Evolution lectures1&2 September 2013

SBC174/SBS110: Evolution (& Ecology)

Taking notes...

Being a student...

Course Outlineand Timetable

http://qmplus.qmul.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=3972

Yannick Wurm

Andrea Hatlen

Dave Hone

http://qmplus.qmul.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=3972Semester A: Evolution

Week 1: YW – Introduction, Historical context, Neo Darwinism

Semester A: Evolution

Week 1: YW – Introduction, Historical context, Neo DarwinismWeek 2: YW – Geological Aspects, Drivers of Evolution, Levels of Evolution

Week 1: YW – Introduction, Historical context, Neo DarwinismWeek 2: YW – Geological Aspects, Drivers of Evolution, Levels of EvolutionWeek 3: YW – Fossils, DNA and Molecules

Week 1: YW – Introduction, Historical context, Neo DarwinismWeek 2: YW – Geological Aspects, Drivers of Evolution, Levels of EvolutionWeek 3: YW – Fossils, DNA and MoleculesWeek 4: YW – Human Evolution

Week 1: YW – Introduction, Historical context, Neo DarwinismWeek 2: YW – Geological Aspects, Drivers of Evolution, Levels of EvolutionWeek 3: YW – Fossils, DNA and MoleculesWeek 4: YW – Human Evolution Week 5: DH – Evolution of Sex, Sexual Selection

Week 1: YW – Introduction, Historical context, Neo DarwinismWeek 2: YW – Geological Aspects, Drivers of Evolution, Levels of EvolutionWeek 3: YW – Fossils, DNA and MoleculesWeek 4: YW – Human Evolution Week 5: DH – Evolution of Sex, Sexual SelectionWeek 6: AH – Genetic Basis of Evolution

Week 1: YW – Introduction, Historical context, Neo DarwinismWeek 2: YW – Geological Aspects, Drivers of Evolution, Levels of EvolutionWeek 3: YW – Fossils, DNA and MoleculesWeek 4: YW – Human Evolution Week 5: DH – Evolution of Sex, Sexual SelectionWeek 6: AH – Genetic Basis of Evolution Week 7: Mid semester break, no lectures.

Week 1: YW – Introduction, Historical context, Neo DarwinismWeek 2: YW – Geological Aspects, Drivers of Evolution, Levels of EvolutionWeek 3: YW – Fossils, DNA and MoleculesWeek 4: YW – Human Evolution Week 5: DH – Evolution of Sex, Sexual SelectionWeek 6: AH – Genetic Basis of Evolution Week 7: Mid semester break, no lectures.Week 8: AH – Founder Effects, Genetic Drift

Week 1: YW – Introduction, Historical context, Neo DarwinismWeek 2: YW – Geological Aspects, Drivers of Evolution, Levels of EvolutionWeek 3: YW – Fossils, DNA and MoleculesWeek 4: YW – Human Evolution Week 5: DH – Evolution of Sex, Sexual SelectionWeek 6: AH – Genetic Basis of Evolution Week 7: Mid semester break, no lectures.Week 8: AH – Founder Effects, Genetic Drift + Computer Practical (tues or thurs afternoon)

Week 1: YW – Introduction, Historical context, Neo DarwinismWeek 2: YW – Geological Aspects, Drivers of Evolution, Levels of EvolutionWeek 3: YW – Fossils, DNA and MoleculesWeek 4: YW – Human Evolution Week 5: DH – Evolution of Sex, Sexual SelectionWeek 6: AH – Genetic Basis of Evolution Week 7: Mid semester break, no lectures.Week 8: AH – Founder Effects, Genetic Drift + Computer Practical (tues or thurs afternoon) Week 9: AH – Mutation, Selection and Gene Selection

In Jean Smith’s Timetable; not yet on “SMART”

Week 1: YW – Introduction, Historical context, Neo DarwinismWeek 2: YW – Geological Aspects, Drivers of Evolution, Levels of EvolutionWeek 3: YW – Fossils, DNA and MoleculesWeek 4: YW – Human Evolution Week 5: DH – Evolution of Sex, Sexual SelectionWeek 6: AH – Genetic Basis of Evolution Week 7: Mid semester break, no lectures.Week 8: AH – Founder Effects, Genetic Drift + Computer Practical (tues or thurs afternoon) Week 9: AH – Mutation, Selection and Gene SelectionWeek 10: DH – Systematics, Speciation

Week 1: YW – Introduction, Historical context, Neo DarwinismWeek 2: YW – Geological Aspects, Drivers of Evolution, Levels of EvolutionWeek 3: YW – Fossils, DNA and MoleculesWeek 4: YW – Human Evolution Week 5: DH – Evolution of Sex, Sexual SelectionWeek 6: AH – Genetic Basis of Evolution Week 7: Mid semester break, no lectures.Week 8: AH – Founder Effects, Genetic Drift + Computer Practical (tues or thurs afternoon) Week 9: AH – Mutation, Selection and Gene SelectionWeek 10: DH – Systematics, SpeciationWeek 11: DH – Evolution of Parasites, Antibiotics

Week 1: YW – Introduction, Historical context, Neo DarwinismWeek 2: YW – Geological Aspects, Drivers of Evolution, Levels of EvolutionWeek 3: YW – Fossils, DNA and MoleculesWeek 4: YW – Human Evolution Week 5: DH – Evolution of Sex, Sexual SelectionWeek 6: AH – Genetic Basis of Evolution Week 7: Mid semester break, no lectures.Week 8: AH – Founder Effects, Genetic Drift + Computer Practical (tues or thurs afternoon) Week 9: AH – Mutation, Selection and Gene SelectionWeek 10: DH – Systematics, SpeciationWeek 11: DH – Evolution of Parasites, AntibioticsWeek 12: DH – Convergence, Revision Session

Final Grade:

20% WorkshopFinal Grade:

80% Exam

Semester B: Ecology

All lectures by David Hone Week 1: Introduction, Ecosystem servicesWeek 2: Extinctions, Plants (global view)Week 3: Invertebrate Ecology, Invertebrate InvadersWeek 4: Microbes, Techniques for Analysing MicrobesWeek 5: Plankton, Techniques for Analysing PlanktonWeek 6: Ecological Systems, Productivity,Week 7: Mid semester break – no lectures.Week 8: Salt Marsh Pollution, UK HabitatsWeek 9: Woodlands, Global WarmingWeek 10: Pollinator networks, SurveysWeek 11: Ecological Solutions, QMUL researchWeek 12: Revision session

+ Workshop + Fieldcourse

Final Grade:

Semester B: Ecology

All lectures by David Hone Week 1: Introduction, Ecosystem servicesWeek 2: Extinctions, Plants (global view)Week 3: Invertebrate Ecology, Invertebrate InvadersWeek 4: Microbes, Techniques for Analysing MicrobesWeek 5: Plankton, Techniques for Analysing PlanktonWeek 6: Ecological Systems, Productivity,Week 7: Mid semester break – no lectures.Week 8: Salt Marsh Pollution, UK HabitatsWeek 9: Woodlands, Global WarmingWeek 10: Pollinator networks, SurveysWeek 11: Ecological Solutions, QMUL researchWeek 12: Revision session

+ Workshop + Fieldcourse

Final Grade: 80% Exam; 5% Workshop; 15% Fieldcourse

383735

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12-1: Drapers Lecture Theater

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9-10: Great Hall, People’s Palace

SBC174/SBS110: Evolution (& Ecology)

“Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution”

Theodosius Dobzhansky 1973

Recommended Reading

Paperback 352 pages (2010)Publisher : Profile Books

Amazon price: £5.89

Paperback 596 pages (11 Aug 2005)

Publisher : Oxford University PressAmazon price: £26.99

+Lots of stuff on youtube.

Lecture 1: Introduction and some historical perspectives

Early ideasTwo camps: Fixity of species or change?

350 B.C. Aristotle:individuals in a “Species” are identical and unchanging

1749 Buffon Histoire Naturelle encyclopedia: The earth is very old. Species change.

1785 Hutton. Geologist: Uniformitarianism: Changes in nature are gradual.

1798 Cuvier : Fossils show extinct species (due to catastrophe). Species don’t change.

3 Schools of evolutionary thought

1. Linnaeus:1700s

2. Lamarck: 1744—1829

3. Darwin & Wallace: 1800s

Carolus Linnaeus (1707—1778)

• Swedish

• 180 books classified nature: “revealing the order of life created by God.”: “God created, Linnaeus arranged”

• Devised the binomial naming system: Genus species

• Thought that species do not change.

3 Schools of evolutionary thought• Linneaus: each species was

separately created.

J-B. de Lamarck (1744—1829)

• Worked most of his life at the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle (Paris)

• He promoted the idea that species change.

1. Linnaeus:1700s

2. Lamarck: 1744-1829

3 Schools of evolutionary thought• Linneaus: each species was

separately created.

• Lamarck: characteristics acquired by an individual are passed on to offspring.

• Linneaus: each species was separately created.

Giraffe necks• Lamarck: stretching giraffes

lengthened their necks to reach tree-top vegetation. This acquired characteristic is passed to offspring.

• Darwin & Wallace: giraffes with long necks out-compete those with short necks.

1. Linnaeus:1700s

2. Lamarck: 1744—1829

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)

Published on “principle of population”:Human populations increase faster (geometrically=exponentially) than food production (increases arithmetically = linearly)

Charles Lyell (1797-1875)Geologist, strong proponent of uniformitarianism (slow gradual change)

Charles Lyell (1797-1875)

Uniformitarianism. 4 ideas:

Geologist, strong proponent of uniformitarianism (slow gradual change)

Uniformitarianism. 4 ideas: • Accepted by all scientists:

1. Natural laws are constant across space and time

1. Natural laws are constant across space and time2. Principle of parsimony: try to explain the past by

causes now in operation without inventing extra, fancy, or unknown causes, however plausible in logic, if available processes suffice.

• Debatable:

• Debatable:3. Change is slow, steady, and gradual.

• Debatable:3. Change is slow, steady, and gradual.4. Change is evenly distributed throughout space and time.

Darwin & the Voyage of the Beagle

1831-1836

Galápagos finches

• Analysis -> finches derived from one ancestral species arriving from the mainland to populate and diversify across the islands (adaptive radiation).

1° 30'

0° 30'

1° 30'

92° 91° 30' 91° 90° 30' 90° 89° 30' 89°

San Salvador(Santiago / James)

Santa Cruz(Indefatigable)

Santa Fé(Barrington)

Marchena(Bindloe)

Genovesa(Tower)

Pinta(Abington)

Fernandina(Marlborough)

Isabela(Albemarle)

San Cristóbal(Chatham)

Floreana(Santa María / Charles)

Española(Hood)

Rábida(Jervis)

Pinzón(Duncan)

Tortuga(Brattle)

Baltra (South Seymour)

Darwin(Culpepper)

Wolf(Wenman)

Bartolomé

Seymour Norte(North Seymour)

Plaza Sur

Cuatro Hermanos(Crossman)

Galápagos Islands

Gardner

Mosquera

Daphne Mayor

Caamaño

Gardner

Redonda

Albany

Sombrero Chino

León-Dormido-Felsen(Kicker Rock)

EnderbyCampión (Champion)

Caldwell

Bainbridge

Bahia Gardner(Gardner Bay)

Bahia Post Office(Post Office Bay)

Bahia Darwin(Darwin Bay)

BahiaUrbina(Urbina

Tagus Cove

Bahia Tortuga(Tortuga Bay)

Bahia James(James Bay) Bahia Sullivan

Bahia Ballena (Ballena Bay)Bahia Isabel(Elizabeth Bay)

Canal Bolívar

Canal Isabela

BahiaCártago

Bahia deBancos

(Banks Bay)

Canal de San Salvador

Canal de Pinzón

Canal de Pinta

Canal de Santa CruzBahia d'Esteban

Hancock Bank

McGowen Reef

Canal de Santa Fé

PACIFIC OCEAN

Caleta Iguana

Bahia Villamil

Bahia Rosa Blanca

Bahia deHobbs

Bahia Conway (Conway Bay)

Punta Suárez

Punta Espinosa

Punta Cormorant

El Barranco

Punta Albemarle

Punta Vicente Roca

PuntaGarcia

Punta Pitt

Punta Moreno

Punta Tortuga

Cabo Marshall

Punta Cristóbal

Cabo Rosa

Cabo Woodford

Punta Valdizán

Cabo Berkeley

Cabo Douglas

Cabo Chalmers

Punta Cevallos

Cabo Hammond

Punta Mangle

Punta Sur

Punta Veintimilla

Punta Sur

Punta Rocafuerte

PuntaNuñez

Punta MejíaPunta Montalvo

PuntaEspejo

Punta Calle

Cabo Ibbetson

PuntaBaquerizo

Punta Ayora

Punta Wreck

Punta Carrión

CaboNepean

Cabo Barrington

PuntaAlfaro

Punta Flores

Puerto

Baquerizo

Moreno

Puerto Velasco Ibarra

PuertoIsidroAyora

Puerto Villamil

La Cumbre1 476 m

Cerro Pajas640 m

Wolf1 707 m

Alcedo1 130 m

Cerro Azul1 640 m

Darwin1 330 m

Ecuador>790 m

Sierra Negra1 124 m

Cerro San Joaquin730 m

Cerro Tijeretas

Cerro Crocker864 m

Cerro Dragón

Cerro Pelado907 m

Cerro Alieri

Cerro Brujo

Los Gemelos

IstmoPerry

Azufre

Equator

1,707 m1,500 m1,250 m1,000 m

750 m500 m250 m100 m50 m

0-200 m-500 m-750 m

-1,000 m-1,500 m-2,000 m-2,500 m-3,000 m-3,500 m-3,650 m

0 300(mi)

0 500(km)

90° 85° 80° 75°

0° QUITO

COLOMBIA

PANAMA

ECUADOR

PACIFIC

0 100(km)

0 60(mi)Projection: UTM (WGS84 Datum)

IslandAlternate NamePeakProvincial CapitalCantonal CapitalVillageAirport

Isabela(Albermarle)

Darwin1837

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

• Darwin at about 30 years old, and three years back from his voyage aboard HMS Beagle (1831-1836)

• The Origin of Species was published several decades later in 1859 (prompted by competition from Alfred Russel Wallace).

Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

• Wallace in his thirties. (National Portrait Gallery, London.)

• In 1858 he came up with similar ideas to Darwin about the mechanism of evolutionary change

Read at the Linnean Society

Evolution by natural selection

Under optimal conditions, populations indefinitely increase in size.

Because they do not: * either not all animals reach maturity * and/or some animals breed less

Individuals within a population differ (natural variation)

Individuals within a population differ (natural variation)These differences (traits) may affect survival/reproduction

Individuals within a population differ (natural variation)These differences (traits) may affect survival/reproductionTraits are heritable: passed on from parents to offspring

Advantageous traits lead to increased survival of certain lineages

• Darwin & Wallace: viewed evolution as descent with modification.

• Darwin & Wallace: giraffes with long necks have more offspring than those with short necks.

Actually: sexual selection??

(1859) "The Origin of Species"

A scheme or system of ideas or statements held as an explanation or account of a group of facts or phenomena; a hypothesis that has been confirmed or established by observation and experiment, and is propounded or accepted as accounting for the known facts.

theory |ˈTHēərē, ˈTHi(ə)rē|noun ( pl. theories )

Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection

(Oxford English Dictionary)

Darwin's Theory of Evolution (1859)"The Origin of Species"

• There is inherited variation within species.

• There is competition for survival within species.

• Natural selection is the process whereby genetically inherited characteristics become more or less common in a population as a function of the differential reproductive success of the bearers of these characteristics.

•This process occurring independently on two populations of a single species leads to the accumulation of differences between the populations - and ultimately to speciation.

• But environmental conditions change: What was advantageous yesterday may be a disadvantage today.

• And evolution also occurs by: • genetic drift• sexual selection• artificial selection (selective breeding)

Natural selection leads to adaptive change

Summary of Lecture 1

Ideas on how the diversity of life was/is produced date back to the ancient Greeks

These ideas developed considerably in the 1800s, culminating in the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

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Longnor Road

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Mile End RoadStepney Green Tube Station Mile End Tube Station

Nuevo Burial Ground

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Gr ant ley S tr eet

Ban cro ft R

Po r telet Road

Mile End P lace

Ba n cro ft R

Har fo

West field

Re gent’s C

ArtsOne 37ArtsTwo 35Arts Research Centre 39The Bancroft Building 31Bancroft Road Teaching Rooms 10Computer Science 6Engineering Building 15Fogg Building 13G.O. Jones Building 25Geography 26IRC 14Informatics Teaching Laboratories 5Joseph Priestley Building 41Library 32Law 36Lock-keeper’s Graduate Centre 42Mathematical Sciences 4Occupational Health and Safety Directorate 12The People’s Palace/Great Hall 16Queens’ Building 19Temporary Building 61

Mile End Campus Map Index

Educational/Research

Albert Stern Cottages 3

Albert Stern House 1

Beaumont Court 53

Chapman House 43

Chesney House 45

Creed Court 57

France House 55

Feilden House 46

Hatton House 40

Ifor Evans Place 2

Lindop House 21

Lodge House 50

Lynden House 59

Maurice Court 58

Maynard House 44

Pooley House 60

Selincourt House 51

Varey House 49

Residential Facilities

Advice and Counselling Service 27Blomeley Centre 48Bookshop 22Careers Centre 19Clock Tower 20CopyShop 56The Curve 47Drapers’ Bar and Kitchen 8Drunken Monkey 63Ground Café 33The Hive 24Infusion 9IT Services 19London Chamber Orchestra 64Mucci’s 29Occupational Health Service/ Student Health Service 28Octagon 19aPolice Box 38Post Room 17QMotion Fitness CentreSports Hall 7Residences Reception 54Santander Bank 62Security 18St Benet’s Chaplaincy 23Student Centre/Hub 34Village Shop 52Westfield Nursery 11

Information

Visitors who require furtherinformation or assistance please go to the Main Reception in theQueens’ Building.

Please do not smoke on thecampus.

These premises are alarmed andmonitored by CCTV, please callSecurity on 020 7882 5000 formore information.

Library/bookshop

Fitness centre

Coffee place

Eatery

Staff car park

Bicycle parking

Bicycle lockers

Cash machine

12-1: Drapers Lecture Theater

Geography Building

9-10: Great Hall, People’s Palace

Lecture 2

Darwin’s evidence for evolution

“Neo-Darwinism” or “The Modern Synthesis”

1. The Fossil Record

2. Comparative Anatomy

3. Comparative Embryology

3. Comparative Embryology4. Vestigial Structures

5. Domestication (artificial selection)

1. The Fossil Record: Paleontology

Random order Reality: there is

sequential order to the fossil record

Lecture 5

1. The Fossil Record: Paleontology

Random order Reality: there is

sequential order to the fossil record

Lecture 5

2. Comparative Anatomy3. Comparative Embryology4. Vestigial Structures

2. Comparative anatomy

• Correspondence between parts and comparison of forelimbs among four vertebrates.

Diversity of type, unity of pattern

• Although these vertebrate species differ, the underlying pattern of the forelimb is fundamentally the same.

Homology and analogy

• Homology - vertebrate forearms: the bat wing, mouse forearm, and human arm are homologous structures as all are composed of similar bones inherited from a recent common ancestor.

Homology and analogy

• Analogy: The wings of bats, butterflies, and birds evolved independently, not from a recent common ancestor. But they have a similar function, flight, and so are analogous.

(here: convergent evolution)

Morphological series - evolution of limbs from fins

• Note homology of structures

• Embryonic retention of ancestral characteristics in vertebrates (e.g. gills and tails)

4. Vestigial Structures5. Domestication (artificial selection)

4. Vestigial features I • Whales: hips and hind limbs are reduced to small bones with no function.

• In primitive snakes, the remnants of hind limbs persist (forelimbs are absent).

Vestigial features II

• The human appendix is a vestigial structure, reduced from the caecum of primate ancestors.

Vestigial features II

• The human appendix is a vestigial structure, reduced from the caecum of primate ancestors.

• Others: muscles to move ears, “goose bumps”

Von Holdt et al. (2010) Nature 464, 898-903

Patterns and processes in evolutionary thought

Process

Inferenceabout

evolutionaryprocess

Inferenceabout

effect ontaxonomic

pattern

Pattern

Lecture 2

“Neo-Darwinism” or “The Modern Synthesis”

“Neo-Darwinism”or

“The Modern Synthesis”

“The Modern Synthesis”The same thing... but with better

understanding of how things work.

• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection• Mendel’s Laws of Heredity (1866, 1900; see SBS 008)

• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection• Mendel’s Laws of Heredity (1866, 1900; see SBS 008)• Cytogenetics (1902, 1904 - )

• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection• Mendel’s Laws of Heredity (1866, 1900; see SBS 008)• Cytogenetics (1902, 1904 - )• Population Genetics (1908; see later lectures)

• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection• Mendel’s Laws of Heredity (1866, 1900; see SBS 008)• Cytogenetics (1902, 1904 - )• Population Genetics (1908; see later lectures) • Molecular genetics (1970s- ; see SBS 633/210 and later lectures)

Gregor Mendel (1822-1984)

Worked out the basic laws of inheritance:Segregation and independent assortment

J.B.S. Haldane (1892-1964)

With Fisher and Wright, one of the founders of population genetics.

“The Causes of Evolution” (1932): first major contribution to what became the “modern evolutionary synthesis".

R.A. Fisher (1890-1962)

Invented Analysis of Variance and other stats!

Worked on the theory of population genetics

Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900-1975)

“Nothing in Biology makes sense except in the light of

evolution”.

Theodosius Dobzhansky's Genetics and the Origin of Species, published in 1937.

Ernst Mayr (1904-2005)

Worked on speciation and the definition of species.

William D. Hamilton (1936 - 2000)

Explained how natural selection acts on social behaviour (“kin selection”)

Explained weird sex ratios

relatedness * benefit > cost

John Maynard-Smith (1920-2004)

Most widely known for applying game theory

to evolutionary biology

• Dawkins summarized & popularized the kin selection arguments of W. D. Hamilton, George R. Price and John Maynard Smith

Summary/overview of Lecture 2

EVOLUTION(“descent with modification”)

Pattern Process

• Fossil record• Dating methods

• Molecular evolution• Molecular clocks

• Mechanisms• Environmental drivers

•climate•cont. drift•extinctions etc

The Modern Synthesis

What next?• Epigenetics

• Cultural transmission

• Niche construction

“Extended Evolutionary Synthesis” ?

• Evodevo

• Comparative genomics

• Systems Biology

“Postmodern Synthesis” ?

Pastafarianism - Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster

Early ideas

Fixity of species or change?

FIGURE 12.5 Macroevolution and Microevolution

• The overall pattern of tetrapod evolution (macroevolution) can be examined in closer detail. The cross section in time through Sauropod evolution reveals the multiple species lineages of which it is composed. At the bottom, one lineage is enlarged, showing the populations comprising the species (microevolution).

FactCourse

Mechanism

Evolutionary process

• Some further thoughts:

• Evolution of higher taxa - is it different from speciation within taxa?

• e.g. natural selection, chance, species selection?

• How is morphological integration maintained (functional continuity)?

• e.g. correlated progression, developmental feedback

Major drivers of evolution

Vulcanism

Continental movement

Bolide impact

Climate change?

Consequences: Large scale migrations Speciation

Mass extinctions Adaptive radiations

Different Functions but Similar Underlying Forelimb Anatomy

• Forelimbs of bat, mole, and dugong. Each limb performs a different function: flight, digging, and swimming. All are superficially different, but all three share a common, underlying anatomical plan.

Diversity of Type, Unity of Pattern

• (a) Similarities. Parts may be similar in ancestry, function, and/or appearance. Respectively, these are defined as homology, analogy, or homoplasy. (b) Although the vertebrate species differ, the underlying pattern of the forelimb is fundamentally the same.

FIGURE 6.5 Morphological Series

• From four-toed to single-toed modern horses, this morphological series illustrates the correspondence between parts (feet, teeth, skull) and their modifications. Here, the stratigraphic position of these species is added.

Evolution of horses

• Evolution of horses

Morphological series—evolution of jaws

• Vertebrate jaws evolved from the front set of gill arches of jawless ancestors.

FIGURE 6.8 Convergence of Design

• Groups of animals often adapt to habitats that differ from those of most other members of their group. Most birds fly, but some, such as ostriches, cannot, and live exclusively on land; others, such as penguins, live much of their lives in water. Most mammals are terrestrial, but some fly (bats) and others live exclusively in water (whales, dolphins). “Flying” fishes take to the air. As species from different groups enter similar habitats, they experience similar biological demands. Convergence to similar habitats, in part, accounts for the sleek bodies and fins or flippers of tuna and dolphins, because similar functions (analogy) are served by similar parts under similar conditions. Yet tuna and dolphins come from different ancestries and

Paperback 400 pages (April 1, 2004)

Publisher : McGraw-Hill Education (ISE Editions)

ISBN: 0071216162Amazon Price: £32.99

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