necessary to consider the following

five components:

– Pre-burn time

– Dispatch time

– Turnout time

– Response time

– Set-up time

5

Detection/Transmission Time

• Pre-burn time

– Time from ignition until fire is reported

• Will vary greatly

• Is unknown until the alarm occurs

– Dependent upon discovery and reporting

• Unless equipped with a detection/alarm system

– Can be estimated based on experience

5

Dispatch Time

• NFPA 1221: Installation, Maintenance,

and Use of Emergency Services

Communications Systems sets time

goals for dispatch centers.

• Includes time for the dispatcher to:

– Take the call

– Select units for the assignment

– Dispatch companies

5

Turnout Time

• Time from alarm receipt until apparatus

leaves station

• Can differ greatly between fully staffed

stations and on-call stations

5

NFPA 1710 • Standard for the Organization and

Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire Departments defines turnout time

• Time beginning when units acknowledge notification to beginning point of response time

• Time objective = one minute

5

NFPA 1720

• Standard for the Organization and

Deployment of Fire Suppression

Operations, Emergency Medical

Operations, and Special Operations to

the Public by Volunteer Fire

Departments does not address turnout

time.

5

Response Time

• Dependant on road conditions, terrain,

distance, traffic, and other factors

• Averages can be established using

computer models.

5

NFPA 1710

• NFPA 1710 establishes two response

time goals:

– Four minutes (240 seconds) or less for

arrival of the first engine company

– Eight minutes (480 seconds) or less for the

deployment of a full first alarm assignment

– No less than 90 percent within time goal

5

Response Safety

• Many fire fighters are killed or injured

while responding to incidents.

– Response/travel time improvements

• Realized by reducing distance from fire station

to response area

• Not by increasing speed of apparatus or

ignoring negative right-of-way situations

5

Set-Up Time

• Time necessary to position apparatus,

advance hose line and apply water

• Affected by staffing levels and training

– Two-in/two-out rule changes setup time

• Four people must be on the scene.

• Two must be positioned outside the hazard

area.

5

NFPA 1410

• Standard on Training for Initial

Emergency Scene Operations sets

training goals.

– 3 to 6 minutes to establish water supply

and discharge water

– Improvement through training

5

Initial Response Only

• Times are valid for initial response only

– Less dispatch time when units are on-

scene, calling for help.

– Reduce for subsequent calls by:

• Placing units on alert status

• Moving into vacated stations

• Placing units in staging areas

– Set-up time will change depending on task

assignment

5

Adequate Number of

Personnel

• Set-up time is related to staffing.

– Initial attack should be delayed if:

• Company staffing is less than four

• Imminent life-threatening situation does not

exist

5

NFPA 1500

• Stipulates a minimum of four fire

fighters as an initial crew at a working

structure fire

– Unless imminent life-threatening situation

exists

– Three is acceptable in situations of

imminent danger

5

Fire-Ground Tasks (1 of 3)

• Required to save lives and protect

property

• Additional attack lines

• Attack line above the fire

• Attack line to concealed spaces

• Backup for the initial attack line

5


• Exposure protection

• Forcing entry

• Laddering the building

• Opening up concealed spaces

• Salvage or property conservation

5


• Search and rescue of area around the

fire

• Search and rescue of area above the

fire

• Search and rescue of other areas

• Utility control

• Ventilation

5

NFPA 1710

• Establishes minimum staffing levels

– Tasks to be accomplished

– Personnel needed

– Minimum of 14 personnel

• 15 if an aerial device is used

5

Tactical Reserve

• Planning is crucial.

• Tactical efficiency can reduce number

of people necessary.

• Size of tactical reserve force depends

on:

– Stage and type of incident

– Number of units working

5

Elapsed Time and Flashover

• Time is a critical factor.

• Longer the fire burns:

– Less chance for rescue

– Greater chance of structural collapse

– Post-flashover chance for survival = near

zero

– Risk to fire fighters increases

5

Communications

• Lifeblood of any command organization

• Situation could be chaotic without

communications.

– Each crew should have a radio.

5

Radio Discipline

• Significant challenge

• Imperative when everyone is assigned a

radio

– Proper use of the radio

• Clear

• Calm

• Concise

5

Progress Reports

• Essential to the IC

• Interior crews = eyes and ears of the IC

• Provide information to everyone on fire-

ground

5

Emergency Operations

• Mayday is used to indicate that a fire

fighter is in trouble.

• SOPs should define response to a

Mayday

– Critical functions will not be accomplished

if all personnel begin focusing on the

rescue operation.

5

Mayday

• IC must remain in total control.

• Officers must remain within the ICS.

• Specific assignments should be made

for the rescue operation.

5

Evacuation Signal

• Should be established through SOPs

– 10 three-second blasts of air horns

– Emergency evacuation radio message

5

Evacuation

• “Drop everything and run”

– Seldom warranted

– Used during defensive operations

• Offensive operations

– Organized retreat is better alternative

5

Command and Control

• Common goal

– Organized fashion

– Safe and effective operation

• Freelancing leads to injuries and

fatalities.

5

Accountability

• A good organizational structure:

– Accounts for all personnel at scene

– Maintains reasonable span of control

• Crew unity is essential.

• Crew members should not be separated

within the structure.

5

Personnel Accountability

Report (1 of 2)

• Often referred to as a PAR.

• SOPs call for PARs in the following

situations when:

– IC thinks it is necessary

– Safety officer requests one

– IC changes from an offensive to a

defensive attack

5

Personnel Accountability

Report (2 of 2)

• Sudden changes occur.

• Entire building has been searched.

• Fire is extinguished.

• Called for at prescribed times

– NFPA 1500: Every 10 minutes

5

Accountability Procedures

• More important as incident increases in

size and complexity

– Mutual aid resources

– A regional approach is logical

5

Accountability Officer

• Should not be the safety officer

– Safety officer is mobile.

– Accountability officer is stationary.

• The accountability officer is an

informational resource for the safety

officer, RIC, and IC.

5

Safety Officer

• Safety is everyone’s responsibility.

– Whether or not a safety officer has been

assigned

• Safety officer monitors all areas.

• SOPs outline when position is

established

– When IC can no longer effectively monitor

safety at the scene

5

Alternative Egress (1 of 2)

• Interior stairs

– Preferred means of access and egress

• Fire escapes

– Additional means

– Provide access to upper floors

5

Alternative Egress (2 of 2)

• Proper laddering

– Should be accomplished early in operation

• Provides alternative means of egress

• Addressed in SOPs

• Location of ladders must be

communicated to crews.

5

Rapid Intervention Crews

• Staffing is not sufficient until:

– Safety and tactical positions are covered

– Tactical reserve is available.

• Critical need to provide rescuers for fire

crews

– RIC: no substitute for safe and effective

operations

5

Fire Fighter Rescue

• IAP will reduce the need for emergency

rescues.

– Risk-versus-benefit analysis

– Good tactics

– Company-level attention to safety

5

Safe Interior Operations (1 of 2)

• Maintain crew integrity

• Provide hose line protection

• Provide means of communications

• Maintain contact with the hose line

5

Safe Interior Operations (2 of 2)

• Maintain contact with a wall or rope

• Indicate door leading to where fire

fighters are working

• Learn self-survival techniques

5

RIC Officer

• Determines need for special tools

– Based on:

• Construction type

• Occupancy

• Fire location

• Other factors

– Could be identified through pre-planning

5

Common RIC Tools (1 of 2)

• Rescue ropes, search ropes, guideline

ropes

• Thermal imaging camera

• Patient carrier, webbing, or harness

• Portable ladders for above- and below-

grade rescues

5

Common RIC Tools (2 of 2)

• Forcible entry tools

• Wire cutters and other hand tools

• Lighting equipment

5

RIC Operations

• RIC should have access to pre-plans.

• Critically important to train and practice

– Preferably under live fire conditions

5

Hose Lines

• Avoid opposing hose lines.

• Interior hose lines should attack from

same point.

– Communications between units is

essential.

5

Master Streams

• Improperly operated on the exterior will

push fire into the building, endangering

anyone inside

5

Personal Protective

Equipment (PPE)

• Appropriate level established by IC and

safety officer

• Overhaul phase

– Removing SCBA is questionable

• Removing PPE inside fire building is

unsafe

5

Overhaul Safety (1 of 2)

• Safety considerations:

– Structural damage/stability

– Smoke and airborne contaminants

– Cutting hazards

– Holes in floors

5

Overhaul Safety (2 of 2)

• Safety considerations (continued):

– Damaged stairways

– Utility hazards

– Overhead hazards

– Visibility

5

Rehabilitation

• NFPA 1584: Recommended Practice on

the Rehabilitation of Members

Operating at Incident Scene Operations

and Training Exercises

– Provides guidelines for hot and cold

weather rehabilitation

5

Three Phases

• Pre-incident hydration and preparation

• Incident rehabilitation

• Post-incident recovery

• Dependant on:

– Weather conditions

– Length of time on the scene

– Activity level

5

Informal Rehab

• Takes place at the company apparatus

– Should be in cold zone

– Members can “dress down” while resting

and rehydrating

– Should not be placed near exhaust fumes

5

Formal Rehab

• Established area for rehab

– Should provide shade and mechanical

cooling or heating

• Dependant on weather conditions

– Water or sports drinks and healthy food

should be available.

5

Two-Cylinder Rule

• Requires Rehab after a second,

30-minute SCBA cylinder

• Rest period should be at least 20

minutes

5

Critical Incident Stress

• Stress management is related to rehab.

– Best to take action at incident scene

– Critical incidents

• Fire in which fire fighters are seriously injured

or killed

• Fire in which children are seriously injured

• Fire that results in one or more fatalities

5

Signs of Critical Incident

Stress • Shaking or trembling

• Loss of muscular control

• Blurred vision

• Respiratory difficulties

• Confusion and disorientation

• Chills

• Signs and symptoms of shock

5

Proactive Measures

• Schedule breaks

– Designated rehab area

• Rotate frontline personnel

• Check personnel for signs and

symptoms.

5

Summary (1 of 2)

• The primary rescue technique is

extinguishing fire.

– Heat, smoke, and toxic gases must be

vented.

• Structure becomes safer once fire is

extinguished.

5

Summary (2 of 2)

• Measures to reduce fire fighter injuries

and deaths:

– Improved PPE

– PASS devices

– Rapid intervention crews

– Accountability systems

– NIMS

– Rehab

Business

Chapter 5