Chapter 2

SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Definition of Scientific Research

Scientific Research focusing on solving problems and pursues a step by step logical, organized and rigorous method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze them and draw valid conclusions from it.

Why Scientific Research?• This research is not based on hunches, and

intuition.• Findings are accurate. • Scientific research focuses on problem

solving.• Apply solutions to similar problems.• It is more objective.• It can be applied to both basic and applied

research.

The Hallmarks of Scientific Research

1. Purposiveness2. Rigor3. Testability4. Replicability5. Precision and Confidence6. Objectivity7. Generalizability8. Parsimony

The hallmarks or main distinguishing The hallmarks or main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research may be characteristics of scientific research may be listed as follows:listed as follows:

Hallmarks of Scientific Research

1. Purposiveness

It has to start with a definite aim or purpose. The focus is on increasing employee

commitment. Increase employee commitment will translate

into less turnover, less absenteeism and increased performance levels.

Thus it has a purposive focus.

2. Rigor• A good theoretical base and sound methodological design

would add rigor to the purposive study.• Rigor adds carefulness and the degree of exactitude in

research.Example: A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the level

of commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses the manager reaches several conclusions on how employee commitment can be increased, the whole approach to the investigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for the following reasons:

1. Based on few employees2. Bias and incorrectness3. There might be other influences on commitment

which are ignored and are important for a researcher to know

Thus, Rigor involves good theoretical base and thought out methodology.

• These factors enable the researcher to collect the right kind of information from an appropriate sample with the minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitable analysis of the data gathered.

3. Testability

The researcher might hypothesize that those employees who perceive greater opportunities for participation in decision making would have a higher level of commitment.

After random selection manager and researcher After random selection manager and researcher develops certain hypothesis on how to enhance develops certain hypothesis on how to enhance employee commitment. employee commitment. Then this can be tested by applying certain Then this can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the statistical tests to the data collected for the purposepurpose..

4. Replicabilitythe results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported again and yet again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar circumstances.Example:

The study concludes that participation in decision making is one of the most important factors that influences the commitment.

More faith and credence in these finding and conclusion if similar findings emerge on the basis of data collected by other organizations employing the same methods.

Precision– Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to

“reality” based on a sample.– It reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitude of the

results of the sample.

Example: If a supervisor estimated the number of production days lost during the year due to absenteeism at between 30 and 40, as against the actual of 35, the precision of estimation is more favorable than if he has indicated that the loss of production days was somewhere between 20 and 50.

5. 5. Precision and ConfidencePrecision and Confidence

Confidence– Confidence refers to the probability that our

estimations are correct. – It is also important that we can confidently

claim that 95% of the time our results would be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong.

– This is also known as confidence level.

6. Objectivity

The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual data, and not on our subjective or emotional values.

Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater participation in decision making will increase organizational commitment and this was not supported by the results, it makes no sense if the researcher continues to argue that increased opportunities for employee participation would still help!

7. GeneralizabilityIt refers to the scope of applicability of the

research findings in one organization setting to

other settings.

Example: If a researcher’s findings that participation in decision

making enhances organizational commitment are found to be true

in a variety of manufacturing, industrial and service organizations,

and not merely in the particular organization studied by the

researcher, then the generalizability of the findings to other

organizational settings in enhanced. The more generalizable the

research, the greater its usefulness and value.

8. ParsimonySimplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems that occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, is always preferred to complex research frameworks that consider an unmanageable number of factors.

For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation are identified, which when changed would raise the organizational commitment of the employees by 45%, that would be more useful and valuable to the manager than if it were recommended that he should change 10 different variables to increase organizational commitment by 48%.

The Building Blocks of Science in Research

Deduction and InductionsAnswers to issues can be found either by the process of induction or the process of deduction, or by a combination of the two.

Deduction• Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a

reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known fact.

• Start with general theory and then apply to s specific case.

Example: we know that all high performers are highly Example: we know that all high performers are highly proficient in their jobs. proficient in their jobs. If John is a high performer, we then conclude that he If John is a high performer, we then conclude that he is highly proficient in his job.is highly proficient in his job.

Induction• Induction is a process where we observe certain

phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.

In other words, in induction we logically In other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition based on establish a general proposition based on observed facts.observed facts.

The Hypothetico-Deductive Method

The seven-step process in the Hypothetic-Deductive Method

1. Identify a broad problem area2. Define the problem statement3. Develop hypotheses4. Determine measures5. Data Collection6. Data Analysis7. Interpretation of data

Identifying broad problem area

–one senses that certain changes are occurring or that some new behaviors, attitudes and feelings are surfacing in one’s environment (i.e., the work place).

–Identify broad area which needs inquiry

Define the problem statement– Aim/objectives should be identified.

– It involves the seeking of information in depth, of what is to be inquired.

– gathering preliminary information through interviews

– Additionally by doing library research or obtaining information through other sources, the investigator would identify how such issues have been tackled in other situations.

– Arriving at specific research problem.

Hypothesizing – It is the next logical step after theory formulation.– From the theorized network of associations

among the variables, certain testable hypotheses can be generated.

– Hypothesis testing is called deductive research. Sometimes, hypotheses that were not originally formulated do get generated through the process of induction.

Determine measures

• Operationalization– We define each variable to measure it

Data Collection

–After the development of the hypotheses, data with respect to each variable in the hypotheses need to be obtained.

–Data are collected to test the hypotheses that are generated in the study.

Data Analysis

–Data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were generated have been supported.

–Co relational method will be used to analyze and determine the relation ship of two or more factors in the hypotheses for example: stock availability and customer satisfaction.

Deduction–Deduction is the process of

arriving at conclusions by interpreting the meaning of results of the data analysis.

Other Types of Research

• Case studies and action research are sometimes used to study certain types of issues.

1. Case Studies2. Action Research

Case Studies

• Case studies involve in depth, contextual analyses of similar situations in the other organizations, where the nature and definition of the problem happen to be the same as experienced in the current situation.

• Case study, as a problem solving technique, is not often undertaken in organizations because such studies dealing with problems similar to the one experienced by a particular organization of a particular size and in a particular type of setting are difficult to come by.

Action Research

• The researcher begins with a problem that is already identified and gathers relevant data to provide a tentative problem solution.

• This solution is then implemented, with the knowledge that there may be unintended consequences following such implementation.

• The effects are then evaluated, defined and diagnosed and the research continues on an ongoing basis until the problem is fully resolved.