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Slides by Christian SpannagelCourse held in Beira, Mozambique, in Sep/Oct 2011
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Research questions andhow to answer them
Christian SpannagelUniversity of Education Heidelberg
[email protected]://cspannagel.wordpress.com
2
Research questions and methods
• Does x have an effect on y?• Does x lead to more y?• Which influence does x have on y?• Are x and y correlated?• What do students think when…?• What do students communicate
when…?• How can problem x be solved?• How can situation x be improved?• …
experiment
actionresearch
study w.correlations
qualitativestudies
3
Research questions and methods
• Does x have an effect on y?• Does x lead to more y?• Which influence does x have on y?
experiment
finding cause-and-effect relationshipsx y f(x)=y
testing hypotheses H0: x does not have an effect on y. H1: x does have an effect on y.
Experiment: Running Example
Do pictures support students when learning how to calculate with fractions?
Materialpictures Group P
no pictures Group N
Control confoundingvariables!
Randomize!
One-factorial experimental
design
Material Learning outcomefactor /
independentvariable
dependentvariable
5
Experimental Design
MaterialPictures (circles) Group PC
Pictures (rectangles)
Group PR
no pictures Group N
Again: One-factorial experimental designone factor with three levels
Do pictures support students when learning how to calculate with fractions?
6
Experimental design
„Do pictures of fractions support students who are visuallearnerns more than students who are auditive learners?“
Material visual auditivePictures (circles) Group PCV Group PCA
Pictures (rectangles)
Group PRV Group PRA
no pictures Group NV Group NA
two-factorial experimental designFactor A: MaterialFactor B: Learning Style
ATI (aptitude treatment interaction;
Cronbach & Snow, 1977)
Learning Style
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Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Material visual auditivePictures (circles) lo1,1 lo1,2
Pictures (rectangles)
lo2,1 lo2,2
no pictures lo3,1 lo3,2
Dependent variable: learning outcome: loi,j
Analysis of variance! main effect A, main effect B, interaction effects
Learning Style
8
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)
In addition: Think of repeated measurements!
2 dependent variables: - learning outcome: loi,j
- motivation: moi,j
Material visual auditivePictures (circles) (lo1,1, mo1,1) (lo1,2, mo1,1)
Pictures (rectangles)
(lo2,1, mo1,1) (lo2,2, mo1,1)
no pictures (lo3,1, mo1,1) (lo3,2, mo1,1)
Learning Style
9
Dependent variables and tests
• What to measure? dependent variables– learning outcome– motivation– time to learn something– cognitive load– mathematics self-efficacy– …
• Tests– parametric tests (t-test, analysis of variance, …)
• Preconditions! (metric scale, normal distribution, homogeneity of variance, …)
– non-parametric tests or rank-order statistics(Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon, Bredenkamp, …)
• less preconditions, but also less standard
10
Experiment• Planning
– research hypotheses– experimental plan: independent variables– Dependent variables and tests– Sample size determination
• Realization• Data Analysis
– parametric or non-parametric tests– univariate vs. multivariate– with or without repeated measurements
• Internal and external validity
Characteristics:•planned•controlled•replicable•variation•analysis
11
Internal and external validity
• Internal Validity: IV DV?– maturation– history– testing– instrumentation– selection– experimental mortality– …
• External Validity– Generalizable to
• other persons?• other situations?• …
(Campbell & Stanley, 1963)
12
Research questions and methods
• Does x have an effect on y?• Does x lead to more y?• Which influence does x have on y?• Are x and y correlated?• What do students think when…?• What do students communicate
when…?• How can problem x be solved?• How can situation x be improved?• …
experiment
actionresearch
study w.correlations
qualitativestudies
13
Study with correlations
But should besignificant and
relevant
14
Research questions and methods
• Does x have an effect on y?• Does x lead to more y?• Which influence does x have on y?• Are x and y correlated?• What do students think when…?• What do students communicate
when…?• How can problem x be solved?• How can situation x be improved?• …
experiment
actionresearch
study w.correlations
qualitativestudies
15
Qualitative studies
• Analyzing artefacts regarding qualitative aspects– texts (learning diaries, written assignments, …)– audio files (interviews, …)– videos (recorded lessons, …)
• Qualitative content analysis (Mayring)– finding categories– Structuring artefacts
• often used in case-Studies
16
Action research in social sciences
• John Collier (1884-1968) and the improvement of the conditions of Indians
• Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) and (e.g.) the improvement of the conditions in companies
• Paulo Freire (1921-1997) and the improvement of the educational system in Brazil
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Action research
• seeks improvements in a concrete context; tries to solve concrete problems
• Researcher is part of the system• but systematic (!)• cyclic
– Lewin (1946): „a spiral of steps each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action.“
(Hinchey, 2008)
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Action research
plan
act
evaluate / reflect
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Action research
Pose a question
formulate a research plan
Why?
What?
How will I collect data?
How will I analyze data?
When?
Who will help?
…
Collect and analyze data
develop and realize action plan
document (and share)
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Action research
Pose a question
formulate a research plan
Collect and analyze data
develop and realize action plan
document (and share)
literature
theory
experiences
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Action research
Pose a question
formulate a research plan
Collect and analyze data
develop and realize action plan
document (and share)
documents
artefacts
Learning diaries
observations
interview results
questionnaires
audio, video data
…
22
Typical action research projects
• 30 Laptops in a class new tasks? new forms of assessment?
• In Germany: co-education of first and second graders
23
Further aspects
• creation of „research communites“ sharing results and experiences research!– „quality management“
• with or without „critical friend“?• Basic research is important, but research
must also go „into the world“– Lewin (1946): „Research that produces nothing
but books will not suffice.“
• many different approaches of „action research“
24
experiment action research
25
Experiment:systematic, controlled
revelation of cause-and-effect-
relationships.
-Help on concrete problems?
-Evaluation of longer-lasting
processes?
26
Action research vs. experimental research?
• Goal: improving the system bei acting
• complexity is accepted
• Takes the concrete situation into account
• Criticism: subjective
• Goal: analyzing the system by observing
• Complexity is reduced
• tries to generalize
• objective (really?)
Action research Experimental research
27
Action research vs. experimental research?
• cyclic• natural context• „in the world“• Model for others• „more“ qualitative• „seeking
understanding“• „teacher
research“
• linear• Artificial situation• „in the laboratory“• replicable• „more“ quantitative• „seeking truth“
• „research on teaching“
Action research Experimental research
28
What do you think?
• Perhaps both approaches are relevant to different situations?
• What about using experiments as method in the context of action research?
• Is action research science?• Is your research proposal more experimental
or more of the action research type? Is it something completely different?
29
Research questions and methods
• Does x have an effect on y?• Does x lead to more y?• Which influence does x have on y?• Are x and y correlated?• What do students think when…?• What do students communicate
when…?• How can problem x be solved?• How can situation x be improved?• …
experiment
actionresearch
study w.correlations
qualitativestudies
30
Your task!
• Sharpen your research question• Which method / methods are adequate?• Which variables should me measured?• How to measure the variables?• Where and when should the study be
conducted?• Who are the subjects?• …
Make chart / diagram!