Research methods

Research questions andhow to answer them

Christian SpannagelUniversity of Education Heidelberg

spannagel@ph-heidelberg.dehttp://cspannagel.wordpress.com

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Research questions and methods

• Does x have an effect on y?• Does x lead to more y?• Which influence does x have on y?• Are x and y correlated?• What do students think when…?• What do students communicate

when…?• How can problem x be solved?• How can situation x be improved?• …

experiment

actionresearch

study w.correlations

qualitativestudies

3

Research questions and methods

• Does x have an effect on y?• Does x lead to more y?• Which influence does x have on y?

experiment

finding cause-and-effect relationshipsx y f(x)=y

testing hypotheses H0: x does not have an effect on y. H1: x does have an effect on y.

Experiment: Running Example

Do pictures support students when learning how to calculate with fractions?

Materialpictures Group P

no pictures Group N

Control confoundingvariables!

Randomize!

One-factorial experimental

design

Material Learning outcomefactor /

independentvariable

dependentvariable

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Experimental Design

MaterialPictures (circles) Group PC

Pictures (rectangles)

Group PR

no pictures Group N

Again: One-factorial experimental designone factor with three levels

Do pictures support students when learning how to calculate with fractions?

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Experimental design

„Do pictures of fractions support students who are visuallearnerns more than students who are auditive learners?“

Material visual auditivePictures (circles) Group PCV Group PCA

Pictures (rectangles)

Group PRV Group PRA

no pictures Group NV Group NA

two-factorial experimental designFactor A: MaterialFactor B: Learning Style

ATI (aptitude treatment interaction;

Cronbach & Snow, 1977)

Learning Style

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Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Material visual auditivePictures (circles) lo1,1 lo1,2

Pictures (rectangles)

lo2,1 lo2,2

no pictures lo3,1 lo3,2

Dependent variable: learning outcome: loi,j

Analysis of variance! main effect A, main effect B, interaction effects

Learning Style

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Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)

In addition: Think of repeated measurements!

2 dependent variables: - learning outcome: loi,j

- motivation: moi,j

Material visual auditivePictures (circles) (lo1,1, mo1,1) (lo1,2, mo1,1)

Pictures (rectangles)

(lo2,1, mo1,1) (lo2,2, mo1,1)

no pictures (lo3,1, mo1,1) (lo3,2, mo1,1)

Learning Style

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Dependent variables and tests

• What to measure? dependent variables– learning outcome– motivation– time to learn something– cognitive load– mathematics self-efficacy– …

• Tests– parametric tests (t-test, analysis of variance, …)

• Preconditions! (metric scale, normal distribution, homogeneity of variance, …)

– non-parametric tests or rank-order statistics(Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon, Bredenkamp, …)

• less preconditions, but also less standard

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Experiment• Planning

– research hypotheses– experimental plan: independent variables– Dependent variables and tests– Sample size determination

• Realization• Data Analysis

– parametric or non-parametric tests– univariate vs. multivariate– with or without repeated measurements

• Internal and external validity

Characteristics:•planned•controlled•replicable•variation•analysis

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Internal and external validity

• Internal Validity: IV DV?– maturation– history– testing– instrumentation– selection– experimental mortality– …

• External Validity– Generalizable to

• other persons?• other situations?• …

(Campbell & Stanley, 1963)

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Research questions and methods

• Does x have an effect on y?• Does x lead to more y?• Which influence does x have on y?• Are x and y correlated?• What do students think when…?• What do students communicate

when…?• How can problem x be solved?• How can situation x be improved?• …

experiment

actionresearch

study w.correlations

qualitativestudies

13

Study with correlations

But should besignificant and

relevant

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Research questions and methods

• Does x have an effect on y?• Does x lead to more y?• Which influence does x have on y?• Are x and y correlated?• What do students think when…?• What do students communicate

when…?• How can problem x be solved?• How can situation x be improved?• …

experiment

actionresearch

study w.correlations

qualitativestudies

15

Qualitative studies

• Analyzing artefacts regarding qualitative aspects– texts (learning diaries, written assignments, …)– audio files (interviews, …)– videos (recorded lessons, …)

• Qualitative content analysis (Mayring)– finding categories– Structuring artefacts

• often used in case-Studies

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Action research in social sciences

• John Collier (1884-1968) and the improvement of the conditions of Indians

• Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) and (e.g.) the improvement of the conditions in companies

• Paulo Freire (1921-1997) and the improvement of the educational system in Brazil

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Action research

• seeks improvements in a concrete context; tries to solve concrete problems

• Researcher is part of the system• but systematic (!)• cyclic

– Lewin (1946): „a spiral of steps each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action.“

(Hinchey, 2008)

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Action research

plan

act

evaluate / reflect

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Action research

Pose a question

formulate a research plan

Why?

What?

How will I collect data?

How will I analyze data?

When?

Who will help?

…

Collect and analyze data

develop and realize action plan

document (and share)

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Action research

Pose a question

formulate a research plan

Collect and analyze data

develop and realize action plan

document (and share)

literature

theory

experiences

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Action research

Pose a question

formulate a research plan

Collect and analyze data

develop and realize action plan

document (and share)

documents

artefacts

Learning diaries

observations

interview results

questionnaires

audio, video data

…

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Typical action research projects

• 30 Laptops in a class new tasks? new forms of assessment?

• In Germany: co-education of first and second graders

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Further aspects

• creation of „research communites“ sharing results and experiences research!– „quality management“

• with or without „critical friend“?• Basic research is important, but research

must also go „into the world“– Lewin (1946): „Research that produces nothing

but books will not suffice.“

• many different approaches of „action research“

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experiment action research

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Experiment:systematic, controlled

revelation of cause-and-effect-

relationships.

-Help on concrete problems?

-Evaluation of longer-lasting

processes?

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Action research vs. experimental research?

• Goal: improving the system bei acting

• complexity is accepted

• Takes the concrete situation into account

• Criticism: subjective

• Goal: analyzing the system by observing

• Complexity is reduced

• tries to generalize

• objective (really?)

Action research Experimental research

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Action research vs. experimental research?

• cyclic• natural context• „in the world“• Model for others• „more“ qualitative• „seeking

understanding“• „teacher

research“

• linear• Artificial situation• „in the laboratory“• replicable• „more“ quantitative• „seeking truth“

• „research on teaching“

Action research Experimental research

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What do you think?

• Perhaps both approaches are relevant to different situations?

• What about using experiments as method in the context of action research?

• Is action research science?• Is your research proposal more experimental

or more of the action research type? Is it something completely different?

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Research questions and methods

• Does x have an effect on y?• Does x lead to more y?• Which influence does x have on y?• Are x and y correlated?• What do students think when…?• What do students communicate

when…?• How can problem x be solved?• How can situation x be improved?• …

experiment

actionresearch

study w.correlations

qualitativestudies

30

Your task!

• Sharpen your research question• Which method / methods are adequate?• Which variables should me measured?• How to measure the variables?• Where and when should the study be

conducted?• Who are the subjects?• …

Make chart / diagram!