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APPENDIX - VII
REPORT ON TRANSPORTATION
THROUGH HYDROGEN FUELLED
VEHICLES IN INDIA
Prepared by
Sub-Committee on Transportation through Hydrogen
Fuelled Vehicles of the Steering Committee on
Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cells
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy,
Government of India, New Delhi
June, 2016
PREFACE
In the present scenario, transportation sector is the lifeline of any
economy but it is a major contributor to air pollution and greenhouse gas
effect, causing health hazardous to living beings and increases earth’s
atmospheric temperature (which result melting of glaciers and rise of water
level in seas / ocean) respectively. The reserves of conventional sources of
energy like coal and petroleum will rapidly be depleted due to continuous
increasing energy demand. The transportation sector can alternatively be
managed with hydrogen as fuel, which emits only water vapours and
conventional sources of energy may be utilized for non-energy purpose.
The hydrogen fueled vehicles based on internal combustion and fuel
cell based technology (known as Zero Emission Vehicles) have been
developed decades ago and are under demonstration in many countries.
However, the industry experienced ups and downs in the interest of these
vehicles due to various international reasons. In view of the climate change, it
is becoming compulsive to promote carbon based to carbon neutral
technologies.
India is also concerned about its contribution to climate change and
therefore has been giving significant impetus to generation & usage of new
and renewable energy e.g. solar and wind. Hydrogen energy has also been a
focus of attention for quite some time. Unfortunately, required emphasis could
not be given primarily due to resource crunch and therefore the progress is
lagging far behind in the global race. Under this premises, the Ministry of New
and Renewable Energy, Government of India constituted a high power
Steering Committee to prepare a status report and way forward for hydrogen
energy and fuel cell technology in this country. One of the five sub-
committees was entrusted under my chairmanship with the responsibility of
preparing this particular document concerning Transportation through
Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles in India.
I am indebted to the members of the Sub-Committee, Special Invitees
for their contribution, Dr. M. R. Nouni, Scientist ‘G’, Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy, the officials of the Project Management Unit – Hydrogen
Energy and Fuel Cells at the Ministry, Dr. Jugal Kishor and Dr. S. K. Sharma
in particular for their active role in organizing the meetings and for
coordination amongst different sub-committees. I also extend my compliments
to Mr. Alok Sharma and Mr. Sachin Chugh from Indian Oil R&D Centre for
assisting the committee in preparing this document.
….June, 2016
(Dr. R. K. Malhotra),
Chairman,
Sub-Committee on Transportation through
Hydrogen fuelled Vehicles
CONTENTS
S. No.
Subject
Page No.
I Composition of Sub-Committee on Transportation through Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles
i
II
Terms of Reference iii
III
Meetings of Sub-Committees on Transportation through Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles
iv
1 Executive Summary 1
2 Introduction
19
3
Hydrogen fuelled Internal Combustion Engines 29
4
Hydrogen fuelled Vehicles based on Fuel Cell Technology 101
5
Testing, Standards, Codes and Regulations for Hydrogen Vehicles
127
6 Gap Identification & Analysis
147
7 Action Plan and Financial Projections Time Schedule
153
8 Institutions involved in the development of the products / processes and infrastructure to be created
173
9
Conclusion and Recommendations 181
10
Bibliography
197
i
I. Composition of Sub-Committee for Transportation through
Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles
1. Dr. R. K. Malhotra, Director, IOCL R&D, Faridabad, Harayana (Retired on
30.06.2014) and currently, Director General, Petroleum Federation of India,
New Delhi – Chairman
2. Ms. Varsha Joshi, Joint Secretary / Shri A. K. Dhussa, Adviser (December,
2013 to March, 2015) / Dr. Bibek Bandyopadhyay, Adviser (upto December,
2013), MNRE
3. Shri K. K. Gandhi, Society of Indian Automotive Manufacturers (SIAM), New
Delhi
4. Dr. R K Malhotra, Director IOCL R&D, Faridabad also as Representative of
Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, New Delhi
5. Dr. S. Aravamuthan, Sci. Engr. ‘H’ & Deputy Director, Vikram Sarabhai
Space Centre (Indian Space Research Organization), Thiruvanthapuram
6. Dr. S. S. Thipse, Deputy Director, Automotive Research Association of India
(ARAI), Pune
7. Dr. Mathew Abraham, Senior General Manager, Alternative Fuel Technology
Mahindra & Mahindra, Chennai
8. Dr. Raja Munusamy, Assistant General Manager, Engineering Research
Centre, Tata Motors Ltd., Mumbai
9. Prof. A. Ramesh, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai
10. Shri D. K. Gupta / Shri P. C. Srivastava (Retired on 30.06.2015), Joint Chief
Controller of Explosives Petroleum Explosives & Safety Organization
(PESO), Nagpur
11. Dr. R.S. Hastak, Outstanding Scientist and Director, Naval Materials
Research Laboratory (Defence Research & Development Organization),
Ambarnath, Maharastra
12. Shri Sanjay Bandyopadhyay, National Automotive Testing and R&D
Infrastructure Project (NATRIP), New Delhi / Shri Neeraj Kumar, Deputy
Secretary, Ministry of Heavy Industries & Public Enterprises, (Repatriated to
ii
Parent Department in January, 2015) / Shri Nitin R. Gokarn, NATRIP, New
Delhi (Repatriated in June, 2014 to Parent Cadre)
13. Shri PPG Sarma, Chief Executive Officer, GSPC Gas Company Limited,
Gandhinagar
14. Dr. Hari Om Yadav, Scientist, Department of Scientific & Industrial Research,
New Delhi
15. Representatives of Toyota Kirloskar Motor Pvt. Ltd. and Ashok Leyland
Special Invitees
16. Prof. L. M. Das, (Retired on 30.06.2014) and currently Emeritus Professor,
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi
17. Dr. K. S. Dhathathreyan, Head, Centre for Fuel Cell Technology, Chennai
(Retired on 31.01.2016)
18. Shri N. K. Sharma, Scientist ‘F’, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi
19. Dr Bala Raghupathy, Renault – Nissan India
20. Mr. Ravi Subramaniam / Mr. Piyush Katakwar Air Products, Pune
iii
II. Terms of Reference
1. To assess national and international technological status in the area of
internal combustion engine and fuel cell based transport applications.
2. To specify the technologies to be developed within the country for niche
transport applications and strategy to be adopted for the same.
3. To identify gaps and suggest strategy to fill-up the gaps and quickly develop
in-house technologies with involvement of industries or acquiring technologies
from abroad.
4. To suggest demonstration projects to be taken up with industry and
infrastructure development required to be created for such projects.
5. To identify different stakeholders for implementation of such projects.
6. To examine regulatory issues related to transport sector such as notifying
hydrogen / hydrogen blended fuel as automotive fuels, on-board storage of
such fuels, use of composite cylinders for storage of fuels as per international
practices, type approval of vehicles using such fuels, setting-up of refueling
stations of such fuels etc.
7. To identify institutes to be supported for augmenting infrastructure for
development and testing of hydrogen / hydrogen blends fuelled vehicles
including setting-up of Centre(s) of Excellence and suggest specific support to
be provided.
8. To suggest strategy for undertaking collaborative projects among leading
Indian academic institutions, research organizations and industry in the area
of hydrogen fuelled vehicles.
9. To re-visit National Hydrogen Energy Road Map with reference to transport
sector.
Note: In the 5th meeting of the Steering Committee on Hydrogen Energy and
Fuel Cells held on 11.08.2015 in the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, it
was decided that in order to fill the gap between international and national state
of art technologies, the projects may be identified in three categories viz. Mission
iv
Mode, Research and Development and Basic / Fundamental Research instead of
re-visiting of National Hydrogen Energy Road Map.
III. Details of the Meetings of Sub-Committee on Transportation
through Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles
The Sub-Committee on Transportation through Hydrogen fuelled Vehicles
met first time on 26.08.2013 to have presentations by expert members / special
invitees and discussions. Since all the members could not make it to attend this
meeting, second meeting was organized on 13.09.2013 to have remaining
presentations and discussions. The report was drafted based on the input
received from the members / special invitees of the Sub-Committee and
presented before the Steering Committee on Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cells in
its 3rd meeting held on 26.03.2015. The Steering Committee made some
suggestions. To incorporate these suggestions in the draft report, Sub-
Committee on Transportation (through Hydrogen fuelled Vehicles) met on
24.09.2014. The Steering Committee further requested the Chairpersons of all
the five Sub-Committees to meet and discuss uniformity of the reports and
alignment of outcome of the reports. Accordingly, the report was again modified
based on the suggestions given / decisions taken in the meetings of the
Chairpersons of the Sub-Committees held on 11.09.2015, 16.12.2015 and
18.01.2016.
1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
2
3
1.0 Executive Summary
1.1 Emerging Electric-mobility Options
In the quest to move away from an ever-depleting reserve of fossil fuels,
efforts are required to investigate alternative solutions for achieving sustainable
growth. The transport sector is the lifeline of any economy. The global mobility
sector is heavily skewed towards the energy produced from fossil sources.
Although, the facts, figures and projected estimates related to the petroleum
reserves have a wide degree of variability, but the conclusion drawn by all
studies/research is more or less similar, i.e. ‘the fossil sources are finite and
green & clean alternatives are required to be developed urgently’. While the
Energy companies are realigning their strategies to supply green and clean fuels
by overhauling the existing production & supply chain, the automotive
manufacturers are in process of transiting towards “Electric-mobility”. The
transition from a mechanical drive train system to electric drive train is driving the
development of hydrogen based fuel cell technology.
This upcoming hydrogen application sector using fuel cells as the principle
energy converter has given a new dimension to the entire hydrogen value chain.
The hydrogen production / consumption pattern or the demand / supply cycle for
all applications other than automobiles and power generation had never
witnessed any comparison with the fossil fuel based value chain because of their
divergence and indirect linkage. However, with the gamut of opportunities
emerging due to an economic viability of hydrogen based fuel cell systems for
transport applications, the direct comparison of hydrogen value chain with the
fossil fuel based energy system is inevitable.
1.2 Fuel Cell Vehicles
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (FCV) technologies have been in the history
books for long. However, the industry experienced a surge of interest in the early
2000s due to their potential to provide significant reductions in greenhouse gas
4
and criteria air pollution, quick acceleration, fast refill, long range and ability to
use a fuel (hydrogen) derived from diverse domestic energy resources. However,
public interest waned by the late 2000s as FCVs did not materialize in the
showrooms and plug-in battery vehicles began entering the commercial market.
The perception of some stakeholders was that hydrogen was too difficult, and
would not appear for several decades, if at all. However, in the past few years
important factors have emerged that are re-accelerating the commercialization of
hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. These include sustained automaker
development of FCVs resulting in lower component and vehicle costs and better
performance and durability, sophisticated new infrastructure strategies, the rise
of public private partnerships for FCV rollout, increase in public support, low-cost
natural gas, Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) and carbon policies and interest in
hydrogen for storing renewable electricity.
The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel cells have been
considered for the deployment in transportation. Low Temperature Polymer
Electrolyte Membrane (LT-PEM) fuel cells (LT- PEMFC) operate at around 800C.
These can easily be started-up and stopped and respond well to dynamic loads.
LT-PEM fuel cells technology is currently leading technology for deployment in
the light duty vehicles like 2-, 3- & 4- wheelers, small boats, heavy duty vehicles
like buses, trucks, trains, trams, ferries and materials handling vehicles like
forklift trucks. Presently, the fuel cell buses, which are under development in the
country, have imported LT-PEMFC stacks. The cost of the fuel cell system is
presently dominated by the stack cost. The other major cost component is the
Balance of System (BoS), which in most cases is to be imported and needs to
develop indigenously. Large scale demonstration / commercialization of PEMFC
could not be taken up due to high cost. The other issues like durability of the
stack need to be addressed to through further R&D. Infrastructure for testing
stacks / systems is to be created and local vendors for supply of components /
stacks for indigenous manufacture of fuel cell systems in India are to be
developed. For more details, a report prepared by a Sub-Committee on “Fuel
Cell Development” may be referred.
5
1.3 Hydrogen in Internal Combustion Engines
Hydrogen can be used in different configurations of Internal Combustion
(IC) engine such as spark ignition (SI) engine, compression ignition (CI) engine /
dual fuel engine, CNG dual fuel engine and HCCI engine. High power outputs
and low NOx emissions can be achieved by direct injection of hydrogen in SI
engine.
Hydrogen may also be used with biogas or other low grade gaseous fuels
in this mode for the applications in locomotives and in stationary power
generation. Hydrogen can be a good additive in the case of biogas diesel HCCI
operation, as it raises the efficiency and extends the load range. Engine control
units for dual fuel, HCCI and direct hydrogen injection engines with effective
control strategies, in some cases to switch between modes have to be
developed.
There is need to develop after treatment device for NOx reduction (Lean
NOX trap, SCR etc.), which will be helpful in improving power output while engine
operates at a higher equivalence ratio. This is very relevant for heavy duty
engines operating on hydrogen. The application of hydrogen blends with various
fuels like CNG, LPG, Diesel etc. also need to be studied.
1.4 Hydrogen Production Infrastructure
The infrastructure for production and supply of hydrogen for the industrial
use exists in the country, but it is not sufficient to support widespread use of
hydrogen as an energy carrier. Additionally development of hydrogen IC engine /
fuel cell technology for different applications are taking place in the country.
Subsequently developed systems are being taken up for the field demonstration.
There is growing demand of hydrogen for these systems. Earlier it was
envisaged that hydrogen would be available from Chlor-Alkali industries. As per
data available from the Chlor-Alkali Industry Association, availability of hydrogen
6
is decreasing with the growing demand of hydrogen for various other applications
like in downstream units / chemical industries, as fuel, etc. Therefore,
infrastructure for hydrogen production and its supply / delivery to the sites is
required to be developed for smooth development, demonstration and
commercialization of hydrogen vehicles.
Hydrogen as a relatively low volumetric energy density, its transportation,
storage and delivery to the point of use comprise a significant cost. Hydrogen
may be produced in the central, semi-central or distributed mode from different
resources and through different processes depending upon long term cost
economics of the systems including transportation and delivery at the point of
usage. Large central hydrogen production facilities (500-750 TPD) that take
advantage of economies of scale will be needed in the long term to meet the
expected large hydrogen demand. Compared with distributed production,
centralized production will require more capital investment as well as a
substantial hydrogen transport and delivery infrastructure. Intermediate-size
hydrogen production facilities (5–50 TPD) located in close proximity (50–150
kms) to the point of use may play an important role in the transition to a hydrogen
economy and in the long-term use of hydrogen as an energy carrier. For
example, larger, centralized facilities can produce hydrogen at relatively low
costs due to economies of scale, but the delivery costs for centrally produced
hydrogen are higher than the delivery costs for semi-central or distributed
production options (because the point of use is farther away). Three major
modes of delivery of hydrogen are compressed gas trucks, cryogenic liquid
hydrogen trucks and pipelines. For more details on hydrogen production &
storage, the reports prepared by a Sub-Committees on “Hydrogen Production”
& “Hydrogen Storage” may be referred.
1.5 Regulations & Standards
Hydrogen requires safe handling, while being produces, stored,
transported delivered / dispensed, since it is flammable in nature in the range
7
from 4% to 75% vol of hydrogen in air and has very low ignition energy, i.e. about
0.02 mill joules. It is lightest gas with its molecular weight of 2.016 and its density
0.08376 kg/m3 at standard temperature and pressure (about 14 times lighter than
air) and susceptible to leak from the joints or weak points. Leak detection is
crucial to maintain safe handling. Odorizing hydrogen gas (as is done with
natural gas) is particularly challenging, since its molecules diffuse faster than any
known odorant. Suitable odorant technology is required to be developed for
hydrogen based applications. Alternatively, cost-effective sensors for leak
detection would be needed. It has tendency to diffuse in the structures of other
materials and make containers (even made of steel) brittle. Therefore, various
tests are required for the vehicles and their components from time to time for
safe operations. Thus, regulations and standards become key requirements for
commercialization of hydrogen-fuelled vehicles and facilitate manufacturers to
invest in this area. Standards related to the hydrogen purity for fuel cell
applications, pressure regulators, safety valves, Pressure relief valves, solenoid
valves are needed to be prepared and adopted. ISO TC 197 is a Technical
Committee of International Organization for Standards (ISO) that deals with
standards related to Hydrogen (systems and devices for the production, storage,
transport, measurement and use of hydrogen). India is a member of ISO. This
committee has published 16 standards. The Petroleum Explosives Safety
Organization (PESO) is entrusted to ensure safety and security of public and
property from fire and explosion by administering Explosives Act, 1884, 2008,
Gas Cylinder Rules, 2004, Static & Mobile Pressure Vessels (Unfired) Rules,
1981 and other concerned acts. It is the agency to grant permission to deploy
refueling stations and hydrogen storage containers of Type III and Type IV for
fuel cell vehicles and other related equipment for usage of explosive corrosive,
toxic and permanent flammable gases. The committee observed that Indian
specific regulation and standards are needed to ensure safety and also to
facilitate public acceptance by providing a systematic and accurate means of
assessing and communicating the risk associated with the use of hydrogen
vehicles, be it to the general public, consumer, emergency response personnel
or the insurance industry.
8
1.6 Hydrogen Vehicle Testing
Vehicle testing is performed to observe the roadworthiness of the vehicles.
It evaluates hydrogen and HCNG internal combustion engine vehicles in closed-
track and laboratory environments, as well as in field applications. Emission
testing is also conducted as per Euro norms. Testing facilities include vehicle fuel
cylinder testing (including gunfire, environmental chamber, hydrogen cycling,
bonfire and burst testing), sensor testing, virtual testing, and vehicle emission
using chassis dynamometer, engine dynamometer, noise and vibration testing.
1.6.1 Testing of Hydrogen IC Engine based vehicles
Regulation for Type Approval of Hydrogen Vehicles in India is similar to
European regulation EEC 79 / 2009. According to this regulation hydrogen
system installation must be away from heat sources, container should not be
installed in engine compartment and be protected against corrosion, measures to
prevent mis-fuelling of vehicle and leakage, the refueling connector should be
protected and should have a non-return valve, hydrogen container should be
mounted and fixed properly, hydrogen fuel system should contain an automatic
shut off valve mounted on the cylinder, in case of accidents, the shut off valve
should interrupt fuel flow, hydrogen components should not project beyond
outline of the vehicle and installation must be safe from damage, components
must not be located near vehicular exhaust, ventilation system for hydrogen
leakage should be provided, in case of accidents, the pressure relief device
should function normally, passenger compartment must be isolated from
hydrogen, hydrogen components should be enclosed by gas tight housing,
Electrical devices should be isolated and hydrogen fuel system should be
grounded, labels should be provided to identify the hydrogen vehicle.
1.6.2 Testing of Fuel Cell vehicles
9
These vehicles have fuel cell, which produce an electric current that runs
a motor, which drives the vehicle. IEC/TC 105 is the international committee on
fuel cells. IEC 62282 is a globally accepted standard for fuel cell vehicles. It
consists of 7 parts terminology, fuel cell modules, stationary fuel cell power plants
(Sub-Parts on safety, test methods for performance and installation), fuel cell
system for propulsion and auxiliary power units, portable fuel cell appliances
(Sub-Parts on Safety and performance requirements), micro fuel cell power
systems (Sub-Parts on Safety 1, Performance1, Inter changeability 1) and Single
Cell Test Method for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell.
1.7 Hydrogen Refuelling Stations
The hydrogen refuelling stations are to be conceptualized and designed
considering the risk of fire and explosion. The degree of risk influences the type
of electrical installation. This must be in accordance with the Regulations,
Standards and Codes of Practice of each country. The European Union,
regarding the hazard caused by a potentially explosive atmosphere, has adopted
two harmonized directives on health and safety, known as ATEX (Atmospheric
Explosion) 94/9/EC and ATEX 99/92/EC. The ATEX Directive 94/9/EC sets out
the essential safety requirements for products and protective systems. The ATEX
Directive 99/92/EC, defines minimum health and safety requirements for work
places.
1.8 Hydrogen Storage Cylinders
Compressed hydrogen can be shipped in tube trailers at pressures up to
3,000 psi (about 250 bars). In India it is allowed upto 2500 psi. This method is
expensive, and it is cost-prohibitive for distances greater than about 250 kms.
The system includes a stationary compressor at the central plant to fill tube
trailers. The hydrogen delivery costs include capital costs of tube trailers, the
driving distance, the driver labor cost, diesel fuel cost, and operations and
maintenance (O&M) costs. These costs make about 60-70 % of the supply chain
10
for hydrogen. Tube trailers operating at higher pressures (up to 10,000 psi),
would reduce costs and extend the utility of this delivery option.
Moderate quantities of hydrogen can be delivered to long distances in
liquid form, but energy requirements and capital costs for liquefaction are much
higher than for compression. However, cryogenic liquid trucks can transport
approximately 10 times more hydrogen than compressed gas trucks. Although
liquid hydrogen tank trailers cost more than tube trailers, the trucking cost per
unit of hydrogen delivered is lower, which can lead to a lower overall hydrogen
delivery cost.
Pipelines are used for large flows of hydrogen. The cost of hydrogen
pipelines delivery depends upon installed capital cost of the pipelines as well as
the cost of compression and storage at production site. Currently delivering of
large volume of hydrogen through pipelines is the lowest cost option. One
possibility for rapidly expanding the hydrogen delivery infrastructure is to adapt
part of the natural gas delivery infrastructure to accommodate hydrogen. Steel
pipelines can be used for transporting hydrogen at low pressures but these
pipelines at high pressure may be prone to hydrogen embrittlement, since
hydrogen being smallest in atomic size penetrates into metallic structure or
accumulates near dislocation sites or micro voids. Studies are going on to
develop new materials for pipelines or coatings that would minimize hydrogen
permeation in the pipelines.
The Committee observed that under Indian conditions, the hydrogen
compressed in high pressure cylinder is the most feasible option. The Gas
Cylinders Rules, 2004 as well as Central Motor Vehicle Rules are required to be
amended to incorporate hydrogen as automotive fuel. Type 1 and Type 3
cylinders conforming to any nationally / internationally recognized standard
approved by the Chief Controller of Explosives are permitted for hydrogen
service. Type 2 & 4 cylinders are not permitted. Type 3 cylinders manufactured
by have been permitted for Hydrogen applications on trial basis for some
11
projects. However, the connecting equipment, valves including Hydrogen
dispensing stations shall be designed and constructed so as to be compatible
with the working pressure of such cylinders and should be as per ISO: 11114-1 &
ISO: 11114-2 to ensure suitability of material. The quality of hydrogen is a critical
issue to combat the hydrogen embrittlement and should conform to IS: 14687 or
as appropriate. Suitable material of construction may be selected as per test
methods specified in ISO: 11114-4. Internationally, manufacturers of repute are
considered only under Schedule III for approval after following the procedure.
The design, drawing and design calculation of the cylinders and valves
manufactured as per recognized international standards duly endorsed by
reputed third party inspection agency along with type test reports are required to
be furnished.
The international standard ISO: 20012 - Gaseous Hydrogen – Fuelling
Station may be useful for establishment of fuelling stations in the country on trial
basis. At present ISO: 15869 is in the draft stage for Gaseous Hydrogen and
Hydrogen blend-Land Vehicle Fuel Tanks. The same may be followed in India
being ‘P’ Member of the ISO/TC-197 Committee. IS:15490 & IS:7285 (Part 2) are
also required to be suitably amended for to incorporate Hydrogen-CNG blend
and Hydrogen as automotive cylinders. The other ISO standards may be
followed for hydrogen storage and dispensing systems.
1.9 Centre of Excellence(s)
It is proposed by the Committee that MNRE may drive the initiative for
setting up a Centre of Excellence on Hydrogen & Fuel Cells near Delhi and the
following institutions must provide support by augmenting infrastructure / setting
up Satellite Centres for development and testing of hydrogen / hydrogen blends
fuelled vehicles:
12
(a) Petroleum and Safety Organization for certification of hydrogen storage
containers and valves
(b) Bureau of Indian standards for making standards available for pressure
regulators / solenoid valves / hydrogen purity / pressure relief valves /
hydrogen material compatibility
(c) Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) for creation of facility for
qualification of various components of the vehicles based on IC engine /
fuel cell technology
(d) National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project (NATRIP)
(e) IOC R&D’s new Centre of Alternative & Renewable Energy (iCARE) for sub
system / stack / hydrogen cylinder / hydrogen IC engine or fuel cell based
stationary / vehicle testing
(f) Vehicle Research & Development Establishment
While the automotive OEMs and the fuel cell manufacturing companies are
in process of commercializing the technology and continuously making efforts
towards the reduction of cost, the technological breakthroughs are required at
various steps of hydrogen production and supply chain model.
In India lot of efforts are being made in the area of hydrogen energy. The
Committee observed that there is a need to consolidate these efforts and bring
the projects under one umbrella. Hence, application oriented Mission mode
projects covering various facets of hydrogen supply chain and usage have been
recommended for promoting the fuel cell technology in India leading to
indigenous manufacturing and commercialization. Also, the Committee has
recommended new assessment studies to be undertaken for assessing the
future potential of hydrogen based economy alongwith the development of other
technologies which although can be termed as interim options but hold huge
potential in curbing the increasing emission levels in many cities.
1.10 Recommendations
The following initiatives are recommended by the Committee:
13
a. Design, development & demonstration of a fleet comprising of 10
passenger cars, 10 two-wheelers, 10 three-wheelers, 10 SUVs/LCVs and 10
buses operating on fuel cell technology by 2020
Phase 1: Under this phase; the fuel cell stack may be sourced from outside and
the entire integration and control strategy shall be developed by the technology
developers. This may also include selection of battery pack, Battery Management
system (BMS) and drive train design including motor selection. The developed
FC vehicles shall be subjected to field trials for a period of 2 years (at least 3,000
hours of Fuel Cell operation) to understand the durability, fuel economy,
drivability, safety and environmental impact assessment.
Based on the outcome of the study, Fuel Cell mobility plan may be
recommended for strategizing the phasing / commercialization of fuel cell
vehicles in the selected zones.
Phase 2 of the study can go in parallel to the durability studies of Phase 1 under
which MNRE may seek proposals for development of indigenous stacks, BoP
components and their integration with electrical drive-train. This Phase shall be
aligned with the outcome of Fuel Cell stack developmental projects as
recommended by the “Sub-committee on Fuel Cell Development”.
b. Design, development & demonstration of a fleet comprising of 5
passenger cars, 5 three-wheelers, 5 SUVs/LCVs and 5 buses operating on
hydrogen IC engine by 2020
In parallel to the above project, the development and demonstration of IC
engines based vehicles operating on Hydrogen Direct injection technology shall
also be pursued. Control strategy to be optimized for curbing NOx emissions,
improving the power output and fuel economy. The field trials to be initiated for
20,000 kms for technology demonstration and in identifying the long term
durability impact on engine components & after-treatment devices and fuel
economy benefits from hydrogen based engines.
c. Setting up of 10 hydrogen dispensing stations by 2020
14
Govt. of India may support this initiative under which the Oil / Gas
companies may set up the 10 hydrogen dispensing stations for fuelling the
hydrogen engine / fuel cell vehicles. The proposed location of the stations is
given below:
Baroda Gandhinagar Chennai Pondicherry Pune
Mumbai Agra Mathura Panipat Chandigarh
The above locations have been selected upon considering the availability
of potential sources of hydrogen either from refineries and Chlor-Alkali plants.
Two stations at Agra and Chandigarh respectively shall be based on hydrogen
produced through renewable energy. Oil Marketing Companies may support by
supplying hydrogen from refineries in the required quantity.
Initiatives would be required for permitting the co-existence of hydrogen
and liquid/gas dispensing stations, to increase the on-board storage pressure
limit upto 700 bar and to allow high pressure hydrogen transportation through
tube trailers.
d. Setting up of Centre of Excellence(s) for testing & certification of fuel cell
stack / fuel cell and hydrogen engine based vehicle / hydrogen storage
cylinders by 2020
MNRE may set-up a Centre of Excellence (CoE) for certification of fuel cell
stacks, fuel cell & hydrogen engine based vehicles, hydrogen storage cylinders
and dispensing infrastructure. This centre shall be the nodal agency for
development of codes & standards, standardization of testing procedures,
recommending the material quality standards, undertaking the safety &
awareness programs etc. in coordination with the other stakeholders. The centre
once established may support the creation of satellite facilities for component
and vehicle testing.
15
e. Initiatives in other Technologies
While the development of the dedicated fuel cell vehicles would be a case
of disruptive innovation, Govt. of India may also encourage the following
initiatives of incremental innovation:
Upon the success of the HCNG studies on different categories of vehicles,
Govt. of India may support the setting up of 5 nos. of Compact Reformers
based on technology developed by IOC R&D. Proposals may be invited from
different State Transport Undertakings for running 20 buses on HCNG fuel for
20,000 kms to assess the operational costs and fuel economy benefits and
mass emissions.
Fuel cell based range extended battery electric vehicles may be encouraged
for city driving conditions especially in the 13 most polluted cities of the
country identified by WHO. Proposals may be invited for development of 20
nos. of fuel cell range extended vehicles for Delhi to understand the
technological challenges, durability issues, re-fuelling issues & cost of
operation etc associated with these vehicles.
The retrofitment devices for on-hydrogen generation & usage in diesel
engines may be encouraged in order to achieve cleaner environment. The
proposals may be sought and supported by MNRE to develop on-board
hydrogen generation technologies for IC engines & demonstrate the same on
10 vehicles for improving the exhaust emissions and the fuel economy from
the conventional engines which are already on the road.
f. New Assessment Studies
Lack of data in the area of new emerging sectors like Hydrogen & Fuel
Cells is a constraint in development of concrete roadmap. Following studies may
be initiated for assessing the future potential of hydrogen based economy:
Well to Wheel analyses of fuel cell & hydrogen IC engine based vehicles
using hydrogen produced from different sources
16
Direct economic costs (both capital and operation for new fuel cell electric
vehicles and conversion cost for on-road vehicles)
Environmental, safety, and health effects of hydrogen based IC engine / fuel
cell vehicles vis-à-vis conventional IC engine based vehicles
Mapping / techno-economic assessment of hydrogen retail outlets for setting
of supply & distribution infrastructure in metro cities.
Other aspects, such as safety, drivability, customer convenience and societal
impacts
Detailed studies to be executed for establishing the compatibility of existing
CNG cylinders for storing upto 20% v/v HCNG blends.
1.11 Financial Projections
It is apparent from the recommendations that activities considered under
sub heads a, b & c are mutually inclusive in nature and shall be executed under
one umbrella. Hence, the project titled Hydrogen for Transportation through
Research & Innovation driven Program – ‘HyTRIP’ has been recommended
by the Committee. This project shall be executed with support from different
stakeholders including the Govt. Ministries, Oil Companies, Automotive OEMS,
and Regulatory bodies etc.
The other projects mentioned under sub heads ‘d’, ‘e’ and ‘f’ of the
recommendations can be executed separately as these are mutually exclusive.
The activities under sub heads ‘d’ and ’f’ need may be taken up by MNRE under
joint R&D programs.
The cost estimated for executing the above projects are given as under:
Year 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Cost (Crore)
Project HyTRIP 12 88 165 110 15 390
a. Design of fuel cell drivetrains for each
5 45 75 65 7.5 197.5
17
category of vehicle and Development of 50 fuel cell vehicles by OEMs including field trials of fuel cell vehicles for 3,000 hours of fuel cell operation
b. Design of hydrogen DI engine based vehicles and Development of 20 vehicles for long term durability studies for 30,000 kms
2 23 30 15 7.5 77.5
c. Design & Deployment of 10 Dispensing station for fuelling vehicles on hydrogen fuel at 350 bar
5 20 60 30 115
Centre of Excellence 200
d. Setting up of Centre of Excellence (CoE) for testing & certification of fuel cell stack / fuel cell and hydrogen engine based vehicle / hydrogen storage cylinders
50 20 30 50 50 200
Other Activities ‘e’ & ‘f’ 80
e. Initiatives in other Technologies
HCNG activities
Fuel cell range extenders
Hydrogen based Retrofitment solutions for IC engines
70
f. New Assessment Studies 10
Grand Total
680
crores
18
The Committee on “Transportation through Hydrogen Fuelled
Vehicles in India” has concluded that the recent technological advances
witnessed in this sector are indicative enough that many countries are
concentrating on hydrogen as a future fuel. Programs are underway to develop
the complete eco-system related to hydrogen supply chain and also to reduce
the cost of production of fuel cells while increasing the system durability. In India,
the above mentioned projects are required to be executed to bridge the
technology gap, enhance public awareness and generate key data to plan the
pathways for hydrogen economy.
19
INTRODUCTION
20
21
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Hydrogen as Energy Carrier
Hydrogen is attracting considerable research globally as a possible longer
term, renewable energy carrier. Its particular appeal is as a clean energy source,
when derived from renewable sources, for fuel cell systems. When fuelled by
pure hydrogen and oxygen/air, these produce electric power with water as the
chemical by-product and no carbon-based greenhouse gas emissions. There are
a number of hydrogen fuel cell prototypes in test and field-trial operations for both
stationary and vehicle applications, but considerable scientific, technical and
economic challenges have to be addressed before hydrogen could become a
widespread energy alternative in the next decade. The challenges include:
hydrogen to be obtained economically from renewable sources;
infrastructure for hydrogen delivery and filling stations;
improved hydrogen storage technologies;
fuel cells with improved reliability and lower costs; and
codes for safe handling of hydrogen and addressing public safety
concerns
The different national priorities for hydrogen energy R&D depend on each
country’s relative dependence on other energy sources, especially fossil fuels,
and strategies to ensure security of supply and to combat climate change by
reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
On the application front, hydrogen can be utilized in IC engines and in fuel
cells (both for stationary and mobility applications). While the fuel cell systems
are far more energy efficient as compared to IC engine based systems, their
deployment needs a complete overhauling of the production, supply and
dispensing infrastructure. In view of this, few automotive manufacturers like BMW
in the past decade concentrated on engines rather than fuel cells. But other
22
leading OEMS like Toyota, General motors, Hyundai, Mercedes Benz etc. have
shown greater affinity towards the fuel cell technology.
Several demonstration projects initiated by the leading companies in both
automotive and stationary segment are evident across the globe and enormous
research and development resources are directed towards improving the
technology in order to push it into the market. As would be expected in any
technology’s R&D phase, most fuel cell projects are relatively small, ranging from
1kW up to 250kW. There is no indication that these represent size limitations for
fuel cells, which can be compensated by modularity. Numerous commercialized
fuel cell projects are apparent and it would not be premature to say that FC
market is growing.
2.2 Fuel Cell
Although there are several different types of fuel cells, they all operate on
the same basic concept of electrochemical reaction of fuel and oxygen to
produce water, direct current electricity, and heat. Fuel cells (essentially) contain
2 sub-systems called as Stack which consists of an anode, cathode, electrolyte
and external electrical circuit, while the Balance of Plant (BoP) includes fuel/air
supply system, fuel and air pre-heaters, filters, afterburners, recycling route,
reformer (if present), control system, power electronics including DC-AC inverter.
Fuel is delivered to the anode, and an oxygen-rich mixture is delivered to the
cathode. Ions migrate through the electrolyte, and electrons flow through the
external circuit, creating the electrical current. A simplified cell is displayed in
Figure 2.1. Fuel cell “stacks”, which are an assembly of a number of “cells”, are
incorporated into fuel cell “systems” broadly consisting of one or more stacks.
23
Figure 2.1: Generic type of Fuel Cell
The fuel cell differs from conventional heat engine technology (such as the
internal combustion engine or the gas turbine), in that it does not rely on raising
the temperature of a working fluid such as air in a combustion process. The
maximum efficiency of a heat engine is subject to the Carnot efficiency limitation,
which defines the maximum efficiency that any heat engine can have if its
temperature extremes are known. In contrast, the theoretical efficiency of a fuel
cell is related to the ratio of two energies (i.e. Gibbs free energy and Enthalpy)
associated with the fuel. Typically, the I.C engines operating on Carnot cycle
have efficiency of 25% - 33%, while the system efficiency of fuel cells ranges
between 45% - 65% depending upon the technology in use and the end
application.
In addition, other factors play a role in determining the actual efficiency of
an operating fuel cell. For example, losses associated with the kinetics of the fuel
cell reactions fall with increasing temperature, while it is often possible to use a
wider range of fuels at higher temperatures. Equally, if a fuel cell is to be
combined with a heat engine, for example in a fuel cell/gas turbine combined
cycle, then high fuel cell operating temperatures are required to maximize system
efficiency. All these factors mean that there is considerable interest in both low
temperature and high temperature fuel cells, depending upon the application.
24
2.3 Types of Fuel Cells
Fuel cells are classified according to the type of electrolyte utilized,
geometry of construction, and temperature of operation (which relates back to
electrolyte type). Five primary types of fuel cells include; Proton Exchange
Membrane (PEM), Solid Oxide (SOFC), Alkaline (AFC), Phosphoric Acid (PAFC)
and Molten Carbonate (MCFC). Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) is considered
to be a variant of PEM technology. Most of these technologies are considered to
be pre-commercial / large scale demonstration stage, and therefore reported
characteristics often represent a range of possible values from what has been
achieved in practice so far, upto to what is theoretically possible. The comparison
of different types of fuel cells in terms of electrolyte material, operating
temperatures, efficiencies and power ranges is given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Comparison of various fuel cells (Source: FCT Industry Review)
PEMFC HT PEMFC DMFC MCFC PAFC SOFC AFC
Electrolyte Ion
Exchange
Membrane
(water-
based)
Ion
Exchange
Membrane
(acid-based)
Polymer
membrane
Immobilized
Liquid
Molten
carbonate
Immobilized
Liquid
Phosphoric
acid
Ceramic Potassium
hydroxide
Operating
Temp.
80◦C 120-200
◦C 60-130
◦C 650
◦C 200
◦C 1,000
◦C 60-90
◦C
Electrical
Efficiency
40-60% 60% 40% 45-60% 35-40% 50-65% 45-60%
Typical
Power
Rating
<250KW <100KW <1KW
>200KW
>50KW >200KW >20KW
It may be mentioned here that above table represents the generic operational
and performance parameters under standard conditions. The performance of the
fuel cell may vary with working conditions, environmental impact and
maintenance schedule. The envisaged market portfolio for each fuel cell is
25
described below:
Table 2.2 Application of various fuel cell technologies
Fuel Cell Type
Application
SOFC PEMFC DMFC AFC PAFC MCFC
Transport - - -
Domestic
Power/Auxiliary Power
Units (APUs)
- - -
Combined Heat & Power
Large Scale
Power
- - - -
Battery
Replacement
- - -
2.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from different fuel cells:
The comparison of Greenhouse gas emissions discharged while
producing 1 unit (kW-hr) of electricity from different types of fuel cells is given in
Figure 2.2. It is worth noting that carbon dioxide emission rates are based on
natural gas as the fuel source, with or without pre-reforming technology
depending on the fuel cell type. CO2 emissions are strongly dependent on the
type of fuel employed. The fuel cells have been compared for only electricity
production (i.e. no credit has been allotted for waste heat utilization).
26
Figure 2.2: Carbon Dioxide Emissions from different Fuel Cells (Source:
US-EPA, 2002)
2.5 Polarization Curve and System Losses
It can be seen from the following graph (Figure 2.3) that the operating
losses of PEM type fuel cells are very less as compared to the other fuel cells.
Also, form the polarization curve it can be concluded that for achieving higher
current density, PEM fuel cells would experience the lowest voltage drop.
Figure 2.3 : Polarisation Curve and losses for different Fuel Cells
These characteristics make this fuel cell an obvious choice for the
transport application where the low start-up times coupled with fast response for
CO
2 (
g/k
Wh
)
27
transient applications and durability are of prime importance. Moreover, low
losses means that the size of the PEMFC would be very small as compared to
other fuel cells.
2.6 Global Projections of Fuel Cell Market
According to report published by Pike Research, USA, during the year
2009, the global commercial sales of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) will reach the key
milestone of 1 million vehicles by 2020, with a cumulative 1.2 million vehicles
sold by the end of that year generating $16.9 billion in annual revenue. The fuel
cell car market is now in the ramp-up phase to commercialization, anticipated by
automakers to happen around 2015.
Pike Research’s analysis indicates that, during the pre-commercialization
period from 2010 to 2014, approximately 10,000 FCVs will be deployed.
Following that phase, the firm forecasts that 57,000 FCVs will be sold in 2015,
with sales volumes ramping to 390,000 vehicles annually by 2020. The growth
trends in Asia-Pacific region are going to outcast the North America and the
Western European regions. This heavy demand is expected in the countries like
Japan, Korea, China and India.
Figure 2.4: Fuel Cell Market Projections
28
The study conducted by Freedonia Group (US based Consultancy)
estimates projections of total fuel cell spending and commercial demand for the
overall sector and the various sub-segments out until 2018. The total fuel cell
spending is expected to grow from $1.6 billion in 1998 to $18.2 billion in 2018. In
2018, commercial fuel cell demand is expected to account for 35.6% of overall
fuel cell spending. The other 64.4% of total spending expected in 2018 will be
attributed to revenues associated with prototyping, demonstrating and test
marketing activity as well as R&D investment in fuel cell enterprises (including
grants, venture capital, and outside equity).
Further, the consultancy estimates that the global revenues in the fuel cell
sector are projected to grow at the rate of 26% per annum over the next decade
as compared to 12% for solar power, 10% for biofuels and 6% for wind power, as
indicated in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: Growth of Clean Energy Technologies. (Source: Freedonia
Group, USA)
The overall scenario and projections pertaining to the use of fuel cells in
both stationary and mobility market seems attractive. Ongoing research,
development & demonstration programs across the globe are indicative of the
fact that hydrogen fuel cell technology is going to emerge as one of the most
promising alternative technologies in the coming time.
29
HYDROGEN FUELLED INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINE
30
31
3.0 Hydrogen Fuelled Internal Combustion (IC) Engines
3.1 Alternatives fuels for IC Engines
Automobiles have become critically indispensable to our modern life style.
On the other hand, future of automobiles, built on the internal combustion
engines, has been badly hit by the twin problems due to diminishing fuel supplies
and environmental degradation. A lot of research is being carried out throughout
the world to evaluate the performance, exhaust emission and combustion
characteristics of the existing engines using several alternative fuels such as
hydrogen, compressed natural gas (CNG), alcohols (methanol and ethanol),
LPG, biogas, producer gas, bio-diesels developed from vegetable oils, and a
host of others. Hydrogen is a versatile fuel with the unique potential of providing
an ultimate freedom from an energy (fuel) crisis and environmental degradation.
In view of the versatility of internal combustion engines, they will continue to
dominate the transportation sector.
In the history of engine development, hydrogen has been tried several
times as an alternative fuel chiefly from the point of view of shortage of fossil
fuels. Hydrogen does not experience problems associated with liquid fuels, such
as vapor lock, cold wall quenching, inadequate vaporization, poor mixing, and so
forth. The other significant feature of hydrogen in the present day context is the
“clean-burning” characteristics of the fuel. When hydrogen is burned in air, the
main product is water. Hydrogen combustion does not produce toxic products
such as hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, oxides of sulphur, organic acids and
carbon dioxide. Acid rain and the CO2 greenhouse effect are eliminated. Some
oxides of nitrogen are generated and our experiments show that it is possible to
get the concentration of NOx drastically reduced by monitoring the engine
operation. In today’s world, where the effect of global warming turns out to be a
crucial problem, the basic advantage of hydrogen combustion is that the
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) is not formed at all when hydrogen is
burned. This clean-burning property promises an accelerated entry of hydrogen
32
into the existing transportation sectors, as well as several energy consuming
sectors, of the developing countries. Like CNG, hydrogen engine fuelling also
needs an entirely different approach from that of liquid fuelling.
Hydrogen in view of its large source along with its clean burning
characteristic has been recognized as a fuel for the sustainable future of
transportation. Hydrogen provides fuel security against oil import also
environment friendliness. Hydrogen (H2) is one the most abundant elements
available on earth. However, it is not found in elemental form. A primary energy
source is required to produce hydrogen. Hydrogen production technologies in
commercial use today are catalytic steam reforming of natural gas, naphtha and
other hydrocarbons, partial oxidation of hydrocarbons, gasification of coal and
electrolysis of water.
3.2 Impact of vehicular pollution on environment
The news published regarding pollution impact are as under:
Environmental degradation is one of the most alarming results of vehicular
emission. The adoption of CNG in New Delhi a decade ago has significantly
reduced the air pollution in the city but with time the number of vehicles in the
road also increased significantly. This increase in vehicular density has adversely
affected the air quality. On major advantage to hydrogen as a fuel source is its
33
relatively low impact on the environment. Traditional fossil fuels, such as
gasoline, create greenhouse gases and air pollutants as fuel is burned to create
energy. Hydrogen does not create these harmful substances when used as an
energy source. Instead, when hydrogen is combined with oxygen, it burns
cleanly, producing water and heat instead of environmentally unfriendly exhaust.
Unfortunately, some current methods of creating hydrogen still produce high
levels of greenhouse gases, evening out its benefits. Hydrogen in comparison
with other fuel sources is not only as powerful and efficient but more
environmentally friendly.
3.2.1 Properties of Hydrogen
Hydrogen is an odourless, colourless gas. With molecular weight of 2.016,
hydrogen is the lightest element. Its density is about 14 times less than air
(0.08376 kg/m3 at standard temperature and pressure). Hydrogen is liquid at
temperatures below 20.3 K (at atmospheric pressure). Hydrogen has the highest
energy content per unit mass of all fuels - higher heating value is 141.9 MJ/kg,
almost three times higher than gasoline.
Like any other fuel or energy carrier hydrogen poses risks if not properly
handled or controlled. The risk of hydrogen, therefore, must be considered
relative to the common fuels such as gasoline, propane or natural gas. The
specific physical characteristics of hydrogen are quite. Some of those properties
make hydrogen potentially less hazardous, while other hydrogen characteristics
could theoretically make it more dangerous in certain situations.
Since hydrogen has the smallest molecule it has a greater tendency to
escape through small openings than other liquid or gaseous fuels. Based on
properties of hydrogen such as density, viscosity and diffusion coefficient in air,
the propensity of hydrogen to leak through holes or joints of low pressure fuel
lines may be only 1.26 to 2.8 times faster than a natural gas leak through the
same hole (and not 3.8 times faster as frequently assumed based solely on
diffusion coefficients). Experiments have indicated that most leaks from
34
residential natural gas lines are laminar. Since natural gas has over three times
the energy density per unit volume the natural gas leak would result in more
energy release than a hydrogen leak.
Table 3.1: Properties of Hydrogen
Properties of hydrogen
Molecular weight 2.016
Density kg/m3 0.0838
Higher heating value MJ/kg 141.90
MJ/m3 11.89
Lower heating value MJ/kg 119.90
MJ/m3 10.05
Boiling temperature K 20.3
Density as liquid kg/m3 70.8
Critical point
Temperature K 32.94
Pressure bar 12.84
Density kg/m3 31.40
Self-ignition temperature K 858
Ignition limits in air (vol. %) 4-75
Stoichiometric mixture in air (vol. %) 29.53
Flame temperature in air K 2,318
Diffusion coefficient cm2/s 0.61
Specific heat (cp) kJ/(kg·K) 14.89
For very large leaks from high pressure storage tanks, the leak rate is
limited by sonic velocity. Due to higher sonic velocity (1308 m/s) hydrogen would
initially escape much faster than natural gas (sonic velocity of natural gas is 449
35
m/s). Again, since natural gas has more than three times the energy density than
hydrogen, a natural gas leak will always contain more energy. If a leak should
occur for whatever reason, hydrogen will disperse much faster than any other
fuel, thus reducing the hazard levels. Hydrogen is both more buoyant and more
diffusive than gasoline, propane or natural gas.
Hydrogen/air mixture can burn in relatively wide volume ratios, between
4% and 75% of hydrogen in air. Other fuels have much lower flammability
ranges, viz., natural gas 5.3-15%, propane 2.1-10%, and gasoline 1-7.8%.
However, the range has a little practical value. In many actual leak situations the
key parameter that determines if a leak would ignite is the lower flammability
limit, and hydrogen’s lower flammability limit is 4 times higher than that of
gasoline, 1.9 times higher than that of propane and slightly lower than that of
natural gas.
Hydrogen has a very low ignition energy (0.02 mJ), about one order of
magnitude lower than other fuels. The ignition energy is a function of fuel/air
ratio, and for hydrogen it reaches minimum at about 25%-30% hydrogen content
in air. At the lower flammability limit hydrogen ignition energy is comparable with
that of natural gas.
Hydrogen has a flame velocity 7 times faster than that of natural gas or
gasoline. A hydrogen flame would therefore be more likely to progress to a
deflagration or even a detonation than other fuels. However, the likelihood of a
detonation depends in a complex manner on the exact fuel/air ratio, the
temperature and particularly the geometry of the confined space. Hydrogen
detonation in the open atmosphere is highly unlikely.
The lower detonability fuel/air ratio for hydrogen is 13%-18%, which is two
times higher than that of natural gas and 12 times higher than that of gasoline.
Since the lower flammability limit is 4% an explosion is possible only under the
most unusual scenarios, e.g., hydrogen would first have to accumulate and reach
36
13% concentration in a closed space without ignition, and only then an ignition
source would have to be triggered.
Should an explosion occur, hydrogen has the lowest explosive energy per
unit stored energy in the fuel, and a given volume of hydrogen would have 22
times less explosive energy than the same volume filled with gasoline vapor.
Hydrogen flame is nearly invisible, which may be dangerous, because people in
the vicinity of a hydrogen flame may not even know there is a fire. This may be
remedied by adding some chemicals that will provide the necessary luminosity.
The low emissivity of hydrogen flames means that near-by materials and people
will be much less likely to ignite and/or hurt by radiant heat transfer. The fumes
and soot from a gasoline fire pose a risk to anyone inhaling the smoke, while
hydrogen fires produce only water vapor (unless secondary materials begin to
burn).
Liquid hydrogen presents another set of safety issues, such as risk of cold
burns, and the increased duration of leaked cryogenic fuel. A large spill of liquid
hydrogen has some characteristics of a gasoline spill, however it will dissipate
much faster. Another potential danger is a violent explosion of a boiling liquid
expanding vapor in case of a pressure relief valve failure.
3.3 Advantages of Hydrogen over Conventional Fuels for Transport
Two realities suggest that the current energy economy is not sustainable:
1. The demand for energy is growing and the raw materials for the fossil fuel
economy are diminishing.
2. Emissions from fossil fuel usage significantly degrade air quality all over
the world. The resulting carbon byproducts are substantially changing the
world's climate.
37
3.4 Hydrogen has these basic benefits that address the above concerns:
a) The use of hydrogen greatly reduces pollution. Hydrogen on
combustion produces water vapor and NOx. NOx being the only pollutant
of concern which is formed due to the Nitrogen present in air. Hence use
of hydrogen in vehicle produces traces on NOx emission at lean burn
conditions.
b) Hydrogen can be produced locally from numerous sources. Hydrogen
can be produced either centrally, and then distributed, or onsite where it
will be used. Hydrogen gas can be produced from methane, gasoline,
biomass, coal or water. Each of these sources brings with it different
amounts of pollution, technical challenges, and energy requirements.
If hydrogen is produced from water we have a sustainable
production system. Electrolysis is the method of separating water into
hydrogen and oxygen. Renewable energy can be used to power
electrolyzers to produce the hydrogen from water. Using renewable
energy provides a sustainable system that is independent of petroleum
products and is nonpolluting. Some of the renewable sources used to
power electrolyzers are wind, hydro, solar and tidal energy.
3.5 Hydrogen Energy Road Map of India
In India MNRE has been a prime body which recognized hydrogen as a
potential energy source for the future decades ago. As a part of overcoming the
challenges with hydrogen economy MNRE had set up the National Hydrogen
Energy Road Map which sketches the path forward. “The main objective of the
National Hydrogen Energy Road Map is to identify the paths, which will lead to a
gradual introduction of Hydrogen Energy in the country, accelerate
commercialization efforts and facilitate creation of Hydrogen Energy
Infrastructure in the country. The National Hydrogen Energy Road Map provides
a comprehensive approach to the development of the components of the
hydrogen energy system, ranging from production, storage, transport, delivery,
applications, safety and standards, education and awareness among others”[3].
38
The National Hydrogen Energy Map has identified two initiatives,
Green Initiatives for Future Transport (GIFT) and
Green Initiative for Power Generation (GIP).
Hydrogen Vision 2020 – (GIFT)
Hydrogen cost at delivery point @ Rs. 60-70 /Kg
Hydrogen storage capacity to be 9 weight %
Adequate support infrastructure including a large number of dispensing
stations to be in place
Safety regulations, legislations, codes and standards to be fully in
place
Hydrogen Application for Transportation
Using hydrogen in Internal Combustion Engines
Using hydrogen in fuel cells
Hydrogen Electric Hybrid vehicles
3.6 International Status on Hydrogen as Automotive Fuel
Several R&D project have been undergoing in various parts of the world
for developing hydrogen based Internal Combustion Engines. Some of the
significant project in this direction is:
a) The HyICE programme which was undergoing in Europe from 2004-2007
has successfully demonstrated hydrogen Engines. The project headed by
European Commission and BMW in collaboration with various industry and
academia. The investigation was carried out in both single and multi-cylinder
engines for various fuel injection strategies like Direct Injection and
Cryogenic Fuel Injection. The project demonstrated hydrogen engines with
peak thermal efficiency 42% and a specific power output of over 100kW/L.
b) Europe has successfully demonstrated hydrogen powered fork lift and bi-fuel
passenger car. In Japan under the EFV21 project (Next Generation
Environment Friendly Vehicle Development and Commercialization project),
with the aim of reducing CO2 emission from heavy duty engines Direct
Injection Hydrogen IC engines were demonstrated which has high specific
39
power output and NOx emission within the regulations. The project has noted
that presently hydrogen powered IC engines are more suitable for Heavy
Vehicle rather than fuel cells due to the higher specific power output.
c) Tokyo City University has developed two hydrogen engines which were
turbocharged with Port Fuel Injection (PFI), subsequently these engines
were used in light duty trucks with hybrid power train i.e. electric drive to
overcome the issue of lower speed torque. These vehicles covered over
15000km. Lean NOx operation strategy has been adopted by several
researchers worldwide to lower the NOx emission.
d) Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is another technology
which aims to overcome the issue of low emission versus better combustion
rate and thermal efficiency. High compression ratio is used in HCCI
technology.
e) With direct Injection it is possible to keep combustion confined, away from
combustion chamber walls hence decreasing the heat loss from stratifying
the fuel/air mixtures for lower NOx when using relatively rich mixtures, or for
faster combustion for relatively lean mixtures. The development of Direct
Injection (DI) Injectors being one of the issues which have longer durability
and sustained performance.
3.7 National Status on Hydrogen as Automotive Fuel
a) IIT Delhi in collaboration with Mahindra & Mahindra has developed a fleet
of fifteen three wheelers which were inaugurated in 2012 during the Auto
Expo 2012. The project has got fresh funding from MNRE and will be
covering flied trial of 30,000 km per vehicle in period of two years. The
vehicles are being used for ferrying passengers and goods in Pragati
Maidan, New Delhi. The project provide a platform where hydrogen as a
fuel for transportation being introduced to the public generating awareness
about the fuel.
b) Similar hydrogen powered three wheeler, bikes were also demonstrated
by IIT BHU. The focus of R&D being hydrogen storage in metal hydride.
40
c) IIT Delhi in collaboration with Mahindra & Mahindra has developed a multi
cylinder IC Engine which has been introduced into Mahindra’s Tourist or
Model Mini Bus. Two of those vehicles has been built and calibrated. Each
Vehicle will undergo field trials of 1, 00,000 km in coming months.
d) Hydrogen Diesel Dual Fuel vehicles are developed by Mahindra &
Mahindra under MNRE sponsored project with hydrogen substitution of
over 50%.
e) Various Vehicle manufacturers (M&M, Ashok Leyland, Tata etc.) in
collaboration with IOCL has developed Hydrogen CNG blend fuel (18%)
for vehicular application. M&M has completed the designated filed trials.
3.8 Hydrogen Application in Hydrogen IC Engine
Hydrogen can be used as an IC Engine fuel in different configurations,
a) Hydrogen SI Engines
b) Hydrogen CI/Dual Fuel Engines
c) Hydrogen-CNG Dual Fuel
d) Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition Engine (HCCI)
As mentioned above there are several ways that hydrogen can be used as
a motor fuel. It can be used to directly replace gasoline or diesel fuel in specially
designed internal combustion engines (ICEs), or it can be used to supplement
these typical fuels in existing engines. In either of these cases, the vehicle drive
system will be identical to those used on most gasoline-powered or diesel-
powered vehicles. The engine will drive the vehicle’s wheels through a
transmission, drive shaft, and front or rear axle.
3.8.1. Hydrogen fuelled Spark Ignition Engines
Hydrogen is an excellent fuel for SI engines. Its wide ignition limits and
hence the ability to operate with limited throttling losses, high flame speed that
leads to near constant volume combustion and high thermal efficiency, good
41
mixing characteristics that allow high speed operation and formation of a
homogeneous mixture with ease, resistance to auto-ignition that allows relatively
high compression ratios to be used without end gas knocking and ability to be
used with other fuels to enhance their performance. All over the world research
work has indicated several advantages and challenges to be faced when
hydrogen is used as an engine fuel. Apart from the well known challenges related
to storage and handling of hydrogen some of the difficulties that become relevant
when operating SI engines are:
a) High burning rates that can lead to knock elevate the cylinder temperature
and result in high levels of NOx. This can be mitigated by using high levels of
dilution using cooled exhaust gas, other gases like nitrogen etc. This
phenomenon limits the equivalence ratios and hence power output that can
be used in hydrogen engines. The influence of different diluents on reducing
NOx emissions under WOT conditions is seen in Fig.3.1. It is seen that EGR
allows high outputs under similar levels of NOx emissions as compared to
other methods like dilution by Nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
6
6.4
6.8
7.2
7.6
8
0.6 0.64 0.68 0.72 0.76 0.8
Fuel flowrate(kg/h)
Ind
ica
ted
po
wer
(k
W)
Nitrogen dilution
Carbon dioxide dilution
EGR
Speed : 2500 rpm
Spark timing : MBT
Throttle : WOT
Allowbale NO : 1000
ppm
Fig.3.1 Effectiveness of NOx control Measures
b) Hydrogen needs very low ignition energies. Hence, backfiring can occur
during the suction of the hydrogen air mixture into the cylinder. This can be
avoided by the use of timed manifold injection of hydrogen or by direct
injection of hydrogen. The valve timing has to be altered so that overlap can
42
be minimized. Injecting hydrogen into the manifold towards the end of the
suction stroke, after the air has entered and cooled the hot spots in the
cylinder or into the manifold before the valve opens thus creating a very rich
mixture will be helpful. Manifold injection thus results in higher power outputs
than carburetion. It has been experimentally found that timed manifold
injection can raise the power outputs significantly then carburetion.
c) The operating limit for equivalence ratio is quite high for hydrogen (0.26 to
0.84). NO emission is negligible till an equivalence ratio of 0.55 and quite high
in the region between 0.6 and 0.9. Equivalence ratios lesser than 0.4 have
been observed to lower combustion rates and thermal efficiencies and
equivalence ratios close to 0.8 lead to extremely high NOx emissions. Spark
timing has a pronounced effect on performance and NOx emissions. The
drastic variation in NOx emissions with spark timing is seen in Fig.3.2.
However, this reduction is at the expense of thermal efficiency. At higher
equivalence ratios the rate of pressure rise becomes very high and this leads
to rough combustion. Though the hydrogen engine can operate without a
throttle, at low loads throttling can be done to ensure that the equivalence
ratio does not fall below 0.4 in order to maintain high thermal efficiencies.
Fig.3.3 indicates that maintaining the equivalence ratio around 0.4 is essential
to have high thermal efficiencies. This also leads to significantly low NOx
emissions. The NOx levels are compared in Fig.3.4 between gasoline and
Hydrogen operation at the best ignition timing. We see that beyond a power
output of 6 kW where the equivalence ratio goes up to 0.8, the NOx level
shoots up.
43
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
-20 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8
Spark timing (°CA from TDC)N
itri
c oxid
e em
issi
on
(p
pm
)
FFR : 0.68 kg/h
FFR : 0.76 kg/h
TDCB efo re
T D C
A fter
T D C
Speed : 2500 rpm
Throttle: WOT
MBT
Fig.3.2 Effect of spark timing on NOx emissions
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0Equivalence ratio
Brak
e p
ow
er (
kW
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
NO
em
issi
on
(p
pm
)
Indicated power
NO emission
Speed :2500 rpm
Spark timing: MBT
Throttle : Variable
FFR : 0.2543 kg/h
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12Brake Power (kW)
NO
(p
pm
)
Gasoline
Hydrogen
Spark timing : MBT
Speed : 2500rpm
Fig.3.3 Effect of Throttling on thermal efficiency Fig.3.4 NOx levels compared
d) The gases that leak into the crank case have to be properly ventilated so that
crank case explosions can be avoided.
e) The spark timing has also to be controlled properly in order to control the
combustion rate and NOx emissions. Significant retardation of the spark
timing with output and equivalence ratio is needed. Compression ratios in the
range of 10 to 12:1 can be used by careful control of the operating variables.
f) Hydrogen leads to reduction in the power output because of its low density.
This can be offset by directly injecting this fuel into the cylinder after the
valves close.
44
g) The problem of poor mixture formation in the case of direct injection engines
has limited the thermal efficiencies to values lower than manifold injection.
The poor penetration of hydrogen when injected into the cylinder affects
mixture preparation.
h) EGR with after treatment devices along with lean burn can lead to high
efficiency and low NOx levels.
i) Measures like manifold water injection, addition of nitrogen that is available in
the exhaust and EGR are effective in controlling NOx levels. EGR seems to
be very effective and feasible technique in controlling the NO at all loads
without any drop in power and efficiency. It also reduces the MRPR to some
extent. Retarding the spark timing at higher equivalence ratios also reduces
NO emission considerably, but also affects the thermal efficiency. Dilution of
the charge by nitrogen is less effective in controlling NO at low loads but quite
effective at high loads.
j) Cycle by cycle variations were generally observed to be low as compared to
other fuels.
k) Hydrogen has been effectively used to enhance the performance of natural
gas. It can also be used to enhance the performance with biogas. This could
be a viable option in the case of stationary generator set engines and
locomotive engines that could be run mainly on biogas. Figure 3.5 (a and b)
indicates the improvements that can be obtained by adding small amounts of
hydrogen to biogas about 5– to 15%. There is a significant reduction in HC
emissions, extension of the lean limits and improvement in thermal efficiency.
45
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
Equivalence Ratio
Bra
ke
Th
erm
al E
ffic
ien
cy
(%)
Hydrogen=0%Hydrogen=5%Hydrogen=10%Hydrogen=15%
Throttle:100%
CR=13:1
Speed:1500 rpm
Ignition Timing:MBT
Fuel:Biogas+Hydrogen
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
Equivalence Ratio
Hy
dro
ca
rbo
n E
mis
sio
n (
pp
m)
Hydrogen=0%Hydrogen=5%Hydrogen=10%Hydrogen=15%
Throttle:100%
CR=13:1
Speed:1500 rpm
Ignition Timing:MBT
Fuel:Biogas+Hydrogen
Fig.3.5 (a and b): Effect of hydrogen on enhancing performance of biogas (SI
mode)
3.8.2. Hydrogen Powered Three Wheelers (Single Cylinder SI Engine)
Ambient air quality in Indian cities can be controlled by reduced vehicular
emission & Global warming can be controlled by Green House Gas mitigation
with CO2 reduction. In order to achieve both the above goals, the main aim of is
to develop a new technology for 3-wheeled vehicles, to use Hydrogen fuel (H2) to
remove all carbon pollutants (CO, HC, Particulate Matter, Smoke, Aldehyde,
46
Ketone emissions) & eliminate CO2 emission. The project called DelHy-3W
fosters the implementation of Indian Industrial and scientific skills in producing a
very popular mass transport platform to operate with the cleanest fuel
(Hydrogen). The hydrogen operated 3-Wheeler vehicle “Hyalfa” was developed
by M&M with integration of the optimized engine, storage system, fuelling system
and safety features. The main inspiration is to provide sustainable mobility for
vehicle at the bottom of the pyramid and bring Carbon neutral, also reduce fossil
fuel consumption & substantially reduce energy consumption by delivering
optimum hydrogen fuel usage. By adopting this renewable fuel technology we not
only achieve Sustainable Mobility, but also reduce India’s dependence on Fossil
fuels.
Scope of the project:
This technology innovation will definitely create a positive impact on
hydrogen fuel usage in the World. This will also make India to be independent of
the conventional fuels such as Gasoline and Diesel. The recent variations in oil
prices makes will definitely create the way for non conventional energy sources
and hydrogen fuel is one of them. As three wheelers are the main transport
vehicle in Asia pacific regions the development of this technology makes India
competitiveness in the World. For the benefit of society hydrogen a carbon free
fuel results in significant environmentally pollutant reduction. It will also create the
employment in India once it is commercialized and definitely it will have positive
impact on environment to make the cities to be much cleaner. People, Planet and
Profit are the three bottom-line of the sustainability. This technology addresses
the three bottom-line of sustainability.
(a) People:
As three wheelers are the main transport vehicle in Asia pacific regions
the development of this technology provides alternate fuelled green vehicle
to customers.
Innovative safety system incorporated which shut off Hydrogen on leakage
automatically ensuring safety of people.
47
Achieving mileage of 80 km/kg of hydrogen will be economical for the
users if Government supports and provide hydrogen fuel its due carbon credits
(b) Profit:
This technology innovation will definitely create a positive impact on
hydrogen Economy to have globally competitive.
The recent variations in oil prices have to be mitigated by alternative fuel &
sustainable energy sources and hydrogen fuel is one of them.
It will also create the employment & Business opportunities in India once it
is commercialized.
(c) Technology Innovation of the product:
Environmental friendly no Carbon emission ultra low emissions of NOx
Mileage around 70 km/kg
Renewable fuel Hydrogen
Break thermal efficiency improved by 10-15 % than gasoline
No power loss compared to Gasoline
Improved drivability than gasoline vehicles
Exhaustive lab tests on engines & vehicles using IIT Delhi facilities to
access the behaviour of the engine at varying operating conditions. Mahindra &
Mahindra Ltd developed fifteen hydrogen vehicles with integration of the
optimized engine, storage system, fuelling system and safety features. For this
development a consortium of Industrial partners & Indian Academic (IIT Delhi)
has developed the first fleet of hydrogen fuelled three wheelers with the support
from the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) &
International centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies (ICHET) to decrease
local pollution at New Delhi at an affordable cost. These 15 vehicles are refuelled
at a dedicated hydrogen refuelling facility installed by Air products, USA. The
fleet and refuelling facility are hosted in Pragati Maidan exhibition ground of India
Trade Promotion Organization (ITPO). ITPO is hosting the project and helping
48
disseminate the Indian know-how. The Indian Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE) has extend the project demonstration for another 2 years in
Pragati Maidan for doing durability analysis of 15 3-Whellers for 30,000 kms
each.
The vehicle chosen was originally a CNG fuelled 3 wheelers & 3 wheelers
are chosen because it is one of the most public transports in India. For hydrogen
fuel in the engine were designed by considering the specific combustion and
safety requirements of hydrogen. The engine is equipped with a hydrogen fuel
injection system for properly timed and metered fuel delivery. A new ignition
system is developed from the existing Capacitive Discharge Ignition (CDI)
system used normally in SI engine. For ensuring the safety hydrogen leak
detection, shut off solenoid, emergency cutoff switch, flash back arrestors, fire
extinguishers were used in the vehicle to ensure onboard passengers safety. The
technical specifications of the engine are listed in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Engine Specification of Hydrogen Three Wheelers
Engine Type Single Cylinder; 4S
Displacement 395cc
Bore x Stroke (mm) 86 x 68
Compression Ratio 9.5 ±0.5
Number of Valves 2
Engine Speed 1150-4200 RPM
Valve Overlap & Max lift ~10.5 degree of crank angle & 8.15 mm
Cooling System Forced Air Cooling
Fuel Supply Fuel injection
49
(d) Quantifiable and tangible benefits from hydrogen engine development
and achieved emission reduction:
The hydrogen engine is developed considering the specific combustion
ignition characteristics of hydrogen. In engine the ignition system is basically a
crank sensor (Pulsar Coil) triggered CDI (Capacitor Discharge Ignition) type that
is controlled by Hydrogen ECU. The timed port injection used in the engine helps
to avoid the backfire risk. For accurate controlling for ignition and fuel injection,
CAM sensor was added to the engine. For precise controlling of the hydrogen
gas injection, manifold air pressure (MAP) sensor added to the intake system to
let the ECU know about the engine load condition. The engine is calibrated to
operate on wider range of speed and load to optimize with respect to
performance and emission at Air fuel ratios which avoids backfire. The
photograph shows the experimental setup done at IIT Delhi for engine testing &
development. It is observed that there is no carbon based emission in the
exhaust (carbon monoxide [CO], carbon dioxide [CO2], Hydrocarbon [HC],
sulphur, aldehydes emissions). Ultra low levels of NOx emission were observed in
the exhaust which is typical in the range of little ppm level only (Fig.3.6).
Hydrogen engine results in significant reduction in emission which is a very good
potential benefit for the India in terms of environmental pollution (Fig.3.7 &
Fig.3.8).
Fig.3.6 Representation of NOx Emission Benefit from Hydrogen Application
50
Fig.3.7 Representation of CO2 Emission Benefit from Hydrogen Application
Fig.3.8 Representation of HC Emission Benefit from Hydrogen Application
There is an overall improvement in thermal efficiency by 10 to 15 % in all
speed range compared to gasoline (Fig.3.9). Due to hydrogen fuel characteristics
and better combustion there is a significant improvement in performance. The
power delivered is said to be comparable to gasoline (Fig.3.10). The drivability is
improved very much after recalibration and it is similar to gasoline.
51
Fig.3.9 Representation of Thermal Efficiency Benefit from Hydrogen Application
Fig.3.10 Representation of Power Output with speed
(e) Extraordinary Features of the hydrogen fuel supply system:
Hydrogen fuel is supplied at 200 bar pressure from the hydrogen
dispensing unit set by Air products, USA at Pragati Maidan (Fig 3.11 & 3.12). The
hydrogen from the dispenser is supplied into the receptacle which has an inbuilt
particulate filter to remove the impurities from the gas. The filtered hydrogen is
stored on a Type III composite hydrogen cylinder which has an in-tank solenoid
valve. If there is a leak on the cylinder or during emergency of PRD activation the
52
hydrogen is vented through the vent line through the black flash arrestor. The
vented hydrogen will be displaced to atmosphere at a higher elevation of the
vehicle. The outlet of the in-tank solenoid valve is connected to a pressure gauge
to show the tank pressure. Then the hydrogen is a passed on through an excess
flow valve to prevent rapid flow of hydrogen during breakage/leakage. Then the
hydrogen is passed on to a service ball valve to cut off the fuel system in case of
servicing the vehicle. The hydrogen gas is then allowed on a particulate filter to
remove the impurities if any and it is passed to a pressure regulator to reduce the
pressure from 200 bar line pressure to required injection pressure. The reduced
hydrogen is passed to a low pressure transducer and the solenoid valve to cut off
the hydrogen supply during engine off condition and during emergency shutoff.
The hydrogen is passed on to a flash back arrestor to prevent reverse flow of
hydrogen while any backfire occurs. The hydrogen is then passed on to the
injector to inject the gas in the intake manifold. By using the fuel injection system
the backfire was completely eliminated.
Fig.3.11 Photographs of Hyalfa Vehicle inauguration in Pragati Maidan during
Auto Expo 2012 on 9th Jan 2012
53
Fig.3.12 Photographs of Hyalfa Vehicle inauguration in PragatiMaidan during
Auto Expo 2012 on 9th Jan 2012
3.8.3. Mission Mode Project: Hydrogen Powered Mini Bus (Multicylinder SI
Engine)
The Hydrogen Fuel Initiative accelerates the pace of research and
development on hydrogen production and delivery infrastructure technologies
needed to support hydrogen-powered fuel cells/Internal combustion engines (H2-
ICE) for use in transportation. A properly optimized hydrogen ICE will allow use
of higher compression ratios and hence the energy efficiency is expected to be
higher than conventional engines. There are no HC, CO & CO2 emissions from
hydrogen. Only trace amounts of HC and CO can occur due to lube oil
consumption - NOx is the only exhaust emission. Thus this technology has
significant potential for energy conservation, efficiency enhancement and
emissions improvements. It includes development of electronic control unit for
fuel injection and ignition system so that engine will operate without any
undesirable combustion phenomena such as backfire/and rapid rate of pressure
rise. After optimization of the engine with respect to performance and emissions,
a prototype vehicle would be prepared to run in the campus. The satisfactory
54
operation of vehicle in campus will be able to demonstrate the intrinsic merit of
hydrogen fuel in terms of ultra-lean operation leading to high thermal efficiency
and extremely low-emission features. This test is proposed to be carried out for
long term road tests to demonstrate to the public the strong merits of hydrogen
for vehicular use. Such an effort is likely to ensure early and accelerated entry
hydrogen to transport sector as envisaged in the National Hydrogen Energy
Road map.
The following components are Designed and Developed for Hydrogen Engine
operation.
(a) Piston: In-order to incorporate the change in compression ratio of 11:1 to
12:1, a new piston is designed and developed for the Hydrogen operation
and the drawing of the same is mentioned below for your reference.
(b) Turbocharger: An integrated exhaust manifold and Turbocharger is
developed for Hydrogen operation and the waste gate is operated by the
boost pressure on the compressor side. The Integrated Turbocharger was
the smallest of the supplied turbochargers and in conventional thinking
would be most suited for producing boost pressure at lower speed
conditions. This turbocharger was close to the maximum limits of its ability
to produce the achieved rated power, and generally a turbocharger should
be designed just large enough to meet peak power needs and not much
larger.
(c) Component System Selection and Packaging
The following are components selected and Packaged on the Hydrogen
engine.
(i) H2 Fuel Injector
(ii) Mid Pressure Regulator
(iii) High Pressure Regulator
(iv) Fuel Rail
(v) Fuel rail pressure and temperature sensor
(vi) Hydrogen Leak sensor
55
(vii) Spark Plug
(viii) Ignition Coil
(ix) Wideband Lambda Sensor
(d) Hydrogen Fuel Injectors
Selected to use R&D partner own Hydrogen Fuel Injectors for the Mustang
H2 Engine.
(e) Mid Pressure Fuel Regulator
Most adjustable low pressure regulators are not capable of being
designed to accept an inlet pressure ranging from several hundred to several
thousand PSI while maintaining output pressure accuracy. We use of a mid stage
regulator to regulate the inlet pressure from 220-3600psi down to a stabilized
220psi. From that mid pressure the low pressure regulator can be designed and
selected to be capable of more accurately maintaining the desired end use
pressure.
(f) Low Pressure Fuel Regulator
We have chosen to use a R&D partner developed Low Pressure
Regulator because of our previous experience with this regulator and the
pressure range which is suitable for the fuel injectors and fuel flow
requirements.
(g) Fuel Rail
There are several points that closely considered for the development of a
gaseous hydrogen fuel rail (Fig: 3.13):
All components for the fuel rail be constructed from high-grade corrosion
resistant stainless steel, preferably 316L.
The fuel rail diameter must be large enough that the manifold volume is
not as susceptible to resonance resulting in localized high or low pressure
zones which can cause cylinder-to-cylinder fuel delivery variations.
56
Fig.3.13 Fuel Rail for Hydrogen Fueled Multi cylinder Engine
High pressure hydrogen is one of the toughest fuels to seal due to the
small molecular size of H2 and it is one of the most dangerous due to its
high flammability, therefore all fuel connections should be one of the
following styles:
It is very important to make sure that with any fuel injector with o-rings on
each side which are meant to seal in a smooth bore that the surface finish meets
the specifications of the o-ring and injector manufacturer. Be sure to design the
distance from the injector port to the rail cup so that there is plenty of surface for
the o-rings to seal even at the worst tolerance and that the rail doesn’t compress
the injector when tightened down.
(h) Hydrogen Fuel Rail Pressure and Temperature Sensor
It is acceptable to use a H2 compatible fuel pressure sensor and a H2
compatible fuel temperature sensor, or a single combined pressure and
temperature sensor. For this engine we received recommendations for a
Sensata combination pressure and temperature sensor.
(i) Hydrogen Leak Sensor
As an additional safety measure, especially for prototype hydrogen vehicles,
good practice is to use a Hydrogen Leak Sensor because hydrogen is odorless,
colorless, and highly flammable. Currently we are using a 4 channel alarm
module. The threshold of leak is user settable and the same information can be
configured to the ECU.
57
(j) Spark Plugs
Spark plugs for a hydrogen engine need to have certain characteristics to
operate properly.
Coldest heat range: Because there is no carbon in the fuel to foul the
plugs, use the coldest range spark plugs available. This will reduce the
tendency for the spark plug to be the hot spot in the combustion chamber,
causing pre-ignition.
(k) Ignition Coils
There are several factors to consider when selecting ignition coils for a
hydrogen internal combustion engine with a modern electronic control system
(Fig: 3.14).
Smart or Intelligent coils: Smart coils are generally 4-pins or more and
have separate high current power, high current ground, and low current
signal lines. Most of these smart coils use low current signals from the ECU
and have high current positive and ground wires which are energized off of
an ignition relay. Smart coils are by far the most common types of coil for
modern coil-on-plug or coil-near-plug applications.
For hydrogen applications the coils must be internally grounded to pull
down and dissipate any residual energy to avoid small unintended sparks which
may cause back flash due to the low ignition energy and high flammability
range of hydrogen. The ECU that is used for the H2 Mustang Engine is
designed to be used with smart or intelligent coils and is therefore not capable
of working with traditional coils.
58
Fig.3.14 Different Ignition Coil Studied
(l) Wide Band Lambda Sensor
The Bosch Wide Band Lambda Sensor is the newest generation wide
band sensor currently available on the market and is the first sensor to have the
ability to very accurately read Lambda at extremely lean conditions. R&D
partner chose to use this sensor because this makes closed loop fueling control
for a lean burn hydrogen engine possible.
(m) Wiring system design & development
Harness schematic development
System harness build and verification
(n) Dyno wiring harness
Engine Dyno controller is communicated with ECU through Accelerator
pedal & other actuators for H2 operations. The wire gauge is selected as per
the current requirement & automotive wiring grade is followed in the wiring
harness to ensure safety & EMI\EMC issues. Grounding is taken care &
appropriately grounded with ECU.
(o) Engine test bed harness
The H2 engine associated components must be fused. Fuses are
designed as per current drawn by the component. Suggested fusing is shown in
59
the Electrical Interface Schematic. Relays are selected ensuring that power
supplies and power cables are capable of supplying and carrying the required
load, and are adequately protected against over current situations. Sealed
electrical connectors are used to avoid fire to contact with the terminal.
The Gas Management system and the test rig development has been
completed in IIT Delhi (Fig 3.15 & 3.16). The engine has been mounted on the
test bed and coupled to the eddy current dynamometer. The air Provision for
various parameter measurement like the temperature and pressure
measurement at different strategic location has been provided along with the air
intake system fabrication.
Fig.3.15 Hydrogen Cascade System at IIT Delhi
Fig.3.16 Test Rig at IIT Delhi
60
The graph shows the power output of the H2 Mustang engine as tested on
IIT Dynamometer (Fig.3.17). Power output at lower speed is improved by
optimizing the equivalence ratio from 0.5 to 0.6 and at speed above 1800 rpm
equivalence ratio is maintained at 0.5 equivalence ratio. Equivalence ratio has
been increased above 0.6 in the test cell to observe the increase in torque with
respect to base 0.5 equivalence ratio but mild back firing has been observed
above 0.6 equivalence ratio and hence equivalence ratio has been limited to
0.6.[13]
Fig.3.17 Power Comparison of Hydrogen fuelled Multi-cylinder Engine
Fig.3.18 Torque Comparison of Hydrogen fuelled Multicylinder Engine
61
Fig 3.18 shows the torque output of the H2 Mustang engine as tested on
IIT Delhi Dynamometer. Note the “Min. Torque Spec” mark of 153Nm @
2400rpm and that the engine was capable of significantly exceeding this target.
In comparing a CNG engine running at Stoichiometric ratio to a Hydrogen engine
running with ½ of the fuel of Stoichiometric ratio the expected torque output will
be much lower for the lean hydrogen engine without the aid of forced induction.
The H2 Mustang Engine is turbocharged which can help to compensate for the
lean equivalence ratio via increased airflow but not until the exhaust mass flow
through the turbine is sufficient for the compressor to produce boosted intake
system pressure. In the regions of operation where boost is not yet produced
there may be significantly lower torque output than an equivalent CNG engine
due to the lower energy content of lean operation. Further increase in
equivalence ratio will lead to increase in NOx emissions as well as lead to back
fire. Therefore it is necessary to have a trade off among NOx emissions,
equivalence ratio and turbocharger design so as to get improved torque
characteristics without pre-ignition and backfire.
(p) Brake thermal efficiency:
The brake thermal efficiency of the hydrogen engine is higher than the
CNG engine (35 .6 % peaks). In hydrogen peak efficiency of 38 % is achieved
which is due to the better combustion of hydrogen compared to the CNG. The
improvement is thermal efficiency is one of the target specification of this project
and it is achieved (Fig.3.19).
62
Fig.3.19 Brake Thermal Efficiency of Hydrogen fuelled Multicylinder Engine
(q) Combustion Data Measured at IIT Delhi
Fig 3.20 indicates the Cylinder pressure w.r.t cank angle in the hydrogen
IC engine
Fig.3.20 In cylinder Pressure Measured at 2000 rpm WOT and Ignition Timing
of 7.7 deg BTDC
(r) Vehicle 3-D CAD Packaging:
Fig 3.21 shows the final complete packaging of Hydrogen cylinders,
Engine, Air intake system, Exhaust system and Cooling System.
63
Fig.3.21 Vehicle Hydrogen Component CAD Drawing
(s) Fuel System Packaging: Six Hydrogen Cylinder of 74 L water capacity are
packaged currently on the vehicle (Fig 3.22). Dynatek Valves are installed on
each cylinder and the same is shown below for reference. Each valve is actuated
after the ignition-on and gets deactivated once we switch off the ignition key.
Fig.3.22 Hydrogen Cylinder Mounting CAD representation
Hydrogen Fuel at a pressure of 200 bar flows from the Cylinders to the
mid-pressure regulator and after the mid-pressure regulator the pressure reduces
from 200 bar to 15 bar. The pressure further reduces to around 4.44 bar after
passing through the low pressure regulator. The low pressure regulator is
64
actuated through ECU by the low pressure solenoid which gets activated after
the ignition key is ‘on’. The packaging of the mid-pressure regulator, low pressure
solenoid and the low pressure regulator are shown in Fig 3.23. Pressure relief
lines are installed with a flash back arrester so that in case of fire happens
outside, flash back arresters won’t allow the fire to reach the cylinders. Hydrogen
leak sensors are also packaged at four locations, one in the engine compartment
and three near the cylinder area to inform the ECU as well as driver if any leak
happens during the vehicle running conditions.
Fig.3.23 Hydrogen Layout Model
(t) Hydrogen Leak Detection Strategy: In the vehicle 4 Hydrogen leak sensors
are installed, three near to the hydrogen cylinder region and one near the engine
compartment (Fig 3.24). Based on the leak intensity detected, the information is
send to the ECU and vehicle will go limp home mode. Near to the cluster, a small
display unit is installed to display the leak information to the driver.
65
Fig.3.24 Hydrogen Leak Detection Sensors
3.8.4. Hydrogen fuelled Dual Fuel Engines
The dual fuel method offers a very simple solution to use hydrogen in a
diesel engine with high thermal efficiencies. The dual fuel engine also does not
suffer from problems like flash back that is experienced in hydrogen fuelled SI
engines. These engines can also revert to normal diesel operation easily. The
amount of secondary fuel that can be used along with diesel depends on its
nature. Only small amounts of hydrogen can be tolerated along with the
secondary fuel as combustion rates get enhanced significantly. Even in the neat
hydrogen diesel or hydrogen biodiesel dual fuel mode only small amounts (about
30% energy share) of hydrogen can be used. However, even these small
hydrogen shares are sufficient to significantly enhance efficiency and lower HC
and smoke emissions. If the injection timing is suitably adjusted NOx emissions
do not increase significantly. Hydrogen can be introduced in a dual fuel engine
along with the intake air. However techniques to inject hydrogen directly into the
intake after injection of a small amount of diesel called the pilot has been found
to be very effective. Dual injectors that can inject both diesel and hydrogen have
been developed but are not in series production and are quite expensive. Dual
fuel engines can use hydrogen in practically any proportion based on its
availability. Power outputs greater than normal diesel operation can be reached.
66
Simulation studies have indicated that it is possible to achieve BMEPs of about
35 bar. Knocking in dual fuel engines normally occurs when the amount of
secondary fuel is sufficiently high while the pilot diesel quantity is also quite
significant. In the case of hydrogen it has been reported that the knock regions of
equivalence ratio are rather wide as compared to other fuels like natural gas.
Thus dual fuel hydrogen engines have to be operated with proper control. Control
of injection timing of pilot diesel and hydrogen flow rate are essential and these
can be achieved through the use of an electronic controller. In general a viable
route is injection of hydrogen into the manifold and direct injection of diesel. In
this mode the diesel replacement will be around 25% and beyond this knocking
will be a problem.
Hydrogen can be used along with low grade fuels like biogas particularly
for stationary applications and also for locomotive applications. Figures 3.25 and
3.26 indicate the benefits of adding hydrogen in small quantities to biogas in the
dual fuel mode when diesel is used as the pilot fuel. We see that even about 10%
hydrogen use on the energy basis can significantly enhance thermal efficiency
and reduce HC emissions also significantly. The effect on NOx is not significant.
The enhancement in the peak heat release rate is evident from the Fig. 3.26 (a
and b). In general hydrogen leads to faster and more complete combustion of
biogas. Hydrogen can also be used along with biodiesel to enhance
performance. Significant reductions in HC levels and smoke have been observed
with both straight vegetable oils and also with biodiesel.
67
Fig.3.25 (a and b) Effect of hydrogen on improving biogas diesel dual
fuel combustion
Fig. 3.26 (a and b) Effect of hydrogen on combustion and NO emission in
biogas diesel dual fuel mode
a. Hydrogen blended Compressed Natural Gas (HCNG)
HCNG is a mixture of natural gas and hydrogen, usually 5-7 percent
hydrogen by energy and around 20% by volume. Natural gas is about 85+%
methane, along with small amounts of ethane, propane, higher hydrocarbons,
and “inert” like carbon dioxide or nitrogen. Methane has a relatively narrow
68
flammability range that limits the fuel efficiency and oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
emissions improvements that are possible at lean air/fuel ratios. The addition of
even a small amount of hydrogen, however, extends the lean flammability range
significantly. Methane has a slow flame speed, especially in lean air/fuel
mixtures, while hydrogen has a flame speed about eight times faster. Methane is
a fairly stable molecule that can be difficult to ignite, but hydrogen has an ignition
energy requirement about 25 times lower than methane.
Methane can be difficult to completely combust in the engine or catalyze in
exhaust after treatment converters. In contrast, hydrogen is a powerful
combustion stimulant for accelerating the methane combustion within an engine,
and hydrogen is also a powerful reducing agent for efficient catalysis at lower
exhaust temperature.
HCNG is said to be the transition fuel due to the following reasons:
Low cost technology
Uses existing Natural Gas/H2 infrastructure
5-7% by Energy H2/Natural gas
NOx reduction compared with NG
Suitable for CNG / LNG/Dual fuel
HCNG meets BS IV/Euro V norms.
It was proposed in India, to study the possibility of using Hydrogen-CNG
blends on existing CNG vehicles, as India already has a vast experience of
handling CNG as an automotive fuel. Studies indicate that a small proportion of
hydrogen blended in CNG (Fig 3.27) in a conventional internal combustion
engine may both increase overall efficiency and reduce pollution. Since,
hydrogen is a clean burning fuel which has potential of production from fast
developing renewable energy sources, it could address several potential
problems related to energy security and environmental pollution. With the
existing natural gas infrastructure in India, this application of using hydrogen with
CNG may offer many advantages.
69
Fig.3.27 HCNG Operating System
Fig.3.28 HCNG Dispenser at IOCL
With this broad view, the project on “Use of Hydrogen (up to 30%) as
Fuel Blended with Compressed Natural Gas in Internal Combustion
Engines” was envisaged under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE) with the following objectives to be met: (Report submitted by SIAM to
MNRE).
70
Use of Hydrogen in Compressed Natural Gas (H2-CNG) Blends up to 30% in
IC Engine
Evaluation of Emission & Performance Characteristics with different HCNG
blends on Vehicles.
i. Participating Organizations
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE)
Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM)* with five
– participating members:
Ashok Leyland
Bajaj Auto
VE Commercial Vehicles
Mahindra & Mahindra Limited and
Tata Motors
Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (IOCL)
Following vehicles were deployed for testing and demonstration:
Ashok Leyland Stag 4200 mm CNG Bus
Bajaj RE 4S CNG 3-Wheeler Passenger
Mahindra Bolero
Mahindra Champion CNG 3-Wheeler Cargo
TATA LP 407 4SP CNG Mini Bus
Tata Indica
VE Commercial Vehicles CNG 10.9 K Cargo Truck
The project work plan was consisted of following broad activities:
Tests with Different H2-CNG Blends
Selection of Optimized Blend Ratio for Engine Modification
Engine Optimization with Finalized Blend
Road Endurance Testing up to 50000 km with emission tests at every
10000
Analysis of Test Results & Recommendations
71
The vehicles were tested on Chassis Dynamometers at IOC R&D,
Faridabad as per Delhi Bus Driving Cycle for buses, Modified Indian Driving
Cycle for Passenger Cars and Indian Driving Cycle for 3-Wheelers. Based on the
analysis of the results, it was found that 18% of H-CNG (18% by volume,
Hydrogen blended with CNG) appeared to be the optimum H-CNG blend from
the viewpoint of having maximum engine output and minimum NOx emissions. It
was then decided that with 18% H-CNG blend, fine optimization of vehicles
would be carried out for undertaking vehicle field trials.
During this phase of the project, India’s first dispensing station for H-CNG
blends were also commissioned by IOCL on experimental basis (Fig: 3.28) . One
station was commissioned at Dwarka, New Delhi and the other station was
commissioned inside the campus of IOC R&D, Faridabad. These dispensing
stations had state-of-the-art features like:
Designed to supply Hydrogen and H-CNG blend ratios from 5% to 50%
Delivery of H-CNG at a pressure of 200 bar
Delivery of pure hydrogen at a pressure of 350 bar
Fast filling of the vehicle storage tanks (20 kg/min)
ii. Engine Optimization with Finalized Blend
Based on the phase-1 tests (Table 3.3) to obtain the desirable blend of
Hydrogen and CNG with an optimal engine performance and reduction in NOx
emissions, 18% HCNG blends was finalized. The vehicles were developed with
engine optimization on 18% HCNG blend. These development tests were carried
out before the start of field trials. Below is the chart of the finalized results with
100% CNG and 18% HCNG.
Table 3.3: Baseline testing of HCNG Vehicles
72
Fuel/Vehicle
CO
(g/km)
THC
(g/km)
NOx
(g/km)
CO2
(g/Km)
CO
(g/Km)
THC
(g/Km)
NOx
(g/Km)
CO2
(g/Km)
CO
(g/kw-hr)
THC
(g/kw-hr)
NOx
(g/kw-hr)
CO2
(g/Km)
100% CNG 0.338 0.499 0.345 470.4 0.795 0.588 0.586 1.42 1.33 3.7
18% HCNG 0.179 0.394 0.368 314.3 0.282 0.388 0.536 0.65 0.72 3.33
Fuel/Vehicle
CO
(g/Km)
THC
(g/Km)
NOx
(g/Km)
CO2
(g/Km)
CO
(g/Km)
THC
(g/Km)
NOx
(g/Km)
CO2
(g/Km)
CO
(g/kw-hr)
THC
(g/kw-hr)
NOx
(g/kw-hr)
CO2
(g/Km)
CO
(g/Km)
THC
(g/Km)
NOx
(g/Km)
CO2
(g/Km)
100% CNG 1.476 0.512 1.271 0.88 0.41 0.07 205 0.45 0.5 0.2 0.247 0.063 0.022 119.5
18% HCNG 0.394 0.342 1.521 0.3 0.24 0.06 195 0.15 1 1.39 0.186 0.057 0.036 102.1
Emission Testing with Optimized Engine/Vehicle on Respective Fuel
Mahindra Champion BS-II Mahindra Bolero BS-IV Tata LP 407 BS-III Tata Indica BS-IV
Ashok Leyland Stag BS-III Bajaj 3-Wheeler BS-III Eicher 10.9 K Cargo BS-IV
Following are the observations basis the above results:
With HCNG blending, CO has reduced for all the vehicles as compared to
100% CNG.
With HCNG blending, THC has reduced for all the vehicles except one
vehicle as compared to 100% CNG.
With HCNG blending, no common trend (increase or decrease) in NOx
emissions is observed.
With HCNG blending, CO2 is found to be reduced in three vehicles out of
seven vehicles. However, test data of all the vehicles was not available.
iii. Field Trials (up to 50,000 km with emission tests at every 10,000 km)
Post fine optimization of the participant vehicles at 18% HCNG blend, the
field trials were undertaken with the following broad objectives:
– To determine deterioration due to ageing. For this purpose, emission
testing at every 10,000 km was carried out.
– To observe general road worthiness against safety related hazard
especially for fuel affected components such as fuel storage cylinders,
engine and engine parts, fuel line etc.
During the course of the project, it was agreed that other than 3-Wheelers,
all vehicles would accumulate 50,000 km. For 3-Wheelers, it was agreed to
accumulate 30,000 km for the purpose of field trials.
73
Fig.3.29 Results of Tail pipe Emission for HCNG Blended Heavy Duty Bus/Truck
74
Fig.3.30 Results of Tail pipe Emission for HCNG Blended Light Duty Three
Wheelers
75
Fig.3.31 Results of Tail pipe Emission for HCNG Blends by Various Automotive
Companies
76
With 18% HCNG, the deterioration has been consistent and within limits
for all participating vehicles. As such no rapid deterioration in the tail pipe
emissions is reported due to the blended fuel.
Fig.3.32 HCNG Vehicles of Different Make and Model
(b) Dual Fuel Application: Hydrogen-Diesel
The dual-fuel system is a supplementary fuel delivery system that works in
conjunction with the vehicle’s diesel engine control system. The dual-fuel
system supplies the engine with the alternative fuel and reduces the diesel
consumption. The system is designed to work seamlessly with few requirements
from the vehicle operator which allows the vehicle to be driven just like any
other. The only additional requirement is some monitoring of the fuel storage
system to ensure safe use of the fuel.
i. To optimize the blend ratio for hydrogen and diesel for different load
conditions on the vehicle
ii. To develop a stable practical vehicle system with electronic control
unit to run at the optimized condition.
iii. To develop a demo fleet for field trials or technology demonstration
after the completion of optimization work of the blend ratio for different
conditions.
77
(b) Electronic Control System Design
Electronically controlling a compression ignition engine provides the
needed flexibility to realize the full benefits of an alternative fuel. Compression
ignition engines present a unique challenge to the electronic control system
because a small amount of diesel fuel is still required to initiate the combustion.
This added complexity to the control system because the controller was
required to handle both sets of fuel injection systems. The dual-fuel control
system is composed of two major systems; the hardware and the software. The
hardware represents a specialized collection of electronic circuitry that
communicates with sensors and drives various control actuators. The software
is a compilation of specialty firmware that performs fueling calculations and
provides instruction to the hardware.
(c) Dual Fuel Controller
The dual-fuel control module (DFCM) is an auxiliary electronic control unit
that interfaces with the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) engine control
module (ECM) in order to control the fuel injected into the engine. The DFCM
uses the OEM injection signals from the ECM along with various signals from
engine sensors to perform the injector driving functions. All injection signals are
routed through the DFCM hardware regardless of fuel mode. The DFCM also
contains inputs and outputs for controlling and monitoring the additional
gaseous fuel.
The diesel injection signals are rerouted from the original injector control
circuits into the DFCM. Inside the DFCM the signals pass through simulator coils
to prevent diagnostic test failures in the ECM (Fig 3.33). The DFCM then
measures the injection signals and may modify the signal depending on the fuel
mode. The dual fuel software determines the appropriate injection pulse width
and timing based on several fuel maps and the various inputs from the OEM
sensors. The injection signals are then sent to specialized peak and hold
injector driver circuitry which supplies the appropriate level of current to the
diesel injector. The DFCM also controls the injection of the alternative fuel
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through the additional injectors plumbed into the intake of the engine. During
dual-fuel operation the controller software determines the appropriate pulse
width for the injectors based on fuel maps stored in the module. The alternative
fuel injection signals are also sent to specialized peak and hold injector driver
circuitry which supplies the injector with the proper level of current.
Fig.3.33 ECU Layout for Dual Fuel Vehicle
(d) Description about the Vehicle layout:
Hydrogen is filled through the hydrogen receptacle at 200 bar pressure in
slow stage filling process using air products hydrogen filling station at
UPES/Pragati maidan. Air product Inc has installed the hydrogen filling station
which meets all safety standards for hydrogen filling which has provision to
monitor tank pressure and temperature during filling and control the rate of the
dispersion in smooth manner to ensure safe filling process. The pressure during
the filling can be monitored through a pressure gauge fitted in the inlet line to
cylinder take care of the safety. The hydrogen is then passed on through non
return valve and the in tank solenoid valve to the hydrogen cylinder. Hydrogen
79
cylinder used is a Type III cylinder which is having a rated capacity of 350 bar
however the filling is restricted maximum to 200 bar. As the solenoid actuation
closes the outlet line of the valve the stored hydrogen is not allowed to pass on
the exit line. Once the ECU is key on, it will give signal for valve actuation then
only solenoid will allow the hydrogen to flow out.
In tank solenoid valve is also having additional safety features such as
pressure relief device which will release the hydrogen if over pressured or
exceeded the design set temperature to avoid the cylinder explosion. The tank
solenoid valve is also houses an inbuilt excess flow valve in order to prevent
rapid dispersion of gas in case of high pressure line puncture from storage tank
to manual valve. The vent line is having additional safety device namely flash
back arrestor to avoid the reverse flow of hydrogen from the vent line in-case of
backfire.
The exit of the hydrogen gas from the in-tank solenoid is passed through a
Manual valve to cut the hydrogen flow manually in case of any service or during
leakage in the high pressure line. The hydrogen flow is then allowed to pass
through an excess flow valve whose function is to prevent the excess flow of
hydrogen beyond set flow which prevent rapid dispersion of hydrogen even in
the incident of leakage in high pressure line. The gas from the manual valve is
passed on through particulate filter to prevent any impurities reaching pressure
regulator. The filtered gas is then passed through the high pressure electro-
mechanical (solenoid) valve controlled by ECU and then to the pressure
regulator to reduce from tank pressure to gauge pressure of 4.0 bar. The
reduced hydrogen gas is supplied to gas rail that houses one low pressure
transducer to monitor the pressure in the gas rail in order to ensure the
operation of engine within the injection pressure and two Keihin Injectors which
will inject the gas into the intake line after compressor out.
In addition to above safety precaution there will be four hydrogen sensors
placed, two in the engine compartment and two on the storage compartment. If
80
there is a hydrogen leakage it will send signal to the ECU which will cut supply
to the in-tank solenoid and hydrogen supply is stopped. In additional to all there
is a crash sensor installed below the rear seat to cut off power supply to ECU
and Hydrogen solenoid in case of accident. Instead of all safety features a fire
extinguisher is also placed to the driver seat to cut off the fire due to accident.
All tubes are Swagelok made SS tubing’s and its double feral type connectors.
81
Fig.3.34 Hydrogen Component Layout
82
(e) Gaseous Fuel Safety System
The safety system provides real-time gas detection and automatic fuel
isolation. Hydrogen, unlike other transportation fuels, is colorless and odorless
so electronic detectors are required. The system is composed of four main
components which include:
Gas detectors,
Inertia switch,
Solenoid isolation valves, and
Dual-Fuel control module.
The gas detectors are placed throughout the vehicle near critical areas of
the high pressure fuel delivery system. The detectors sense the presence of the
fuel, inform the DFCM of a problem, and disconnect power from the solenoid
isolation valves. The solenoid valves are normally closed solenoid driven gas
valves located in each fuel tank and at the pressure regulator. If power is cut
from the valves they close preventing the release of gas. The inertia switch
senses vehicle impact and disconnects power from the solenoid valves in the
event of a collision. The DFCM performs the automatic fuel switching, diagnostic
tests, and informs the driver through the display module.
1. Display module
A display module (Fig 3.35) is provided with the dual-fuel control system to
provide the vehicle operator with real-time information about the dual-fuel
system. This includes messages about the fuel modes and safety system status.
An alternative fuel tank level and real-time diesel fuel replacement rate gauge is
provided. The module houses a fuel mode switch that allows the user to select
the fuel mode. Also contained in the display module is a communication port for
connection to a PC which allows a calibration engineer to tune the control
system. Below is an image of the typical display information.
83
Fig.3.35 Fuelling Mode Representation
2. Fuel Modes
The dual fuel control system can operate on two modes available to the
vehicle operator in normal operation. These are the diesel only mode and the
dual fuel mode and can be selected by turning the fuel mode switch on or off.
The display will indicate the mode at the top as well as the measured position of
the fuel mode switch. In Diesel mode the vehicle will run exclusively on the
diesel fuel similar to that of a stock vehicle. In this mode the diesel injection
output signals from the DFCM are a replication of the input signals from the
OEM controller. The injection commands are effectively passed through the
DFCM. In Dual-Fuel mode the vehicle will run on a combination of alternative
fuel and diesel. The amount of diesel replaced by the alternative fuel will vary
depending on the engine operating conditions. The DFCM will output the
appropriate diesel and alternative fuel injection output based on the
predetermined maps. The display will also show the real-time substitution or
diesel replacement rate.
3. Operating on dual fuel
The dual fuel system is almost entirely automatic requiring little input from
the operator. To operate the vehicle in automatic dual fuel mode put the fuel
84
mode select switch in the on position. The fuel select switch is located on the
top of the display module. The display will indicate the fuel select switch..
The fuel select switch can be left in the on position at all times unless dual
fuel operation is not desired. Once the dual fuel mode is selected by the fuel
select switch, the DFCM enters the automatic fuel switching stage. In this stage
several parameters are checked to ensure operating conditions are adequate for
dual fuel operation. After all tests are passed the system will open the solenoid
valves. Approximately 2 seconds after the valves have been opened the system
will enter dual fuel operation. The display will indicate the mode change as
shown below.
(i) Calibration
The calibration for diesel to dual fuel migration and back to diesel based
on the varying load points and speed condition are challenging. Since the
energy content of diesel and hydrogen are different at any point of transition we
required the similar amount of torque then only transition will be smoother else it
will cause jerk in drivability. The diesel injection strategy is having multiple pilot
injection and one or two main injection which also varies on the load conditions.
Hence matching the injection pattern of diesel and using different methodology
to take the pilot injection in dual fuel mode is complex if not calibrated properly it
will results in knock. Also the fuel substitution have to be happened by having
the control over the emissions. Hence the development of dual fuel system has
to be engine specific and same methodology cannot be deployed in all category
of vehicles since the base diesel system will vary (Rotary pump, inline pump,
LCCR, Common rail etc.)
The drivability also requires recalibration due to the difference in
environmental conditions. The vehicle was recalibrated with Indian conditions
considering change in coolant temperature, Inlet air temperature, drivability. The
drivability of the dual fuel vehicle (Fig: 3.36) was assessed with different gear
85
ratio and ensures the smoother drivability in different driving conditions. The
vehicle was rechecked on Chassis dyno with Indian driving cycle to assess the
performance. The performance was at similar with diesel after necessary fine
tuning. Smoke emissions where measured for diesel and dual fuel and it has
been compared. The Max substitution rate for hydrogen replacement is around
55 %.
Fig. 3.36 Dual fuel vehicle
(ii) Key Environmental benefits:
Substitution of close to 45 % diesel with renewable Hydrogen on Indian
drive cycle
The reduction of emissions; C0- 68 %, NOx- At par, HC- 68 %, PM- 30%
Greenhouse gas reduction - CO2 by 25 %
Energy efficiency enhanced by 5-10 % for the same vehicle to diesel fuel.
3.8.5. Neat Hydrogen (HHCCI) and Hydrogen Diesel HCCI (HDHCCI) engines
Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is a concept where in a lean
homogeneous mixture of air and fuel is compressed and ignited. Compression
86
of this mixture leads to auto-ignition in multiple locations, followed by
combustion that is significantly faster than the conventional Otto or Diesel
modes. In HCCI engines, combustion rate is controlled by chemical kinetics.
This mode of combustion is known to produce extremely low levels of NOx
emissions because of the low peak temperatures that are reached. HCCI
engines have the potential to work with high thermal efficiencies. However,
controlling combustion at relatively high equivalence ratios and sustaining
combustion at very low equivalence ratios without misfire are some of the
problems that are faced. Control of the temperature of the intake charge, use of
diluents along with the main fuel to suppress combustion rate, use of low self
ignition temperature additives, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and multiple
pulse diesel injection are some of the methods that have been used to control
the combustion process in HCCI engines. Several liquid and gaseous fuels have
been tried in the HCCI mode and most work has been concentrated on diesel
and natural gas.
HCCI with diesel is generally associated with problems like too early
combustion phasing and low efficiency, high HC emissions, high particulate
emissions, lubricating oil dilution and poor load range. Most of the problems with
diesel fuelled HCCI engines are due to the poor volatility and low self ignition
temperature of diesel. Thus gaseous fuels are preferred in HCCI engines as
they can form mixtures readily with air and also have relatively high self ignition
temperatures. Natural gas been used in the neat form and along with diesel in
HCCI engines. The high self ignition temperature of natural gas necessitates the
use of very high intake charge temperatures. Neat natural gas operation was
possible with an intake temperature of around 470 K. This could be reduced
through the simultaneous use of diesel in small quantities (about 10% of the
total energy). Use of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) in a neat natural gas HCCI
operation is preferred as it can lower the combustion rate and through proper
combustion phasing increase the thermal efficiency and extend the load range.
87
Neat hydrogen fuelled HCCI operation was possible with equivalence ratios
between 0.19 and 0.30 with a compression ratio of 16:1 and intake charge
temperatures in the range of 130 to 80°C. Increase in the intake charge
temperature led to advanced start of combustion and increased heat release
rates which resulted in lower efficiencies. At any given equivalence ratio it is
better to operate at the lowest possible charge temperature. The highest brake
thermal efficiency was 24.2% at a BMEP of 2.2 bar (at an intake charge
temperature of 80°C) where as it was only 21.5% with diesel operation at the
same BMEP. The range of BMEPs was limited by knock. Figures 3.37 and 3.38
indicate the thermal efficiency and NOx emissions at different BMEPs and
charge temperatures in the hydrogen HCCI (HHCCI) mode. The level of NO
emissions were lesser than 25 ppm in the HHCCI mode. It was 430 ppm with
diesel mode of operation. Addition of CO2 was effective in terms of increasing
the thermal efficiency and also extending the operation to higher BMEPs (2.2
bar to 3.1 bar). The thermal efficiency was also elevated. The thermal efficiency
of the hydrogen HCCI mode could exceed that of the hydrogen SI mode of
operation but the IMEP range is limited. A comparison of the thermal efficiencies
and NO emissions between the CI and hydrogen HCCI modes is seen in Figs
3.39 and 3.40. The thermal efficiency is significantly higher and NO levels are
very low even at high BMEPs. However, the range of usable BMEPs is narrow
and is limited by knock.
88
Figs.3.37 and 3.38 : variation of efficiency and NO emissions in the neat
hydrogen HCCI mode
Figs.3.39 and 3.40 : Comparison of diesel (CI) and hydrogen HCCI modes
Addition of hydrogen to the charge in a diesel fuelled HCCI engine was
found to be beneficial. HCCI engines with hydrogen being inducted and diesel
being injected into the cylinder using a common rail system have been
successfully demonstrated. Increase in the amount of hydrogen improved the
thermal efficiency of diesel fuelled HCCI operation by correctly phasing the
combustion process. The maximum brake thermal efficiencies reached were
significantly higher than the diesel HCCI mode and BMEPs of about 4 bar could
be reached with EGR. This could be enhanced by turbo charging. The brake
thermal efficiency increases as we increase the hydrogen quantity and the
maximum values are reached close to misfiring conditions as we see in Figs.
3.41 and 3.42. EGR allows higher hydrogen energy ratios to be used. There was
a need to vary the injection timing with the amount of hydrogen used and also
with respect to the load. This was easily achieved with the common rail system.
Low hydrogen energy ratios led to knock while increasing the hydrogen energy
ratio to high levels led to misfiring just after the best thermal efficiency point was
reached. NO levels decreased with increase in the hydrogen energy ratio at all
operating conditions due to reduction in the combustion rate. Extremely low
levels of NOx could be reached as seen in Figs 3.43 and 3.44. The NOx levels
89
were also lower than the diesel HCCI mode. The HC levels that are normally high
in the diesel HCCI mode are reduced with the introduction of hydrogen. As the
load increases the maximum amount of hydrogen that could be used was
reduced. In general hydrogen can be used to phase the combustion process and
also achieve combustion without intake charge heating in the case of diesel fuel
HCCI operation. The amount of hydrogen that can be used could vary from 50%
to about 10% of the overall energy input. The load range is limited and hence this
mode has to be used along with neat diesel or dual fuel mode of operation.
Figs.3.41 and 3.42: Brake thermal efficiency in the hydrogen diesel HCCI mode
Figs.3.43 and 3.44 : NO emissions in the hydrogen
90
Hydrogen has been used as a fuel additive to improve the performance of
HCCI engines with other fuels like natural gas and biogas. When hydrogen is
added to natural gas in a HCCI engine, lower intake temperatures are needed
and the start of combustion gets advanced. Thermal efficiency was improved and
NOx level was considerably reduced due to the effect of reduction in the charge
temperature. It has been reported that the addition of hydrogen will contribute H
atoms which will aid the auto-ignition of methane. The start of combustion is
advanced with the introduction of hydrogen. In a biogas fuelled HCCI engine
exhaust gas fuel reforming was adopted to produce hydrogen for enhancing the
combustion of biogas. Addition of hydrogen in a HCCI engine with manifold
injection of diesel retarded the combustion and led to increased thermal
efficiency and power output. The Biogas has been shown to have good potential
for HCCI operation. The neat biogas fuelled HCCI mode has been tried with inlet
charge temperatures of about 200°C and the range of equivalence ratios that
could be used were in the range 0.25 to 0.4. The intake charge temperature
needed for operating a biogas fuelled HCCI engine can be reduced by the
addition of hydrogen. It was also found that hydrogen could extend the amount of
biogas that can be used before misfiring occurs in HCCI engines. Figure 3.45
indicates the results with biogas diesel HCCI operation where small amounts of
hydrogen have been used. Hydrogen increases the thermal efficiency and also
extends the amount of biogas that can be used. The heat release rate shown in
Fig.46 shows that introduction of hydrogen has allowed proper combustion
phasing and also increased the combustion rate which is the reason for the high
thermal efficiency. Figures 3.47 and 3.48 indicate that the NO level with
hydrogen addition is still extremely low and also that the injection timing of diesel
has to be changed as the amount of biogas is varied. This variation in injection
timing of diesel can only be achieved through a common rail controller
specifically developed for HCCI operation.
91
Figs. 3.45 and 3.46: Effect of hydrogen on biogas diesel HCCI mode (efficiency
and combustion)
92
Figs. 3.47 and 3.48: Effect of hydrogen on biogas diesel HCCI mode (NO
emission and injection timing)
93
3.9. Hydrogen Safety as Automotive Fuel
3.9.1 Safe and Abundant Fuel Source
Hydrogen is commonly used in many industrial applications and has one
of the best safety records of all fuels. While it is flammable and potentially
explosive in high concentrations, the gas is light and quickly disperses into the
atmosphere when a container in which it is concentrated ruptures.
Hydrogen is very easily ignited. A spark from static electricity, a vehicle
tailpipe, electrical device, or even a hot surface can all ignite a mixture of air and
leaked hydrogen within its flammable range. On a vehicle, static electricity is
removed by proper grounding and bonding of electrical components. Fuel tanks,
lines, and connections should be deliberately placed so that they avoid surfaces
that might be hot or a source of ignition.
3.9.2. Hydrogen Leakage and Implications
Leakage, diffusion, and buoyancy: These hazards result from the difficulty
in containing hydrogen. Hydrogen diffuses extensively, and when a liquid
spill or large gas release occurs, a combustible mixture can form over a
considerable distance from the spill location.
Hydrogen, in both the liquid and gaseous states, is particularly subject to
leakage because of its low viscosity and low molecular weight (leakage is
inversely proportional to viscosity). Because of its low viscosity alone, the
leakage rate of liquid hydrogen is roughly 100 times that of JP-4 fuel, 50
times that of water and 10 times that of liquid nitrogen.
Hydrogen leaks can support combustion at very low flow rates, as low as
4 micrograms/s.
94
3.9.3. Hydrogen vehicle hazards
The largest amount of hydrogen at any given time is present in the tank.
Several tank failure modes may be considered in both normal operation and
collision, such as:
catastrophic rupture, due to manufacturing defect in tank, external fire
combined with failure of pressure relief device to open;
Massive leak, due to faulty pressure relief device tripping without cause or
chemically induced fault in tank wall.
Slow leak due to stress cracks in tank liner, faulty pressure relief device,
or faulty coupling from tank to the feed line.
Most of the above discussed failure modes may be either avoided or their
occurrence and consequences minimized by:
leak prevention through a proper system design, selection of adequate
equipment (some further testing and investigation may be required),
allowing for tolerance of shocks and vibrations, locating a pressure relief
device vent, protecting the high pressure lines, installing a normally closed
solenoid valve on each tank line, etc.
leak detection by either a leak detector
Ignition prevention, through automatically disconnecting battery, thus
eliminating source of electrical sparks and by designing the system for
both active and passive ventilation (such as an opening to allow the
hydrogen to escape upward).
3.9.4. Removing the Fuel Source—Avoiding and Detecting Leaks
Good design for a fuel system involves two major principles:
Avoiding leaks of hydrogen fuel
Detecting leaks of hydrogen fuel
95
The most likely locations for a hydrogen leak are at joints and connections
in the high-pressure hydrogen fuel system. Hydrogen gas is the smallest of all
molecules and can, therefore, move more easily through joints than other gases.
Tightening to the correct torque as specified by the manufacturer and use of
only approved replacement parts.
In a properly designed and maintained hydrogen fuel system, the most
likely location for a hydrogen release will be through the PRD/TRD. If the
PRD/TRD is properly oriented, a release will pose little danger to the vehicle, the
operator, or the public. All vehicles that use hydrogen fuel should also be
equipped with one or more sensors to detect hydrogen leaks (Fig 3.49). Sensors
should be linked to the vehicle control system. If hydrogen levels approaching
the lower limit of flammability are detected, the system will automatically shut
down the vehicle and close valves to isolate the hydrogen within the high-
pressure tank. In most cases, this will stop the source of the leak and remove
any hazard. Some vehicles may include an “override” switch that will allow the
vehicle to operate for a short time, even after a hydrogen leak has been
detected. This switch should only be used in case of extreme emergency, for
example, to move the vehicle out of high speed traffic.
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Fig. 3.49 Multiple safety systems in hydrogen fueled vehicles
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3.9.5. Hydrogen Leak Detection Systems
The following are some considerations for the design of a hydrogen leak
detection system.
Sum all possible sources to be monitored, such as valves, flanges,
connections, expansion joints, etc.
Evaluate the designed response time of the leak detection system and
determine if it will be suitable for the needs of the hydrogen system at
hand.
Provide for visual and audible alarming as conditions approach a danger
level. The alarm set point should be adjusted to actuate while the
hydrogen is still in a "safe" condition, and approaching a dangerous one.
Develop a maintenance program to periodically clean and recalibrate
portable and fixed detectors and validate acceptable performance of
same.
The atmospheric sampling equipment should detect hydrogen at 20
percent of its lower flammability limit (LFL), or 0.8 percent by volume, in
air. (0.8% by volume in air = 20% of the LFL, 4% by volume in air).
3.9.6. Ventilating Enclosed Spaces
Hydrogen leaking into open air poses very little danger to anyone—it will quickly
dissipate to non-flammable levels. Hydrogen that leaks into an enclosed space
potentially presents a much greater hazard. When designing a hydrogen fuelled
vehicle, it is important to minimize all potential for hydrogen to leak into the
passenger compartment, trunk, cargo space, wheel wells, and other enclosed
spaces. This is done through careful placement of fuel tanks, lines, and
connections. It may also be advisable to provide ventilation openings in
locations that might not otherwise require them, specifically to vent any leaked
hydrogen.
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Another important consideration is placement of the outlet for any
PRDs/TRDs. These outlets should be at the top surface of the vehicle and
pointed away from the passenger or cargo compartment.
The most important safety principle in any situation is education—making
anyone who will come into contact with a vehicle aware of a potential hazard.
For hydrogen and other alternative-fuelled vehicles, this is done with appropriate
labelling to let users, emergency responders, and the public know that hydrogen
is present.
More information on the above aspect can be accessed from the report by
the Sub-Committees on “Hydrogen Storage” & “Hydrogen Safety”
3.10 Status of Hydrogen Powered Vehicles in India
Status of Hydrogen Powered Vehicles in India is given below:
Table.3.4 : Targeted Hydrogen Powered Vehicles on Road by 2020 and
present status
Target 2020 Current Status
1,000,000 vehicles on road 0 : On road <100 :Demonstration
750,000 two/three wheelers < 50*
150,000 cars/taxis etc < 10**
100,000 buses, vans etc < 10***
*15 Hydrogen Three Wheelers under MNRE sponsored project by IIT Delhi and
M&M
*Several Three Hydrogen wheelers by IIT BHU
** Few by IIT BHU
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*** Two Min bus Developed under MNRE Mission Mode Project by IIT Delhi and
MNRE
Immediate Steps/ Actions to be taken to improve these figures
Hydrogen Production and Availability to be strengthened. R&D for
technological advancement in production methodology and economics of
production.
Innovative injector design to be carried out for indigenous low cost
hydrogen specific injectors.
Hydrogen gas or vehicular application has mostly utilized compressed gas
technology for fuel storage. Hydrogen gas is stored in Type III and Type
IV cylinders now. These cylinders are expensive as they are imported
from foreign companies. Mochas been developing Type III cylinder at
their R&D facility, it is extremely necessary to develop indigenously such
technology so that local manufacturing could bring the cost down.
Infrastructure development for hydrogen economy. Currently limited
number of fuelling stations available and with current available
dispensing stations certain undergoing project requirements are no able
to meet. It is necessary to chalk out expansion plans if hydrogen
economy to establish.
Hydrogen specific guidelines to be established for various aspects of
hydrogen economy based on which approvals could be given by various
certifying agencies like PESO, ARAI etc. Safety regulations, legislations,
codes and standards to be fully in place at the earliest.
3.11 Legislative Requirements for Hydrogen Economy
In India there is no legislative approval available for the Hydrogen vehicle. In
order to make the hydrogen vehicles to production the following are required.
Safety approval by modification in AIS 024, 028 standards for Hydrogen,
HCNG
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Regulatory Type approval to be developed for Hydrogen.
For hydrogen fuel due to low density in nature requires higher storage
pressure of 350, 700 bar. In India currently 200 bar storage is followed
and it has to be enhanced to have amicable driving range on vehicle.
Currently Type 1 steels tanks are available in India which is not suitable
for hydrogen transportation due to higher weight and lower storage
volume. Hence the approval for Type III, Type IV has to be provided.
Currently limited Type III has been approved for demo basis.
The hydrogen components are currently imported due to limited usage in
India. Hence the local manufacturing of the components and safety
system will bring down the cost make the hydrogen vehicle transportation
to adaptable.
Safety codes for storage, transportation of hydrogen for automotive have
to be developed by incorporating ISO standards by BIS.
The Infrastructure road map for hydrogen generation and transportation
and dispensing has to be evolved. Currently few hydrogen stations are
only available at Delhi which is not even sufficient for field demo of the
vehicles.
For HCNG Type 1 steel cylinders the tensile strength should be less than
950 MPa which should be allowed based on the experience of demo trail
done by OEM’s under MNRE &SIAM. This has to be regularized for
HCNG commercially.
Hydrogen diesel Dual fuel vehicles require emission and safety
developments to be worked out and should be published and
implemented.
Fuel cell and neat hydrogen vehicles regulations to be evolved.
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HYDROGEN FUELLED VEHICLES
BASED ON FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY
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4.0 Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles Based on Fuel Cell Technology
4.1. Introduction
The critical issues facing the nation’s future generations are energy
security, global warming and pollution. Considerable research and development
work has been undertaken for improving energy security & to mitigate the
environmental impact (Fig 4.1) through exploration of alternate fuels, efficient
lighting systems like CFLs, solar and wind energy harnessing, etc. Many of these
programs have been quite successful where Governments supported private
entrepreneurship by providing seed money for research and development,
subsidies and tax cuts.
Figure 4.1: Sustainable Future Mobility Matrix
Research is on to harnessing renewable energy and to store in
electrochemical devices or in a carrier and also to regenerate power on-board
vehicle for reduction imported fuel and also to improve the fuel efficiency. In this
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regard, electrochemical storage devices and electrochemical converters are now
being regarded as one of the key energy solutions for the 21st century.
With anvil of more stringent regulations on emissions and demand for
improved fuel economy due to constraints on energy resources and also required
urgency to reduce the GHG emission for arresting global warming, the electric,
hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles have attracted more attention by automakers,
governments, and customers.
Regulatory mandates, including those for safety, higher fuel efficiency and
reduced emission standards, continued to pose many technological challenges.
Considering the issues and requirement of zero emission vehicles, various flow
type Redox batteries, Lithium ion Batteries and hydrogen based fuel cells or
hybrids of fuel cell and lithium ion batteries are being considered as on-board
power sources for automotive applications. These implementation of battery and
fuel cell technologies hybrids will contribute significantly for reduction of emission
and lowering the impact of environment and also resulting in enhanced energy
security and creation of new energy industries. Both electricity and Hydrogen are
being considered as energy carrier for automotive applications. Batteries and
Hydrogen based fuel cells can be utilized as power source in transportation,
distributed heat and power generation which requires electricity and Hydrogen as
energy carrier. Both of them can be generated from fossil fuels and also from
renewable energy and hence migration from fossil to renewable is also feasible.
However, the transition from a carbon-based (fossil fuel) energy system to
a electron and hydrogen-based economy involves significant scientific,
technological and socioeconomic barriers for implementation of batteries,
hydrogen and fuel cells as clean energy technologies of the future.
At present, hydrogen has following limitations:
1. Hydrogen is a gas and inconvenient for transporting, storing and using a
gaseous fuel
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2. Hydrogen must be produced from primary fuel sources, the least
expensive of which are fossil sources.
3. Fuel cells are desirable for their high efficiencies but they are also at
present too expensive.
4. Absence of an infrastructure that delivers hydrogen or its precursors and
need to be created.
In view of these limitations, hydrogen is not considered as solution for
immediate term although hydrogen’s potential as a transportation fuel in the
longer term should not be ignored. However, factors like feasibility of
cogeneration of power and Hydrogen is possible by coal gasification technology
and possibility of varying ratio of power to Hydrogen depending on the grid load
on the grid and practicability of smoother transition of Hydrogen generation from
fossil to renewable cannot be ignored and which will render considering the
candidature of Hydrogen as an energy carrier in midterm.
Fuel cells have been under development for many years. The advantages
of fuel cells are that they are very efficient and that they operate without
generation of any pollutants. All fuel cells currently being developed for near term
use in electric vehicles require hydrogen as a fuel. Hydrogen can be stored
directly or produced onboard the vehicle by reforming methanol, or hydrocarbon
fuels derived from crude oil (e.g., gasoline, diesel, or middle distillates). The
vehicle design is simpler with direct hydrogen storage, but requires developing a
more complex refueling infrastructure.
4.2. Fuel Cell Types
A fuel cell is like a battery it generates electricity from an electrochemical
reaction. Like batteries, fuel cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy
and also produces water and heat. However, a battery holds a chemicals within it
which store energy and once this is depleted, the battery must be discarded in
the case of primary battery, and for secondary batteries, depleted charge has to
be restored by recharging by using an external supply of electricity. During
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charging process, electrochemical reaction is driven in the reverse direction. A
fuel cell, on the other hand, uses oxidant and reductant which is not contained in
the stack and stored and supplied externally and can be run indefinitely, as long
as fuel and oxidant is supplied.
There are various types of fuel cell based on the cell design and
electrolyte. A fuel cell unit consists of a stack, which is composed of a number of
individual cells. Each cell within the stack has two electrodes, anode and
cathode. The reactions occurs at the electrodes and produces electricity. Every
fuel cell also has either a solid or a liquid electrolyte, which allows migration of
ions from one electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which accelerates the
reactions at the electrolyte electrodes. The electrolyte plays a key role of
separation of fuel and oxidant and permit migration of appropriate ion between
the electrodes. If free electrons or other substances travel through the electrolyte,
they disrupt the chemical reaction and lower the overall efficiency of the cell.
Fuel cells are generally classified according to the nature of the electrolyte
(except for direct methanol fuel cells which are named for their ability to use
methanol as a fuel), each type requiring particular materials and fuel. Each fuel
cell type also has its own operational characteristics, offering advantages to
particular applications. This makes fuel cells a very versatile technology.
Fuel cells are a family of technologies that generate electricity through
electrochemical processes, rather than combustion. There are many fuel cell
types, but the principal ones include the alkaline fuel cell (AFC), proton exchange
membrane (PEM) fuel cell, direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC), molten carbonate
fuel cell (MCFC), phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), and solid oxide fuel cell
(SOFC). A number of these fuel cell types are commercially available today.
Each fuel cell type has its own unique chemistry, such as different
operating temperatures, catalysts, and electrolytes. A fuel cell’s operating
characteristics help define its application – for example, lower temperature PEM
and DMFC fuel cells are used to power passenger vehicles and forklifts, while
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larger, higher temperature MCFC and PAFC fuel cells are used for stationary
power generation
More information on the above aspect can be accessed from the report by
the Sub-Committees on “Fuel Cell Development”
4.2.1. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) uses a water-based,
acidic polymer membrane as its electrolyte, with platinum-based electrodes. The
PEMFC fuel cell is also sometimes called a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel
cell (also PEMFC).
PEMFC cells operate at relatively low temperatures (below 100 degrees
Celsius) and can tailor electrical output to meet dynamic power requirements.
Due to the relatively low temperatures operation and the use of precious metal-
based electrodes, these cells must operate on pure hydrogen. PEMFC cells are
currently the leading technology for light duty vehicles and materials handling
vehicles, and to a lesser extent for stationary and other applications. Hydrogen
fuel is processed at the anode where electrons are separated from protons on
the surface of a platinum-based catalyst. The protons pass through the
membrane to the cathode side of the cell while the electrons travel in an external
circuit, generating the electrical output of the cell. On the cathode side, another
precious metal electrode combines the protons and electrons with oxygen to
produce water, which is expelled as the only waste product; oxygen can be
provided in a purified form, or extracted at the electrode directly from the air.
A variant of the PEMFC which operates at elevated temperatures is
known as the high temperature PEMFC (HT PEMFC). By changing the
electrolyte from being water-based to a mineral acid-based system, HT PEMFCs
can operate up to 200 degrees Celsius. This overcomes some of the current
limitations with regard to fuel purity with HT PEMFCs able to process reformate
containing small quantities of Carbon Monoxide (CO). The balance of plant can
also be simplified through elimination of the humidifier.
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HT PEMFCs are not superior to low temperature PEMFCs; both
technologies find niches in where their benefits are preferable. The table below
summarizes differences between the two PEMFC variants:
Advantages of PEMFC
a. Lower temperature operation-easy start up
b. Good response for dynamic loads
c. Simpler design and assembly stack is easier
Limitations with PEMFC
a. In tolerance to poisonous gases like CO which is also generated during
Hydrogen production.
b. Higher activation losses due to lower temperature operation.
4.2.2 Fuel Cells for Transportation Applications
Fuel cells are being considered for transport as any units that provide
propulsive power to a vehicle, directly or indirectly (i.e. as range extenders). This
includes the following applications for the technology:
Forklift trucks and other goods handling vehicles such as airport baggage
trucks etc.
Two- and three-wheeler vehicles such as scooters
Light duty vehicles (LDVs), such as cars and vans
Buses and trucks
Trains and trams
Ferries and smaller boats
Fuel cell technology has advanced considerably during the past thirteen
years. The industry still faces significant challenges – technical, commercial and
structural – which must be overcome before fuel cells realize their full potential,
but the path today is much clearer. The importance of fuel cells in meeting social,
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environmental and economic goals is fully realized. Research units of various
Industries and governments are engaged in exploiting the opportunities. Fuel
cell supply chains are becoming well established, and the fuel cell industry is well
organized in Europe, North America, Japan and Korea.
Nationally, support for fuel cells is also continuing with governments
allocating funds to further improve the competitiveness of fuel cell technology
and support its adoption by industry. A large number of national hydrogen
infrastructure groups have also formed during the past four years which are
working in a unified manner to plan the rollout of hydrogen as a transport fuel
around the world. These groups are also sharing their knowledge and
experiences as they go along to speed up the learning process and to
standardize regulations at a global level.
It is certain that the developments in the research labs will reach the
commercial stage and continue the progress to improve fuel cell durability while
simultaneously lowering cost. The implications of this cost reduction will be felt
far and wide in the sector as the technology becomes cheap enough to compete
in new markets and mass production ensues; this was one of the developments
anticipated in our Industry Review 2013.
4.3. INTERNATIONAL STATUS
Commitments by various countries for Hydrogen Technology
4.3.1 The World Prepares
By the end of 2010 there were 212 hydrogen stations across the world,
according to the TÜV-SÜD-operated website H2Stations.org, though many of
these are not publically accessible. Fifteen further stations were added in 2011
with 122 in the final planning stage: an indication of serious ramp-up in the few
years before 2015. Preparations in the global regions indicated in the 2009 letter
of understanding are gathering pace.
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4.3.2 Japan
In January 2011 ten Japanese oil and energy companies signed a
memorandum of understanding (MoU) with domestic automakers Toyota, Honda
and Nissan, agreeing three main points: that the automakers will continue to
reduce manufacturing costs and popularize FCEV; that the automakers and fuel
suppliers will work together to expand the introduction of FCEV and the hydrogen
supply network; and that the hydrogen fuel suppliers will construct a network of
approximately 100 hydrogen refueling stations by 2015. These stations will be
clustered into Japan’s four major metropolitan areas: Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka and
Fukuoka. This MoU cements Japan’s position as a global leader in FCEV and by
far the most active country in Asia in this field.
HySUT, the Research Association of Hydrogen Supply/Utilization
Technology, is coordinating Japan’s infrastructure efforts. Established in July
2009, it is an industry grouping of eighteen companies and organizations. It will
demonstrate its commercial hydrogen station specification with the launch of two
new stations in Nagoya and Ebina later this year.
A $50 million government subsidy is being made available to support the
construction of new hydrogen stations in 2013. The subsidy will cover up to 50%
of a station’s capital cost; HySUT states the current cost per station is in the
region of $5 million, so the subsidy could support 20 new stations. If the subsidy
continued at this rate then Japan could have close to 90 stations by the end of
2015. The per-station subsidy may reduce from 50% over time, with private
companies picking up the deficit; this would put the 100 station target within
reach.
The commercial standard that the new stations are being built to allows for
hydrogen pumps to be installed at existing stations, which may help with capital
cost further. The first dual-purpose hydrogen and gasoline station based on the
standard opened in Ebina in April 2013. In January 2013 JX Nippon Oil & Energy
Corp. announced plans to construct 40 stations by 2015 and Iwatani announced
at the FC Expo in February 2013 that it would be building 20 by the same date. A
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task force of automakers, infrastructure companies and government agencies is
being established in the country to try and secure Japanese dominance in the
FCEV market; focus areas include vehicle cost reduction, purchase subsidies
and the relaxation of regulations surrounding infrastructure construction.
4.3.3 European Union
In January 2013 the EU allocated €3.5 million from the TEN-T transport
infrastructure programme to fund the Hydrogen Infrastructure Project (HIT),
which aims to form an interconnected hydrogen network between the
Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, and France. In the same month, the European
Commission launched its Clean Fuels Strategy, which proposes a package of
binding targets for infrastructure for a portfolio of low-to-zero-emission vehicles.
For hydrogen it says that common standards for components such as fuel hoses
are needed and proposes that ‘existing filling stations will be linked up to form a
network with common standards ensuring the mobility of Hydrogen vehicles. This
applies to the 14 Member States which currently have a Hydrogen network.’ This
is the first step towards mandating the construction of stations, which would
provide a base of centrally supported stations that can bridge the gap of
unprofitability (due to high station costs and low utilization) that can deter the
private sector.
4.3.4 Germany
Germany is at the forefront of European fuel cell activity. On 10th
September 2009 an MoU was signed between industry partners to evaluate the
deployment of a German hydrogen infrastructure in order to promote the serial
production of FCEV, a direct response to the letter of understanding from global
automakers published two days previously. The project, H2 Mobility, brings
together automaker Daimler and energy companies Shell, Total, Linde,
Vattenfall, EnBW and OMV, as well as NOW GmbH, the National Organization
for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology.
In June 2012 the German Government’s Federal Transport Minister
signed a letter of intent with industry partners Daimler, Linde, Air Products, Air
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Liquide and Total securing €20 million in funding to expand Germany’s hydrogen
refueling network to 50 stations (from an existing sixteen) by 2015, enough to
support initial demand for FCEV; these will be built in metropolitan areas and
connecting corridors. A year earlier, Daimler and Linde had committed to build
twenty hydrogen stations by 2014; a total of 1,000 hydrogen stations are
expected in Germany by 2025.
4.3.5 Scandinavia
The Nordic countries are extremely progressive in the adoption of
renewable energies, and this enthusiasm is now spreading to fuel cell
technologies. Norway has abundant natural gas reserves and plenty of
hydropower, both of which can be used to create hydrogen for vehicle use, and
Denmark is interested in the storage of excess wind energy as hydrogen vehicle
fuel.
In June 2006, the Scandinavian Hydrogen Highway Partnership was
formed, bringing together hydrogen associations in Norway, Sweden and
Denmark in a common endeavor to build a regional hydrogen refueling
infrastructure.
In early 2011, Hyundai signed an MoU with representatives from Sweden,
Norway, Denmark and Iceland under which Hyundai would provide FCEV for
demonstration and the countries would continue to develop the necessary
refueling infrastructure. Following a series of successful vehicle demonstrations
in Sweden and Denmark throughout 2011, Hyundai joined Daimler in the H2
moves Scandinavia project, collaborating in the official opening of the project’s
hydrogen station in Oslo. H2 moves Scandinavia aims to demonstrate the market
readiness of FCEV and hydrogen refueling infrastructure to the public through
the operation of a fleet of nineteen FCEV (ten Daimler, four Hyundai, five
converted Think) in Scandinavia, focusing on Oslo.
The Danish Government’s Energy Plan 2020, announced in March 2012,
adopts the recommendations of an industry coalition and sets out an
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infrastructure plan to enable the establishment of a countrywide hydrogen
refueling infrastructure by 2015.
A European Hydrogen Road Tour, organized by H2 moves Scandinavia,
culminated in October 2012 with Hyundai, Honda, Toyota, Nissan, and a number
of infrastructure companies and Nordic NGOs signing an MoU to bring FCEV to
Scandinavia from 2014–2017; Daimler, whose B-Class F-CELL featured on the
tour, was notable in its absence. Shortly afterwards, Skåne Regional Council
signed a contract securing two Hyundai ix35 FCEV, the first of their kind in
Sweden.
4.3.6 United Kingdom
In January 2012 the UK Government cemented its interest in FCEV with
the signing of a MoU with a range of industry partners, including six automakers
and three industrial gas companies, to create UK H2 Mobility. Echoing the
German H2 Mobility, it aims to analyze the specific UK case for the introduction of
FCEV, review the investments required for infrastructure and identify
opportunities for the UK to become a global player in FCEV manufacture.
This evaluation, due for publication by the end of 2012, will be followed by
the development of a business case for implementation.
In early February 2013 the initial findings of the government–industry UK
H2Mobility project were revealed. The study sees 1.6 million FCEV on UK roads
by 2030, with annual sales of more than 300,000. It further found that 10% of
new car customers would be receptive to FCEV when first introduced and that an
initial rollout of 65 hydrogen stations in heavily populated areas and along
national trunk routes (left) would provide sufficient coverage for these early
vehicle sales. Hydrogen should be cost-competitive with diesel immediately, with
60% lower CO2 emissions than diesel by 2020; as the fuel mix becomes more
renewable this improves to 75% lower by 2030 and would be on course for 100%
by 2050. As vehicle sales grow, the number of refueling sites would increase to
1,150 by 2030; by that time 51% of the fuel mix should be coming from water
electrolysis, contributing to an annual total vehicle CO2 emissions reduction of up
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to three million tons by FCEV in 2030. Furthermore, FCEV could have a UK
market share of 30–50% by 2050. The UK H2 Mobility partners are now working
on business cases for implementing the first wave of UK hydrogen stations.
In February 2013 it was announced that Air Products and partners will
deliver at least one new 700 bar hydrogen station in London and upgrade the
existing two to 700 bar, as well as a station at nearby Millbrook Proving Ground.
These will be complemented by a number of Hyundai ix35 FCEV and Revolve
HICE vans.
4.3.7 France
In July 2013 the Mobility Hydrogen France consortium officially launched
with twenty members including gas production and storage companies, energy
utilities and government departments. The group is co-funded by the consortium
members and the HIT project. It aims to formulate an economically competitive
deployment plan for a private and public hydrogen refueling infrastructure in
France between 2015 and 2030, including an analysis of cost-effectiveness.
Initial deployment scenarios for vehicles and stations will be published in late
2013.
4.3.8 United States
After months of speculation, the US Department of Energy officially
launched the H2 USA hydrogen infrastructure project in May 2013. Bringing
together automakers, government agencies, gas suppliers, and the hydrogen
and fuel cell industries, the project will coordinate research and identify cost-
effective solutions to deploy infrastructure that can deliver affordable, clean
hydrogen fuel across the United States. The project will focus on identifying
actions to encourage early adopters of FCEV and evaluating the cost reduction
potential and economies of scale of alternative fuelling infrastructure solutions.
Examples include tri-generation (heat, power and hydrogen) plants such as the
biogas-fed Air Products and Fuel Cell Energy facility at California’s Orange
County Sanitation District and the repurposing of hydrogen infrastructure for
other applications to also serve FCEV.
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4.3.8.1 California
California has historically been a heavily polluted area. California
continues to lead the USA in the adoption of FCEV. In 1990, the California Air
Resources Board (CARB) issued a mandate requiring the introduction of zero-
emission vehicles (ZEV) in the state from 1998. Although later postponed and
amended, this rule provided much of the impetus for the development of FCEV in
the 1990s. In September 2011 the California Energy Commission invested $8.5
million to support the deployment of FCEV in 2015. This was followed by the
launch of the CARB’s Advanced Clean Car programme in January 2012, which
coordinates requirements for car model years 2017–2025, mandating that ZEV
(FCEV and BEV) and PHEV must account for one in seven car sales by 2025. By
2050 it is hoped that 87% of the on-road fleet will be ZEV.
A part of this programme, the Clean Fuel Outlet regulation, requires the
construction of alternative fuel outlets for a particular fuel (such as hydrogen)
when there are 20,000 vehicles using that fuel in a region; for the South Coast,
where air quality is worst, the threshold is 10,000. This means that the seven
petroleum companies that currently supply 93% of California’s gasoline are
obliged to build hydrogen outlets in line with the introduction of FCEV, spreading
the cost of new infrastructure amongst those who are profiting from the existing
setup.
The California Fuel Cell Partnership (CaFCP, formed in 1999) is an
automotive-OEM-backed outreach project to promote the commercialization of
FCEV in California and coordinate the development of supporting infrastructure.
Honda has been leasing its FCX Clarity vehicles to Californian customers for
$600 per month (three-year period, excluding fuel) since 2008. In the same year
GM launched Project Driveway, an end user acceptance programme that leased
over a hundred HydroGen4 (marketed as Equinox in the USA) in locations
across the globe including California. Daimler has been leasing Mercedes-Benz
B-Class F-CELL vehicles to Californian customers since December 2010 ($849
per month, three year period, including fuel). In August 2012, the CaFCP
released a document entitled ‘A California Road Map: The Commercialization of
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Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles’ containing a strategy for infrastructure build-up
from 2012 to 2017; it concluded that 68 station locations strategically placed
around the state would adequately serve the first wave of FCEV customers in
2015.
The Office of California Governor Edmund G. Brown published its ‘2013
Zero Emissions Vehicle (ZEV) Action Plan’ in February 2013, which includes a
roadmap towards 1.5 million ZEV on Californian roads by 2025. It mandates that
major metropolitan areas in California be ‘ZEV ready’ by 2015, including suitable
funding for infrastructure for FCEV and BEV/PHEV, as well as streamlined
permitting. The plan incorporates the findings of the California Fuel Cell
Partnership’s study (see page 11), which suggests 68 stations would be needed
for an initial launch of vehicles in 2015. Funding has been secured for an
additional seven HRS to the state’s existing nine through the California Energy
Commission and it is hoped there will be more than 25 operational by the end of
2014. Government legislation to support the construction of HRS in California is
currently under review. SB 11 would see $20 million a year allocated to HRS in
FY 13/14, FY 14/15 and FY 15/16, and up to $20 million a year available until
2024, although the CaFCP states that funding would end after 100 stations; the
Senate Bill will be passed or declined in September 2013.
This Californian progress is an important step for the country as a whole:
because CARB predates it, the US Clean Air Act allows California to determine
its own air quality standards – other states may choose federal standards or
Californian standards, but not set their own. This allows willing states to adopt
more progressive Californian standards, and this unique model could speed up
FCEV adoption across the USA.
4.4 Initiatives by Automotive Companies
4.4.1 Daimler
Daimler has a long history of fuel cell activity, spearheading the
development of PEMFC for automotive use with its 1994 NECAR. The company
remained active in the years after, producing four further variants of the NECAR
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before revealing its first-generation fuel cell passenger vehicle, the A-Class F-
CELL, in 2002. Its second-generation vehicle, the B-Class F-CELL (above)
entered limited series production in late 2010 offering improvements in range,
mileage, durability, power and top speed. A fleet total of 200 vehicles is now in
operation across the world, including more than 35 in a Californian lease
scheme.
Plans for commercialization
Daimler plans to commercialize its third-generation F-CELL from 2014, an
update to the B-Class F-CELL that is currently in widespread demonstration, that
will likely adopt the improved chassis design featured on 2012 edition
conventional B-Class vehicles. Production of this vehicle will be limited and sales
targeted at markets with supporting infrastructure; Daimler has been proactive
with its involvement in German infrastructure-building initiatives. The German
market is expected to be the largest early European market for FCEV, and the
domestic manufacturer has positioned itself perfectly to capitalize on this.
However, Daimler says that the scale of market introduction is intrinsically linked
to cost reduction, so true volume production of the F-CELL will coincide with the
fourth generation of the car, around 2017.
Daimler has also shown interest in the luxury sedan sector, a promising
market for early FCEV, with the multi-drive platform F 800 Style F-CELL concept it
demonstrated at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show; the car has a maximum speed of
112 mph (180 kmph) and a range of 370 miles (600 km). More recently, the F
125! concept released to celebrate the firm’s 125th anniversary in September
2011 is designed to showcase Daimler’s vision for 2025; the car would offer top
speeds of 135 mph (220 kmph) and a range of 620 miles (1,000 km) with a fully
hybridized plug-in battery–fuel-cell drivetrain.
4.4.2 Ford
Ford began actively pursuing fuel cells at the turn of the millennium with
several fuel cell Focus models demonstrated in 2000 and 2001. Ford continued its
development of fuel cell power trains and in 2007 launched a fleet of 30 fuel cell
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equipped Focus cars for testing in the US, Canada and Germany. The cars
proved a success and many have continued to be used far beyond their trial
period, some even to today. In the same year a stylish fuel cell crossover concept,
the Edge Hy Series, was shown at several motor-shows.
Plans for Commercialization
Ford, one of the ‘Big Three’ American automakers, was deeply affected by
the global automotive industry crisis from 2008 to 2010; during that period and
since, no fuel cell demonstration vehicles have been released and little-to-nothing
has been heard of its fuel cell commercialization plans. However, its interest in the
core technology remained clear: in 2008 Ford and Daimler established a joint
venture, the Automotive Fuel Cell Cooperation (AFCC), to purchase and continue
the development of Ballard Power Systems’ automotive fuel cell assets.
At the 2012 World Hydrogen Energy Conference in Toronto, Ford’s head of
fuel cell R&D, Chris Gearhart, clarified the company’s current outlook for FCEV.
Having narrowly avoided bankruptcy in 2009 the company is now unwilling to lose
money on a technology before profiting from it, a hurdle accepted by those
automakers that have chosen to undertake FCEV demonstration projects. That
said, the company is still committed to the commercial release of vehicles and is
targeting a 2020 timeframe, when the technology will have become more price-
competitive, an exercise that Ford is actively involved in through the AFCC.
4.4.3 General Motors
General Motors has the longest fuel cell history of any automaker, with the
Electro Van demonstrating the potential for fuel cell technology nearly 50 years
ago. The company has had a succession of fuel cell test and demonstration
vehicles, including the world’s first publicly drivable FCEV in 1998. 2007 saw the
launch of the HydroGen4 (marketed in the USA as the Chevrolet Equinox, above),
representing the fourth generation of GM’s stack technology. More than 120 test
vehicles have been deployed since 2007 under Project
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Driveway, which put the vehicles into the hands of customers and has been
the world’s largest FCEV end-user acceptance demonstration: the vehicles have
accumulated more than two million miles on the road. A fifth-generation fuel cell
stack, half the size and with significantly less platinum than its predecessor, was
integrated into a fuel cell concept of the now popular Chevrolet Volt/Vauxhall
Ampera but has yet to reach test vehicles.
Plans for commercialization
Shortly after Project Driveway launched, the automotive industry crisis hit
America. In June 2009 General Motors Corporation filed for Chapter 11
bankruptcy reorganization in a pre-packaged solution that saw all original
investment lost and the company’s remaining profitable assets sold to a new
government-backed entity, General Motors Company, which issued an IPO in
2010, the largest in US history at $20.1 billion. GM subsequently returned to profit
last year.
Despite these severe changes in the business, including recent cuts to
R&D staff, the fuel cell development division has remained; this is a positive
reminder of GM’s belief in the technology. It is understandable that the company
has neither released further demonstration vehicles since the HydroGen4, nor
affirmed any substantial details of fuel cell commercialization. With successful
trials completed in California and Germany, and with the promise of further
infrastructure in these areas, it seems likely that this is where GM will
commercialize first; one would hope still within the 2015 timeframe.
4.4.4 Honda
Honda’s first FCX fuel cell prototype was shown at the 1999 Tokyo Motor
Show aiming to provide a ‘foretaste of the 21st century’; several of the prototypes
were used for demonstrations and were later superseded by an updated model
featuring Honda’s own fuel cell technology in 2002. In 2006 the company
unveiled its new FCX concept, a sleek, high-end sedan vehicle that showcased
Honda’s latest fuel cell and electric technologies. The concept was refined and
released in July 2008 as the Honda FCX Clarity (above), the world’s first
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commercial FCEV. Built on its own production line in Japan, the Clarity is the
only FCEV custom-designed from the ground up (Other FCEV to date have been
retrofits of existing chassis designs, most commonly crossover SUV.)
Launched on a limited lease in California (where hydrogen infrastructure
was most available), customers pay $600 per month over a three-year term for
the vehicle, maintenance and insurance. The Clarity was met with positive
reviews and more than fifty vehicles are now on lease in California, with several
more in Japan and two in the custody of the Clean Energy Partnership in Europe.
Plans for commercialization
Honda is a signatory to both the September 2009 global letter of
understanding and the January 2011 Japanese MoU, both of which set 2015 as
the year for first commercialization. The company has stated that it does not plan
to mass commercialize the FCX Clarity; whether a successor utilizing the same
unique design elements would supersede it is unclear. The company may opt to
integrate a fuel cell drive train into an existing model in a fashion similar to what it
has done for its CR-Z, Insight and Jazz PHEV.
Honda has been proactive in the development of Japanese hydrogen
infrastructure and demonstrated its own solar hydrogen station in March 2012, a
platform that it intends to develop for home use. It seems likely that the company
is still on track to produce a commercial FCEV by 2015, even if details have been
scarce to date. In the longer term Honda plans to co-develop both FCEV and
BEV, with the former powering mid-to-large cars and the latter powering smaller
models.
4.4.5 Hyundai
Hyundai-Kia unveiled its first FCEV in 2000, a Hyundai SUV with an
internally developed fuel cell stack; both methanol- and hydrogen-fuelled variants
were demonstrated. The 2004 Hyundai Tucson FCEV and Kia Sportage FCEV
had improved ranges and fuel cells from UTC Power. Hyundai-Kia started using
own fuel cell technology with the 2008 Kia Borrego FCEV, the predecessor of the
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now well-known Hyundai ix35 FCEV, which was first revealed in late 2010. The
ix35 FCEV began appearing at global events in mid-2011 and has subsequently
been deployed in a wide variety of demonstration programmes, with particular
interest shown in Scandinavia.
Plans for commercialization
Hyundai demonstrated its ix35 FCEV extensively throughout late 2011
and 2012.The Company will be producing approximately one thousand of these
vehicles for lease between 2012 and 2014, before entering full commercial
production with a 10,000 unit full-scale production run planned for 2015. Lease
schemes will vary in scale, from the consumer level through to the national level.
In May 2012 Hyundai signed a MoU with Norwegian firm Hydrogen Operation to
supply ix35 FCEV to public agencies, commercial fleets and taxi firms in Norway.
Hyundai has stated that it is seeking to sign further MoU with private enterprise
firms in the Nordic region; the strong drive for sustainable technologies here
makes it a perfect launch market for FCEV. Hyundai has also actively
demonstrated its vehicles in Germany, the UK and the USA, all of which are
promising early markets for FCEV. Hyundai is aiming for a completive cost of
$50,000 (USD) (£35,000 (GBP)), a premium of approximately 40% over the
premium ICE model. In the longer term Hyundai-Kia plans to use the Kia brand to
sell smaller battery electric vehicles and the Hyundai brand to sell larger fuel cell
electric vehicles.
4.4.6 Nissan
Nissan is a relatively new player in the FCEV game. Its first fleet of
demonstration vehicles came in 2003: X-Trail SUV fitted with UTC Power fuel
cells. These vehicles were leased to a number of Japanese businesses and
authorities in 2004 and in 2005 the X-Trail FCV was updated with the first
generation of Nissan’s in-house fuel cell stack technology. Variants of this model,
including a 2008 update with a second-generation stack, were showcased across
the world until late 2009. As several other automakers began to release next-
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generation demonstration vehicles, Nissan decided to focus its efforts on further
development of the fuel cell stack system instead.
In October 2011, Nissan announced its next-generation fuel cell stack,
claiming an industry-leading power density, substantial size reductions over
existing stacks and a cost one-sixth that of its 2005 stack due to a lower platinum
loading and more cost-effective parts. The company plans to integrate a version
of this stack into a commercial FCEV from 2016. Launch markets and volumes
are unknown at present.
4.4.7 Toyota
Toyota’s first fuel cell prototype, a hydrogen fuel cell powered RAV4, was
demonstrated in 1996. There have been five revisions of this SUV concept since,
each with improved fuel cells and electric drivetrains: the FCHV-2 in 1998
(methanol-fuelled), FCHV-3 (metal hydride storage), FCHV-4 (pressurized
hydrogen storage) and FCHV-5 (hydrogen–gasoline hybrid) in 2001, and most
recently the FCHV-adv in 2008. The FCHV-adv featured a custom-designed,
high-performance fuel cell stack with 700 bar hydrogen storage and has been
used in numerous demonstrations globally, most notably in Japan and the USA.
Plans for commercialization
At the 2011 Tokyo Motor Show Toyota unveiled its commercial FCEV
concept, the FCV-R (above). This is Toyota’s first fuel cell sedan design; the
company, like several others, is targeting the luxury sedan niche for early FCEV
as the high margins allow for some cost absorption of the fuel cell technology.
The FCV-R offers a 435 mile (700 km) range and represents the earliest iteration
of what will be Toyota’s first commercial offering, which at the 2012 Geneva
Motor Show the company affirmed would be on the market in 2015. Cost is
currently projected at $125,000 (USD) though this may come down with further
improvements to both the fuel cell stack and Toyota’s Hybrid Synergy Drive
platform, an adaptable drivetrain solution that standardizes and shares
components across FCEV, BEV and PHEV.
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4.5 Partnership by Automotive Companies for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
4.5.1 BMW and Toyota
In January 2013 it was announced that Toyota and BMW will be sharing a
number of technologies and jointly developing a fundamental fuel cell vehicle
platform by 2020 – including not only a fuel cell system, but also a hydrogen
tank, electric motor and supporting battery system. Germany is an important
early market for FCEV, and Toyota can lend to BMW years of experience and
expertise in the development of fuel cell and battery powered drivetrains. In
September 2012, Toyota announced a new fuel cell stack with more than twice
the power density of the stack currently used in the FCHV-adv demo vehicle, at
approximately half the size and weight.
The following month Toyota indicated that it is planning to begin series
production of a fuel cell Prius in 2014, and to market the car from 2015 in Japan,
the US and Europe. Policy support would be needed in the early phases and the
main challenge in launching such a vehicle is cost reduction: if the car were
series produced now it would cost just under €100,000; this would have to fall by
30 to 40% before it could be marketed. In May 2013 Toyota Motor Sales USA’s
group vice president of strategic planning Chris Hostetter said that the cost factor
of the vehicles, which will be on sale in the USA from 2015, is in the region of
$50,000 and that customers should likely see a sticker price under $100,000.
Toyota will sell the vehicle in US states that follow CARB regulations and have
appropriate infrastructure. A pre-production version of Toyota’s commercial
FCEV is to be shown at the 2013 Tokyo Motor Show, exactly two years after the
unveiling of the FCV-R at the 2011 show.
4.5.2 Daimler, Ford and Renault Nissan
Four days after Toyota and BMW announced their collaboration, Renault-
Nissan signed an agreement with Daimler and Ford to join the AFCC and to
jointly develop a common fuel cell system for use in separate mass-market cars
from 2017. This timeframe pushes back Daimler’s schedule; its decision to
forego its limited 2014 production run is disappointing for the industry and early
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adopters, however the combination of currently limited hydrogen infrastructure
and high cost-per-unit for vehicles makes for a challenging proposal for many. By
jointly lowering the cost of the core technology, and waiting until series
production can be achieved, where economies of scale play to their advantage,
the automakers should be able to substantially lower the cost of their offerings.
Add to this the many hydrogen stations that are due to be constructed in
Germany in the coming years and a 2017 launch seems a pragmatic move for
Daimler. Ford still has no immediate-term plans to release a commercial FCEV
but its deep involvement in the AFCC keeps the automaker at the technological
forefront.
Nissan is a signatory of the January 2011 Japanese MoU and it is
anticipated that the automaker will still launch an FCEV domestically in 2015,
most likely with a variant of its 2011 fuel cell stack; by this logic the AFCC
common system would be implemented in a more affordable second-generation
vehicle. At the Paris Motor Show in late September 2012, Nissan show cased its
TeRRA concept – a design study for a zero-emission evolution of the company’s
Juke and Qashqai SUV crossovers. This was the first new fuel cell concept car
from the Japanese automaker in five years and could be indicative of its first-
generation commercial offering
4.5.3 GM-Honda
In early July 2013 Honda and General Motors announced that they have
signed a co-development agreement to collaborate on next-generation fuel cell
systems and hydrogen storage technologies. The companies will benefit from
shared expertise and economies of scale in manufacturing once they enter the
production phase. Honda plans to launch the successor to its FCX Clarity in
Japan and the USA from 2015, with a European rollout to follow later; this will
likely implement current-generation fuel cell technology. GM is yet to announce
any launch plans and it now seems unlikely that the American automaker will
launch a vehicle within the 2015 timeframe, although its commitment to the
technology is still clear.
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4.5.4 Hyundai
Hyundai began assembly line production of the ix35 FCEV at its Ulsan
manufacturing plant in late February 2013. Up to 1,000 of the vehicles will be
built up until 2015 for lease to public and private fleets. The first of these vehicles
are to be delivered to Hyundai’s Scandinavian partners; fifteen ix35 FCEV were
delivered to the Municipality of Copenhagen in Denmark at the beginning of June
2013 under the European HyTEC project.
4.5.5 Volkswagen
In March 2013 Volkswagen signed an agreement with Ballard Power
Systems for engineering services to advance the development of fuel cells for
use in its fuel cell demonstration programme. The contract term is for four years,
with an option for a two-year extension. Under the contract Ballard will aid the
design and manufacture of a next-generation fuel cell for use in Volkswagen Hy
Motion demonstration cars. Ballard engineers will lead critical areas of fuel cell
product design – including the membrane electrode assembly, plate and stack
components – along with testing and integration work. The last Hy Motion
demonstrator was a fuel cell version of the 2008 Tiguan. Following the Ballard
contract, it was announced in May 2013 that the Volkswagen Group is to begin
trials of a fuel cell powered Audi A7 at the end of August.
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TESTING, STANDARDS, CODES AND
REGULATIONS FOR HYDROGEN
VEHICLES
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5.0 Testing, Standards, Codes and Regulations for Hydrogen
Vehicles
5.1. Introduction
A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses the gaseous fuel hydrogen as its
onboard fuel for motive power. Hydrogen vehicles include automobiles and other
transportation vehicles. Hydrogen vehicles convert the chemical energy of
hydrogen to mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in an internal
combustion engine, or by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to run
electric motors. Widespread use of hydrogen vehicles for fueling transportation is
a key element of the hydrogen economy. This write up provides a summary of
the various hydrogen testing requirements, standards, safety codes and
regulations.
5.2 Issues with Hydrogen Fuel
Safety is critical due to high flammability of the fuel. Adequate safety
equipment such as flame traps is required.
Maintaining the quality of Hydrogen through production is an issue.
Low energy density makes vehicle range a problem.
Leakage tendency of hydrogen is higher.
No distribution infrastructure.
Metal Embrittlement tendency requires changes in engine parts and
storage.
Backfire and pre-ignition are some more technical issues.
5.3 Need for Hydrogen Standards and Regulations
In order to ensure safety of vehicles and for technical solutions to these
issues following regulations and standards is critical. Governments have
identified the development of regulations and standards as one of the key
requirements for commercialization of hydrogen-fuelled vehicles. Regulations
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and standards will help overcome technological barriers to commercialization,
facilitate manufacturers’ investment in building hydrogen-fuelled vehicles and
facilitate public acceptance by providing a systematic and accurate means of
assessing and communicating the risk associated with the use of hydrogen
vehicles, be it to the general public, consumer, emergency response personnel
or the insurance industry.
5.4. Hydrogen as a Fuel: Standards
ISO TC 197 is the international committee that deals with standards
related to Hydrogen. The structure of the committee is given in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: ISO TC 197 Committee structure for Hydrogen
ISO/TC 197 was created to promote the increased use of hydrogen as an energy
carrier and fuel. Standardization is required in the field of systems and devices
for the production, storage, transport, measurement and use of hydrogen. The
standardization efforts of the technical committee ISO/TC 197 will facilitate the
emergence of a renewable, sustainable energy system based upon hydrogen as
an energy carrier and fuel. As standardization is undertaken simultaneously with
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technology development, ISO/TC 197 work facilitates the early demonstration
and implementation of the hydrogen technologies that will be required to move
hydrogen into widespread energy applications. India is a member of this
committee.
The standards published by this committee are as follows:
ISO 13984:1999 Liquid hydrogen -- Land vehicle fuelling system
interface
ISO 13985:2006 Liquid hydrogen -- Land vehicle fuel tanks
ISO 14687-:1999 Hydrogen fuel -- Product specification -- Part 1: All
applications except proton exchange membrane
(PEM) fuel cell for road vehicles
ISO14687-:2012 Hydrogen fuel -- Product specification -- Part 2:
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell
applications for road vehicles
ISO 14687-:2014 Hydrogen fuel -- Product specification -- Part 3:
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell
applications for stationary appliances
ISO/PAS 15594:2004 Airport hydrogen fuelling facility operations
ISO/TS 15869:2009 Gaseous hydrogen and hydrogen blends -- Land
vehicle fuel tanks
ISO/TR 15916:2004 Basic considerations for the safety of hydrogen
systems
ISO 16110-1:2007 Hydrogen generators using fuel processing
technologies -- Part 1: Safety
ISO 16110-2:2010 Hydrogen generators using fuel processing
technologies -- Part 2: Test methods for
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performance
ISO 16111:2008 Transportable gas storage devices -- Hydrogen
absorbed in reversible metal hydride
ISO 17268:2012 Gaseous hydrogen land vehicle refuelling
connection devices
ISO/TS 20100:2008 Gaseous hydrogen – Fuelling stations
ISO 22734-1:2008 Hydrogen generators using water electrolysis
process -- Part 1: Industrial and commercial
applications
ISO 22734-2:2011 Hydrogen generators using water electrolysis
process -- Part 2: Residential applications
ISO 26142:2010 Hydrogen detection apparatus -- Stationary
applications
5.5 Hydrogen Vehicle Testing
A hydrogen internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle uses a traditional
ICE that has been modified to use hydrogen fuel. One of the benefits of
hydrogen-powered ICEs is that they can run on pure hydrogen or a blend of
hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG). That fuel flexibility is very
attractive as a means of addressing the widespread lack of hydrogen fuelling
infrastructure in the near term. The Vehicle Testing has to provide pure hydrogen
or hydrogen/CNG blends to the various internal combustion engine test vehicles.
The Vehicle Testing Activity evaluates hydrogen and HCNG internal combustion
engine vehicles in closed-track and laboratory environments (baseline
performance testing), as well as in real-world applications – including fleet testing
and accelerated reliability testing (accumulating life-cycle vehicle mileage and
operational knowledge within 1 to 1.5 years). Emissions testing is also conducted
as per Euro norms. Testing hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles also
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supports development of the hydrogen infrastructure needed for fuel cell
vehicles.
5.5.1. Facilities Required for Hydrogen Vehicle Testing
The facilities required for hydrogen testing are provided in the figures
below (USDOE). Testing facilities include vehicle fuel cylinder testing, setups for
sensor testing, virtual testing, vehicle emission using chassis dynamometer,
engine dynamometer, noise and vibration testing. Such facilities need to be
developed in India as shown in Figure 5.2 & 5.3.
Fig 5.2: US DoE Facilites
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Fig 5.3: Other Certification facilities
5.5.2. Hydrogen Vehicle Type Approval
EEC 79 / 2009 is an European regulation for type approval of Hydrogen
vehicles. Similar regulation is required in India. Some Salient Provisions of EEC
79/2009 are
Hydrogen system installation must be remote from heat sources.
Hydrogen container should not be installed in engine compartment and be
protected against corrosion
Measures to prevent misfuelling of vehicle and leakage
The refueling connector should be protected and should have a non return
valve
Hydrogen container should be mounted and fixed properly
Hydrogen fuel system should contain an automatic shut off valve mounted on
the cylinder
In case of accidents, the shut off valve should interrupt fuel flow
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Hydrogen components should not project beyond outline of the vehicle
Hydrogen system installation must be safe from damage
Hydrogen components must not be located near vehicular exhaust
Ventilation system for hydrogen leakage should be provided
In case of accidents, the pressure relief device should function normally.
Passenger compartment must be isolated from hydrogen
Hydrogen components should be enclosed by gas tight housing
Electrical devices should be isolated and hydrogen fuel system should be
grounded.
Labels should be provided to identify the hydrogen vehicle
5.5.3. Hydrogen Cylinder testing facility:
Test facilities for hydrogen cylinder testing including gunfire,
environmental chamber, hydrogen cycling, bonfire and burst testing as shown in
Figure 5.4.
Fig 5.4: Hydrogen Cylinder Testing Facilities (Source: Internet)
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5.6 Fuel Cell Vehicle Standards
Fuel cell vehicles use fuel cells which produce an electric current that runs
a motor which drives the vehicle. IEC/TC 105 is the international committee on
fuel cells. There are important standards regarding fuel cell technologies and
infrastructure. IEC 62282 is a globally accepted standard for fuel cell vehicles
consists of the following parts under the general title Fuel cell technologies:
Part 1: Terminology.
Part 2: Fuel cell modules.
Part 3-1: Stationary fuel cell power plants – Safety.
Part 3-2: Stationary fuel cell power plants – Test methods for performance.
Part 3-3: Stationary fuel cell power plants – Installation.
Part 4: Fuel cell system for propulsion and auxiliary power units.
Part 5: Portable fuel cell appliances – Safety and performance requirements.
Part 6-1: Micro fuel cell power systems – Safety1.
Part 6-2: Micro fuel cell power systems – Performance1.
Part 6-3: Micro fuel cell power systems – Interchangeability1.
Part 7: Single Cell Test Method for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC).
5.7 Cryogenic Liquid hydrogen standards
Hydrogen can be stored as a cryogenic liquid at -259°C. European
Standards for cryogenic liquid hydrogen are as follows:
Directive 97/23/EC and Harmonised Standard EN 13458 provide framework
requirements for the pressure protection of cryogenic storage tank systems.
EN 13458-1, Cryogenic vessels - Static vacuum insulated vessels - Part 1:
Fundamental requirements.
EN 13458-2, Cryogenic vessels - Static vacuum insulated vessels -Part 2:
Design, fabrication, inspection and testing.
EN 13458-3, Cryogenic vessels - Static vacuum insulated vessels -Part 3:
Operational requirements.
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EN 14197-3, Cryogenic vessels – Static non vacuum insulated vessels–Part 3:
Operational.
EN 13648-3: Cryogenic vessels – Safety devices for protection against excessive
pressure – part 3: Determination of required discharge capacity
and sizing for relief devices.
5.8 Hydrogen Stations
Hydrogen stations are to be considered as subject to a particular risk of
fire and explosion. The degree of risk influences the type of electrical
installation.The installation and operation of electrical systems in hydrogen
stations must be in accordance with the Regulations, Standards and Codes of
Practice of each country. In particular ATEX Directive must be taken into account
for this application. ATEX Directives, (95 and 137).
5.9 Hydrogen Storage
Provisions related to Hydrogen cylinders, valves including Hydrogen
dispensing under Gas Cylinders Rules, 2004 and Static & Mobile Pressure
Vessels (Unfired) Rules, 1981.
5.10 Hydrogen in Transport Sector:
The transition in vehicle fuels from liquid hydrocarbons to gaseous
hydrogen requires an adaptation of automobile design and safety technology to
the special properties of hydrogen. In contrast to LPG and gasoline vapour,
hydrogen is extremely light and rises rapidly in air. In the open this is generally
an advantage, but it can be dangerous in buildings that are not designed for
hydrogen. Many countries’ building codes, for instance, require garages to have
ventilation openings near the ground to remove gasoline vapour, but there is
often no high level ventilation. Hydrogen released in such a building collects at
roof level, and a resulting explosion can be extremely destructive. Hydrogen has
been used widely for more than a hundred years in large-scale industrial
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applications. There have been incidents with hydrogen, as there have been with
other materials including gasoline, LPG and natural gas. In general, though,
experience shows that hydrogen can be handled safely in industrial applications
as long as users stick to the appropriate standards, regulations and best
practices. Modern, established technologies within energy supply and
transportation are at high safety standards. This ensures a secure, safe and
user-friendly supply of energy in stationary, transport and other system
applications. It is the result of a long learning process within these technologies.
Future infrastructure systems for hydrogen applications, as new storage media
and refueling stations, need at least to have the same high safety standards as
the established technologies.
Also here many years of experience make the large-scale industrial
applications very safe in general, but comparing with the application of natural
gas the frequency of accidents is reported 5–20 times higher for hydrogen. The
following accident causes have been identified:
Mechanical failures of vessels, pipes, etc. often caused by hydrogen
embrittlement or freezing
Reaction with pollutants (e.g. air)
Too low purity of hydrogen
Accidents caused by smaller releases due to poor ventilation or flow back
of air under ventilation
Accidents during purging with inactive gases,
Non-functioning of safety equipment,
Wrong operations (by staff),
Failure in evaporating system (e.g. valve failure) or not intended
ignition/fire/explosion.
5.11 Hydrogen vehicle hazards
Hydrogen onboard a vehicle may pose a safety hazard. The hazards
should be considered in situations when vehicle is inoperable, when vehicle is in
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normal operation and in collisions. Potential hazards are due to fire, explosion or
toxicity. The latter can be ignored since neither hydrogen nor its fumes in case of
fire are toxic. Hydrogen as a source of fire or explosion may come from the fuel
storage, from the fuel supply lines or from the fuel cell. The fuel cell poses the
least hazard, although hydrogen and oxygen are separated by a very thin (~20-
30 m) polymer membrane. In case of a membrane rupture hydrogen and
oxygen would combine, but in that case the fuel cell would lose its potential,
which should be easily detected by a control system. In that case the supply lines
should be immediately disconnected. The fuel cell operating temperature (60° to
90°C) is too low to be a thermal ignition source, however, hydrogen and oxygen
may combine on the catalyst surface and create ignition conditions. However, the
potential damage would be limited due to a small amount of hydrogen present in
the fuel cell and fuel supply lines. The largest amount of hydrogen at any given
time is present in the tank. Several tank failure modes may be considered in both
normal operation and collision, such as:
catastrophic rupture, due to manufacturing defect in tank, a defect caused by
improper handling of the tank or stress fracture, puncture by a sharp object,
external fire combined with failure of pressure relief device to open;
massive leak, due to faulty pressure relief device tripping without cause or
chemically induced fault in tank wall; puncture by a sharp object, operation of
pressure relief device in a case of fire.
slow leak due to stress cracks in tank liner, faulty pressure relief device, or
faulty coupling from tank to the feed line, or impact-induced openings in fuel
line connection.
A similar failure analysis may be applied to both high pressure and low
pressure fuel lines. In a study conducted on behalf of Ford Motor Company,
Directed Technologies, Inc., has performed a detailed assessment of
probabilities of the above failure modes. The conclusion of the study is that a
catastrophic rupture is a highly unlikely event. However, several failure modes
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resulting in large hydrogen release or a slow leak has been identified both in
normal operation and in collision.
Most of the above discussed failure modes may be either avoided or their
occurrence and consequences minimized by:
Leak prevention through a proper system design, selection of adequate
equipment (some further testing and investigation may be required), allowing
for tolerance of shocks and vibrations, locating a pressure relief device vent,
protecting the high pressure lines, installing a normally closed solenoid valve
on each tank feed line, etc.
Leak detection by either a leak detector or by adding an odorant to the
hydrogen fuel (this may be a problem for fuel cells);
Ignition prevention, through automatically disconnecting battery bank, thus
eliminating source of electrical sparks which are the cause of 85% gasoline
fires after a collision, by designing the fuel supply lines so that they are
physically separated from all electrical devices, batteries, motors and wires to
the maximum extent possible, and by designing the system for both active
and passive ventilation (such as an opening to allow the hydrogen to escape
upward).
The risk is typically defined as a product of probability of occurrence and
consequences. The above mentioned study by Directed Technologies Inc.
includes a detailed risk assessment of several most probable or most severe
hydrogen accident scenarios, such as:
Fuel tank fire or explosion in unconfined spaces
Fuel tank fire or explosion in tunnels
Fuel line leaks in unconfined spaces
Fuel leak in garage
Refueling station accidents
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In a collision in open spaces, a safety-engineered hydrogen fuel cell car
should have less potential hazard than either natural gas or a gasoline vehicle. In
a tunnel collision, a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle should be nearly as safe as a
natural gas vehicle, and both should be potentially less hazardous than a
gasoline or propane vehicle, based on computer simulations comparing
substantial post collision release of gasoline and natural gas in a tunnel. The
greatest potential risk to the public appears to be a slow leak in an enclosed
home garage, where an accumulation of hydrogen could lead to fire or explosion
if no hydrogen detection or risk mitigation devices or measures are applied (such
as passive or active ventilation).
5.12 Safety Issues for Refueling Station:
A refueling station will comprise of either 1). Reformer or Electrolyser with
hydrogen compressors, storage and dispenser or 2). Tanker delivery, hydrogen
storage, pumps /compressors and dispenser. Following potential accident
scenarios may emerge:
a) Reformer inside a closed container
i. Hazard
Leakage from natural gas line
Rupture of reformer tube
Pipe rupture due to H2 Embrittlement
Rupture of hydrogen line to compressor
ii. Safety Requirement
Ventilation inside the container
Detectors for Hydrogen and NG and proper isolation
Restricted access to the container
Venting surfaces on the container
Regular inspection of Reformer tubes as done in refineries
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b) Electrolyser inside closed container
i. Hazard
Lye leak through cells due to overpressure or gasket failure
Oxygen leak inside the container, leading to fire enhancement
Large H2 ingress into container by backflow of hydrogen from
storage
ii. Safety Requirement
Preventing a mixture of H2 and O2 inside the electrolyser
Detectors for Hydrogen and oxygen with isolation system
Restricted access to the container
Regular inspection
Venting surfaces on the container
c) Compressor inside container
i. Hazard
Since hydrogen will be pressurized to very high pressures upto 700
bars leakage and backflow from the storage are important scenarios.
Further there can be issues of leakage of hydrogen due to vibrations
can also be an issue.
ii. Safety Requirement
Proper pressure controls, vibration control and detectors for hydrogen
with forced ventilation can be installed as safety measures
d) Buffer storage in Open Air
i. Hazard
It will contain the major hydrogen inventory which needs to be
handled. The main hazards are hydrogen leakage with explosion. Due
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to high pressures and volumes of hydrogen bursting of hydrogen
bottles may take place which may trigger failure of other bottles in the
quad.
ii. Safety Requirement
The main safety barriers against above is to limit the hydrogen leak
rates, to isolate the leaky cylinder and to discharge the hydrogen
inventory in a safe way.
e) Dispenser in Open Air
i. Hazard
Dispenser will consist of refueling unit and a dispenser hose. The use
of flexible hose and regular connection/disconnection action increases
the chances of hydrogen leakage or line rupture. The dispenser
scenarios are critical for whole safety evaluation of filling station as
customers will be involved and located near to release location.
ii. Safety Requirement
Safety measures can include hydrogen leak detectors, good and
regular hose maintenance. As far as automatic filling system can be
installed actuating emergency shutdown in case of leaks / hazards.
f) Compressed Hydrogen Gas in open air
i. Hazard
Instead of onsite production the scenario of hydrogen delivery by trucks
involves transfer of huge quantities of hydrogen at high pressures. For a
700 bar filling station the delivery pressures of well above 1000 bars will
be required for reasonable discharge and time. Hose failure or leaks are
the possible accident scenarios.
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ii. Safety Requirement
Hydrogen leak detection before, during and after tanker connections,
loading of hydrogen tanks in separately protected area and emergency
shut down procedures can be important safety measures.
In conclusion, hydrogen appears to poses risks of the same order of
magnitude as other fuels. In spite of public perception, in many aspects hydrogen
is actually a safer fuel than gasoline and natural gas. As a matter of fact,
hydrogen has a very good safety record, as a constituent of the “town gas” widely
used in Europe and USA in the 19th and early 20th century, as a commercially
used industrial gas, and as a fuel in space programs. There have been
accidents, but nothing that would characterize hydrogen as more dangerous than
other fuels.
Nevertheless, further research may be needed in exploring and
quantifying both causes and consequences of hydrogen leaks, development of
new materials and couplings less susceptible to hydrogen leaks, lifetime and
failure modes of fuel cells, etc. and CFD analysis of leaking hydrogen scenarios
can be very useful tool. The results should be disseminated throughout the
scientific community and used to generate the codes and standards for hydrogen
use in the vehicles. Selected information should be fed to media and general
public, in order to change the image of hydrogen as a dangerous fuel. Practical
demonstrations may be extremely valuable in that aspect.
5.13 Hydrogen Codes and Standards:
Several organizations are involved in new standards activity in response
to the growth of interest in hydrogen as a fuel. The National Hydrogen
Association has created Codes and Standards Working Groups on topics such
as hydride storage, electolysers for home use, transportation infrastructure
issues and maritime applications. The Society of Automotive Engineers, through
a Fuel Cell Standards Forum Safety Task Force is collaborating with the NHA on
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the transportation issues. Much of this standards writing is taking place at the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) level in ISO Technical
Committee 197 (Hydrogen Technologies) with input through the national
organizations. The International Electro technical Committee, IEC TC 105 (Fuel
Cells}, ISO TC 197, and ISO TC22 SC 21 (Electric Vehicles) are all involved in
fuel cell standards activities.
ISO TC 197 is one of the more active standards writing groups for
hydrogen. Since new standards are being developed rapidly, ISO TC 197 and
the other organizations should be checked for possible new standards when
considering some of these newer systems. ISO/TC 197, Hydrogen technologies,
is actively developing consensus-based International Standards that will facilitate
the market entry of these new technologies. Working together, we can help to
make hydrogen a sustainable energy solution.
5.14 Most of the work of ISO TC 197 is dedicated to mobile applications.
Canada, USA, and Germany are the most active countries in these
working groups. IEC TC 105 has also been very active, even though it was
established as late as in 1998. So far, ISO standards have been published on
product specifications for hydrogen as a fuel (ISO14687) and vehicle fuelling
interfaces for liquid hydrogen (ISO 13984). Documents close to being published
by both IEC and ISO cover basic safety considerations for hydrogen systems,
fuel cells and airport fuelling applications.
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GAP IDENTIFICATION & ANALYSIS
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6.0 Gap Analysis
There is large gap between international and national status of the
vehicles based on fuel cell technology. As mentioned above these vehicles are
on the verge of commercialization in many developed countries. Cost-wise these
vehicles do not compete in the market with the existing vehicles. Therefore, the
governments of respective countries are supporting development and promotion
of these vehicles at various stages/levels. Many automotive companies have
taken initiatives individually and on cooperative basis for the development of
infrastructure for re-fuelling in cities, where good market for such vehicles is
expected. The good market places are those, where vehicle density is more and
environment is comparatively more polluted than neighboring cities.
6.1 Proposed Strategy
A national strategy for alternative fuels should be developed. This strategy
should identify long term objectives and targets, and supporting policies for
reducing fleet GHG emissions and fuel consumption. Efforts should be
focused on developing the technologies which have the potential for
significant reductions in petroleum consumption and GHG emissions.
The policy shall address the need for developing production capacity
distribution infrastructure and compatible vehicles for the most promising
alternative fuels, rather than focusing narrowly on one or even two of
challenges
Government should mandate the portfolio of solutions required to
decarbonizes transport and adopt technology-neutral approach for
supporting low and ultra-low carbon vehicle technologies.
Constitute The Automotive Council which identifies Roadmap and pathway
for commercial realization of fuel cell and battery electric vehicles.
Constitute Indian Hydrogen Mobility together with Various Ministries:
Commerce, Science & technology, MNRE, MORTH and IOCL, BPCL and
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HP, TML, AL, M&M, Bajaj and TVS and other OEMs and jointly issue letter of
understanding for identification bottlenecks.
Once the plan is prepared, the government may formulate the policies based
on the directions contained therein by the respective Ministries to support
various activities for the promotion of hydrogen vehicles based on the IC
engine/fuel cell technology in the country.
Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles share a large proportion of the electric
motor and drive train technology with other electric and plug-in hybrid
vehicles; hence identify areas and Identify consortium projects for funding for
development of critical components or else encourage industry for import of
these critical technologies and production of these components in India.
A purely market-driven approach alone will not enable the introduction of
clean technologies and Government initiatives and support required in the
initial stage of market introduction.
Public Private Partnership, as the appropriate structure to support the
technologically shift, may be considered while making policies pertaining to
the following areas:
Hydrogen vehicles and refueling stations, for sustainable mobility
sustainable hydrogen production and preparation for the transition to
clean energy carriers.
Joint public/private effort needed for FCH technology breakthrough across
sectors to reach targets Investment focus: Improving the competitiveness
of FCH technology solutions and increasing the share of renewable
sources in the hydrogen production mix.
Combined public and private investment is needed for all stages of the
innovation cycle, from R&D to first-of-a-kind commercial references.
New financial instruments are needed to finance first-of-a-kind commercial
applications and support market introduction.
Fuel Cell and Hydrogen technologies should benefit from various
Government programmes.
Funding for system analysis across coach, integrator, and fuel cell
provider.
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Holistic approach across all elements of the vehicle including driving
profiles, energy management, electric drive and fuel cell module options.
Funding for development of low cost, highly reliable, long lasting
components.
Fuel cell stack and module components.
Energy storage –fuel and electrical.
Electric drive systems
6.2 The following pathway is proposed to bridge the gap in the shortest time:
(a) A study may be instituted for the assessment of (i) Direct economic
costs (both capital and operating) (ii) Environmental, safety, and
health effects, and (iii) Other aspects, such as customer convenience
and societal impacts.
(b) Developed technology may be sourced for adoption and fleet
demonstration trials may be undertaken.
(c) In parallel, the technology may be developed in-house and required
human resources may be developed.
(d) Global Standards for different components / systems may be adopted
and modified for indigenous conditions.
(e) A centralized Centre of Excellence may be developed with satellite
testing and development facilities at different locations in the country.
The CoE to be declared as a nodal centre for certification of fuel cell
technologies in India. It should be mandatory for the foreign /
indigenous suppliers to get the stack / system / vehicle approved
before deploying in field in-line with the certification testing
undertaken for the vehicles.
(f) Infrastructure for indigenous production of various components /
stacks / systems of fuel cells may be created / supported.
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(g) Interim solution such as HCNG, fuel cell range extended vehicles,
diesel - hydrogen based solutions shall be researched, developed
and deployed.
(h) Skill development program to be initiated in the area of hydrogen and
fuel cell with different Central and State universities.
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ACTION PLAN, FINANCIAL
PROJECTIONS AND TIME SCHEDULE
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7.0 Action Plan and Financial Projections
Based on the Gap Analysis and the strategy mentioned to overcome the
gap areas, the following action plan has been identified by the Committee to
execute time bound projects in the area of fuel cell and hydrogen based IC
engines.
A. Mission Mode Project : Hydrogen for Transportation through Research
& Innovation driven Program – HyTRIP
B. Initiatives on other Technologies: HCNG, Fuel Cell Range extended
Vehicles and Hydrogen energy based retrofitment solutions
C. New Assessment Studies
7.1 Action Plan for Mission Mode Project:
A. Hydrogen for Transportation through Research & Innovation driven
Program - HyTRIP
Preamble:
In its quest to stay in tune with the changing times, India as a country is
recognizing that innovation in each and every sector is the key solution to
achieve the desired progress. Following a top driven approach for fostering a
culture of innovation built on the foundations of a strong scientific acumen,
engineering experiences and dynamic human resource, the country has set the
targets of reducing 10% energy imports by 2022.
While the stationary power can be generated through the technologies like solar /
wind, the energy appetite of the mobility sector has to be satisfied by storing on-
board an energy carrier which must drive the vehicles in a more efficient and
cleaner way as compared to IC engines.
The sub-committee on the “Transportation through Hydrogen Fuelled
Vehicles in India” was formed to recommend the future course of action within
the ambit of following key terms of reference:
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To specify the technologies to be developed within the country for niche
transport applications and strategy to be adopted for the same.
To identify gaps and suggest strategy to fill-up the gaps and quickly develop
in-house technologies with involvement of industries or acquiring technologies
from abroad.
To suggest demonstration projects to be taken up with industry and
infrastructure development required to be created for such projects.
The committee concluded that efforts on the development &
demonstration of hydrogen based Fuel Cell Vehicles may be accelerated in-line
with global progress. It is apparent that the current cost of fuel cell vehicles and
hydrogen are on a higher side, but if the technology is developed in-house, the
cost can come down significantly.
Based on the series of discussions and interactions, the Committee
recommends the project “HyTRIP” to be undertaken with support from different
stakeholders including the Govt. Ministries, Oil Companies, Automotive OEMS,
Regulatory bodies like PESO, ARAI etc. The project is aimed to provide end-to-
end deliverables and consist of several activities / sub-projects which are
mutually exclusive and can be initiated in parallel to each other.
Project Scheme:
The project is aimed to provide end to end solution for supply, transportation &
dispensing of hydrogen gas for the fuel cell vehicles developed indigenously
based in imported / in-house designed stacks and then subjecting the vehicles
for field trials to assess the performance, operating characteristics through long
term durability studies.
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Hydrogen Production Transportation Hydrogen dispensing in Fuel cell
/IC engine based vehicles
Objectives of the Project:
The primary objective for this project is to validate hydrogen FCEVs and
hydrogen infrastructure in a real-world operation and identify the current status
and evolution of the technology over the project duration. It would be strived to
provide the Government and Industry with maximum value from the data
produced by this “learning through demonstration.” Efforts would be put in to
objectively understand the technological challenges, market aspirations, price
targets and safety requirements for commercializing the fuel cell technologies for
mobility sector.
This project has been conceived to benchmark following key technical targets for
hydrogen FCEVs and infrastructure:
• Driving range for different category of vehicles
Performance optimization of balance of plant
• Maximizing the fuel cell durability, life assessment of various components
•Optimizing the hydrogen production & transportation cost (based on volume
production)
Recommending country specific safety practices based on the “on-field
learnings”
Also the data would be processed further for planning Research and
Development (R&D) activities and in recommending Hydrogen Mobility &
Infrastructure Plan for the country. Once prepared, the plan would assist the
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Government in formulating the policies based on the directions contained therein
for the promotion of hydrogen vehicles based on the fuel cell/IC
engine/technology in the country.
Approach:
The Sub-committee’s approach to accomplish the project’s objectives is
structured around a highly collaborative relationship among all stakeholders.
Following stakeholders have been identified to participate in the program.
Ministry of New & Renewable Energy – Nodal body for Administrative
decisions
Indian Oil R&D Centre
Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM)
Automotive Research Association of India
Petroleum & Explosives Safety Organization
The above-mentioned core-stakeholders can rope in sub-partners to assist them
in planning, executing and troubleshooting activities at different stages of the
project. The broad responsibility matrix of each of these organizations is
proposed as under:
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To protect the commercial value of the data generated from the above studies, it
is proposed to establish the Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Data Center (HFCDC) at IOC
R&D or at a proposed MNRE/IOC Centre of Excellence on Hydrogen & Fuel Cell
to house the entire data and perform independent data analysis in consultation
with different stakeholders. To ensure that the project information is percolated to
key stakeholders, and institutes, it is proposed to publish Hydrogen Data Report
twice a year for discussions / publishing at several conferences / seminars and
workshops.
Year 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Cost (Crores)
Project HyTRIP 12 88 165 110 15 390
a. Design of fuel cell drivetrains for each category of vehicle and Development of 50 fuel cell vehicles by OEMs including field trials of fuel cell vehicles for 3,000 hours of fuel cell operation
5 45 75 65 7.5 197.5
b. Design of hydrogen DI engine based vehicles and Development of 20 vehicles for long term durability studies for 30,000 kms
2 23 30 15 7.5 77.5
c. Design & Deployment of 10 Dispensing station for fuelling vehicles on hydrogen fuel at 350 bar
5 20 60 30 115
Centre of Excellence 200
d. Setting up of Centre of Excellence (CoE) for testing & certification of fuel cell stack / fuel cell and hydrogen engine based vehicle / hydrogen storage cylinders
50 20 30 50 50 200
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Other Activities ‘e’ & ‘f’ 80
e. Initiatives in other Technologies
HCNG activities
Fuel cell range extenders
Hydrogen based Retrofitment solutions for IC engines
70
f. New Assessment Studies 10
Grand Total
680
crore
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Phase-wise Financial Projections Plan – HyTRIP and Time Schedule
Year 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Cost (Crores)
Activity
1. Design of Dispensing station for fuelling vehicles on
hydrogen fuel at 350 bar
5 5
2. Deployment of dispensing stations at recommended sites
20 60 30 110
3. Design of fuel cell drivetrains for each category of vehicle
and prototype development of FC vehicles by OEMS
5 5 10
4. Development of 50 fuel cell vehicles by OEMs including
integration and control strategy, selection of battery pack,
Battery Management system (BMS) and drive train design
including motor selection
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40 75 65 180
5. Design of hydrogen DI engine based vehicles and prototype
development
2 3 5
6. Development of 20 hydrogen IC engine based vehicles for
durability studies
20 30 15 65
7. Durability studies of fuel cells & IC engine protoypes / driving
cycle simulation studies on test bench
10 10
8. Field trials of fuel cell vehicles for 3,000 hours and 30,000
kms for hydrogen IC engine based vehicles
2 3 5
Phase-wise Financial Projections Plan – Centre of Excellence
9. Setting up of Centre of Excellence (CoE) for testing &
certification of fuel cell stack / fuel cell and hydrogen engine
based vehicle / hydrogen storage cylinders
50 20 30 50 50 200
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1. Four dispensing stations shall be designed for fuelling 50 vehicles per day and another 6 to be designed for
10 vehicles per day
2. Deployment cost of dispensing station for fuelling 50 vehicles is considered to be ~17 crores each while the
cost of dispensing station for fuelling 10 vehicles is considered to be around 7 crores per station.
3. Rs. 10 crores has been allocated for designing the fuel cell based powertrains
4. Out of 50 fuel cell vehicles, 10 vehicles are for each category including two-wheelers, 3-wheelers,
Passenger cars, SUV and Buses
5. Rs. 5 crores have been allocated for design of hydrogen DI engine based vehicles
6. 20 hydrogen IC engine based vehicles include 5 vehicles each in 3-wheeler, passenger car, SUV and
heavy-duty category.
7. Durability studies to be conducted at IOC R&D and ARAI
8. Assumptions for fields trials include:
Landed Hydrogen price: Rs 500/kg (Hydrogen to be sourced from different industries including
refineries)
2 wheeler for 10,000 kms 80 km/kg of hydrogen
3 W for 20,000 kms : 60 km/kg of hydrogen
Passenger Car for 30,000 km: 40 km per kg of hydrogen
SUV for 30,000 km: 25 km per kg of hydrogen
Buses for 30,000 kms: 10 km per kg of hydrogen
CoE include the land cost of 50 crores and 150 crores as infrastructure development cost distributed for the next 4
years.
7.2 Other Projects
D. Initiatives in other technologies – Proposed Budget Rs. 70 crores
While the development of the dedicated fuel cell vehicles would be a case of
disruptive innovation, Govt. of India may also encourage the following initiatives
of incremental innovation:
Upon the success of the HCNG studies on different categories of vehicles,
Govt. of India may support the setting up of 5 nos. of Compact Reformers
based on technology developed by IOC R&D. Proposals may be invited from
different State Transport Undertakings for running 20 buses on HCNG fuel for
20,000 kms to assess the operational costs and fuel economy benefits and
mass emissions.
Fuel cell based range extended battery electric vehicles may be encouraged
for city driving conditions especially in the 13 most polluted cities of the
country identified by WHO. Proposals may be invited for development of 20
nos. of fuel cell range extended vehicles for Delhi to understand the
technological challenges, durability issues, re-fuelling issues & cost of
operation etc associated with these vehicles.
The retrofitment devices for on-hydrogen generation & usage in diesel
engines may be encouraged in order to achieve cleaner environment. The
proposals may be sought and supported by MNRE to develop on-board
hydrogen generation technologies for IC engines & demonstrate the same on
10 vehicles for improving the exhaust emissions and the fuel economy from
the conventional engines which are already on the road.
E. New Assessment Studies – Proposed Budget Rs. 10 crores
Lack of data in the area of new emerging sectors like Hydrogen & Fuel Cells is a
constraint in development of concrete roadmap. Following studies may be
initiated for assessing the future potential of hydrogen based economy:
Well to Wheel analyses of fuel cell & hydrogen IC engine based vehicles
using hydrogen produced from different sources
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Direct economic costs (both capital and operation for new fuel cell electric
vehicles and conversion cost for on-road vehicles)
Environmental, safety, and health effects of hydrogen based IC engine / fuel
cell vehicles vis-à-vis conventional IC engine based vehicles
Mapping / techno-economic assessment of hydrogen retail outlets for setting
of supply & distribution infrastructure in metro cities.
Other aspects, such as safety, drivability, customer convenience and societal
impacts
Compatibility of existing CNG cylinders for storing upto 20% v/v HCNG
blends.
Other Initiatives required from different stakeholders / R&D institutes and
Regulatory agencies in the area of Hydrogen & Fuel Cells
F. Activities / Initiatives to Foster Commercial Use of Hydrogen Fuel Cells
a) R&D Projects
i. Optimization of fuel cell control system and electric power train.
ii. Reduce the cost of fuel cell power system by indigenization or import of
technology and produce at Indian costs.
iii. Developing local vendors for supply of components.
iv. Indigenous manufacture of fuel cell stacks in India.
b) Fuel cell technology
i. Optimization of controller of fuel cell-battery hybrids.
c) Government support
i. Government support required in de-bottlenecking for import of technology.
ii. Government subsidy for indigenization of components and development of
technology.
iii. Creation of infrastructure for certification of fuel cell vehicles.
d) Government notification
i. Notification of Hydrogen as an automotive fuel.
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e) PESO Approvals
1. Establish standards for certifying refueling stations and Hydrogen storage
containers of type III and Type IV for fuel cell vehicles.
f) Indian Standards
i. Indian Standards for Hydrogen purity for fuel cell applications.
ii. Indian Standards for pressure regulators, SV, Pressure relief valves, solenoid
valves.
g) Strategy to bridge the gap
i. Adopt technology and go for demonstration and fleet trials.
ii. Develop technology in house and create required human resources.
iii. Adopt global Standards for
Hydrogen storage systems.
Hydrogen safety systems.
Pressure regulators/solenoid valves/ relief valves.
Fuel cell/battery electric vehicles.
Electric traction components.
Traction batteries.
Fuel Cell stacks components.
Hydrogen DI injectors
Infrastructure for production of
Carbon fabric/carbon support material
Carbon, Membrane, Pt/C –catalyst
Light weight thin Composite bipolar plates
Light weight end plate assembly
Balance of power plant components
Continuously voltage monitoring kits
Air compressors/turbines
Hydrogen recirculation pumps/hydrogen diffusers/hydrogen purging &
venting systems
Humidifiers
DC/DC converters, controllers
Temperature, humidity, pressure sensors
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End plate assembly
Bipolar plate assembly
Stack manifolds
Cost-effective high power density fuel cell stacks for transportation
Balance-of-Power systems for fuel cell stacks
h) Technologies to be developed within the country for niche transport
applications and strategy to be adopted for the same.
i. Li-Ion Battery technology.
ii. Battery management system technology for battery packs.
iii. Fuel cell stack technology.
iv. Fuel cell bipolar plates.
v. CO tolerant fuel cell electrode catalysts.
vi. Light weight composite storage containers.
vii. Air and Hydrogen blowers.
viii. Engineering expertise for integration of fuel cell, stack and electric traction
system components.
ix. Handling Hydrogen safely on-board bus.
x. Hydrogen safety components.
xi. Hydrogen based IC engines
xii. Encourage industries to design and develop battery packs for various
applications by offering project and funding the project.
xiii. Use commercially available cells for making battery modules.
xiv. Encourage industry to import technology and manufacture in India.
i. Funding by the government for generation Hydrogen from renewal energy
sources.
i) Various stakeholders for implementation of projects.
Three groups of general characteristics required to be assessed for fuel cell
technology options for vehicle capacity and performance comparable to the
baseline vehicle before implementation:
i. Direct economic costs (both capital and operating)
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ii. Environmental, safety, and health effects, and
iii. Other characteristics, such as customer convenience and societal
impacts.
During the transitional period, the following major stakeholders are to considered
ad their issues are to be addressed:
Vehicle Purchasers
Fuel Manufacturers
Fuel Distributors
Vehicle Manufacturers (including raw materials and parts)
Vehicle Distributors (including maintenance, repair, and recycling/ scrap
page)
Government (at all levels)
Future work will be needed to analyze significant opportunities or barriers for
introduction of promising technologies in order to identify research needs or
consider alternative implementation pathways.
Here is a summary list by stakeholder of the major transitional issues that may
be important:
j) Vehicle Purchaser
i. Increases in costs and/or decreases in performance/amenities.
ii. Problems with availability and refueling convenience of new fuels (especially in
early introduction, although first introduction with fleet applications would
reduce this problem).
iii. Safety of new vehicle in existing vehicle fleet.
iv. Uncertainty about technology reliability and serviceability.
v. Interest in pioneering new technology.
k) Government (at all levels)
iii. International and national policy actions on GHG reduction.
iv. Implementation of GHG reduction mandates, if used, by locale, sector, etc.
v. Economic impacts/shifts related to new infrastructure investment.
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Major investments (Hydrogen production)
Significant investments (debottleneck or expand natural gas or electric
infrastructure, build clean methanol infrastructure)
vi. Impacts on competitiveness in global markets.
vii. Safety management.
Highway safety (crashworthiness, fleet size, traffic management).
Fuel safety (new standards for H2).
New local safety and zoning requirements for fueling stations.
viii. Environmental stewardship and social equity issues.
l) Vehicle Manufacturer
ii. Marketing challenges (cost, performance, amenities) – constrained by future
government requirements?
iii. Technological challenges
Clean diesel technology
Hybrid and Fuel Cell system refinements
Sulfur guards for Fuel Cell
H2, and battery energy storage improvements
Advanced control systems to optimize performance
iv. Recycling challenges (if driven by government requirements)
Alloys, plastics
Platinum group metals for fuel cells and specialized catalysts in advanced
after treatment systems
v. New suppliers (more electrical systems, system integrators, fuel cell suppliers,
etc.)
(o) Vehicle Distributor/Servicing/Recycling/Disposal
i. New investment (by smaller companies?)
New service and inspection equipment for new technologies
New fuel facilities for servicing
ii. Component recycling (batteries, Platinum group metals, etc.)
iii. Hiring/training to meet different and higher skill levels for employees
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(p) Fuel Manufacturer
i. Major new offshore investment (Hydrogen )
ii. Infrastructure expansion and debottlenecking (H2, electricity)
(q) Fuel Distributor
i. Significant investments (by smaller companies?)
New distribution infrastructure for ultra clean Hydrogen
Fuel station storage and transfer facilities for Hydrogen
Reforming, storage and transfer facilities for H2
ii. Increased safety concerns
H2 facilities including pressure transfer
iii. Longer fueling times ( H2, Electricity)
iv. Loss of fuel business (electricity)
(r) Continuing Impacts of fuel cell Technologies
Assuming that the vehicle and fuel alternatives to support fuel cell technology
are in place, then the major residual impacts of the change rest with the vehicle
purchaser and the government. It is likely that the vehicle production and
service companies, as well as the fuel producers and distributors, will have
incorporated the impacts of transitional changes into their cost and operational
structures. Thus, the major differences that will impact car purchasers and the
government appear to be:
a. Vehicle purchaser
Cost of transportation per km (or cost of new vehicle)
Safety (crashworthiness of lighter vehicle bodies; fueling)
Performance (including acceleration, load and towing capacity, noise,
odor, comfort, style, and level of amenities)
Fuel availability and refueling convenience
Reliability and convenience of servicing
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b. Government
Level of GHG reduction and economic impacts
Reduction in local pollution problems
Change in petroleum dependence
Changes in public safety (fueling, vehicle)
PESO approvals for Hydrogen storage and Hydrogen dispensing
Indian Standards
Involve Non-Government Organization for preparation reports, safety
audits, preparation of reports and standards
Servicing of refueling stations, fuel cell vehicles
Man power creation
Manufacturing industry- Infrastructure to be created, Material recycling
Fuel suppliers- Standards-quality adherence, Generation, transportation,
well to wheel analysis, Action plan for implementation with timeline
Legal issues
(s) Examination of regulatory issues related to transport sector such as
Notifying hydrogen / hydrogen blended fuel as automotive fuels, on-board
storage of such fuels, use of composite cylinders for storage of fuels as per
international practices, type approval of vehicles using such fuels, setting-up of
refueling stations of such fuels etc.
i. Notification of Hydrogen as automotive fuel
ii. Approval of use of Type III and Type IV storage containers
iii. Creation of facility of testing and validation of Hydrogen storage containers
iv. Standards for Fuel cell vehicle
v. Standards for fuel cell power system and batteries
vi. Type IV storage containers approval process
vii. Creation of facility for evaluation of storage containers
viii. Indian standards for regulators, pressure relief valves
ix. Preparation of policy document and setting target dates for approval
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INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOP-
MENT OF THE PRODUCTS / PROCESSES
AND INFRASTRUCTURE TO BE CREATED
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8.0 Institutions Involved in the Development of the Products /
Processes and Infrastructure to be created
In India, majority of R&D activities in the area of hydrogen and fuel cells is being
undertaken by CSR labs, IITs and Public Sector Undertakings. However, for
transiting the fuel cell technology to the next level, stakeholders like vehicle
manufacturers, oil/gas marketing companies, regulatory bodies, and certification
agencies are required to participate in collaborative research / demonstration
projects.
8.1 Institutes recommended for Mission mode Project
For executing the mission mode project mentioned by the Committee, the
following institutes are recommended to participate in this initiative.
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy – for coordinating the projects
Leading Automotive OEMs like Tata Motors, Mahindra & Mahindra, Maruti
Suzuki India Limited, Ashok Leyland, Bajaj Motors, Hero Honda etc.
through Society of Indian Automobile manufacturers - for development of
fuel cell and hydrogen IC engine based prototypes and vehicles
Indian Oil R&D through its planned Centre of Excellence on Hydrogen &
Fuel Cells (iCARE) supported by Ministry of New & Renewable Energy –
to augment the fuel infrastructure, handle the supply chain management
and to create infrastructure and hydrogen safe labs for fuel cell stack,
system and vehicle & hydrogen engine testing.
Petroleum and Safety Organization - Certification of Hydrogen storage
cylinder, container for bulk transportation and Valves.
Indian standards- Pressure regulators/Solenoid valves/Hydrogen
purity/Pressure relief valves/Hydrogen Material compatibility.
Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) - Creation of facility for
qualification of various components
Vehicle Research & Development Establishment.
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National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project (NATRIP)
IITs for undertaking the fundamental research on the design optimization
and controller development for fuel cell vehicles in collaboration with
OEMs
8.2 Infrastructure to be created:
To accomplish a successful transition to a hydrogen powered vehicles, it is
critical to match as precisely as possible—in time and space—the available
hydrogen supply with emerging hydrogen demand. The projects which have
been proposed would need infrastructure for development of fuel cell vehicles,
hydrogen engines, controllers, lab set ups for testing & validation, fueling
stations, hydrogen storage infrastructure etc.
During the course of the project, the following infrastructure will be created:
1. Hydrogen dispensing stations: 10 hydrogen dispensing stations will be
created during the course of mission mode project. These stations will be
used to refuel 70 vehicles running hydrogen based technologies. Moreover,
fuel cell range extended vehicles proposed under “Other Technologies” would
also be refueled from these stations.
2. Vehicles: 50 fuel cell vehicles alongwith 20 hydrogen IC engine based
vehicles would be developed as a part of mission mode project
3. Lab Infrastructure to be created at Centre of Excellence
a. Stack Testing
Hydrogen Safe Stack Testing facility for sizes ranging from 5 to
100 kW – 3 nos.
Programmable Test Stations for testing for effect of
contaminants in fuel air and stack materials (bi-polar plates,
seals, etc.) – 2 nos.
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b. Hydrogen Engine Testing ranging from single cylinder research
engine upto commercial engines upto 100kW
Test bench for testing for performance & combustion analysis of
hydrogen engines
c. Hydrogen Safe Environment Chamber for Integrated Product
Testing transportation (2-3 wheeler/automotive/ bus) products.
Vehicle testing facilities for 3-wheelers / Passenger cars, SUVs
upto 50kW and, LDVs / LCVS / Buses Commercial Vehicles up
to 200kW – 2 Nos..
Temperature range: -40°C to +60°C
Relative Humidity range: 5% to 95%
Altitude Range: 0 to 3000m (70 kPa absolute pressure)
Solar Loading / integration with solar hydrogen generation
Chassis Dynamometers of approx. 30kW & 200 kW for
simulating various drive cycle testing on FCEVs
d. Component testing facilities
e. Motor evaluation & drivetrains testing facilities
f. Controller development and validation lab
g. HIL setup for fuel cell vehicles
8.3 The following partners / collaborations are proposed for undertaking
different projects as mentioned above:
S. No. Project Probable Partners
1 Mission Mode Project:
Hydrogen for Transportation through
Research & Innovation driven
Program - HyTRIP
Automotive Manufacturers Like
Tata Motors Ltd. (TML), M&M,
Ashok Leyland (AL), Bajaj,
Hero Motors, Maruti Suzuki
India Ltd., Society of Indian
Automobile Manufacturers
(SIAM), IOC R&D, Automotive
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Research Association of India
(ARAI), Petroleum Explosives
and Safety Organization
(PESO) and Ministry of New &
Renewable Energy (MNRE),
Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO), Ol
Marketing Companies
2. Use of HCNG produced through
Compact Reforming for Buses
State Transport Undertakings
(STUs), IOC R&D, OEMs like
TML and AL etc.
3. Development & Evaluation of Fuel
Cell Range Extended vehicles
Bajaj, M&M, Centre for Fuel
Cell Technologies, IITs, IOC
R&D etc.
4. Hydrogen based retro-fitment
solutions for IC engines
Automotive OEMS like M&M,
TML, MSIL etc alongwith IOC
R&D
5. Well to Wheel analyses of fuel cell &
hydrogen IC engine based vehicles
using hydrogen produced from
different sources
IIT-Chennai, Central Road
Research Institute, IOC R&D,
Central Institute of Road
Research (CIRT)
6. Direct economic costs (both capital
and operation for new fuel cell electric
vehicles and conversion cost for on-
road vehicles)
IIT-Delhi, Automotive OEMs &
ARAI, Central Road research
Institute
7 Environmental, safety, and health
effects of hydrogen based IC engine /
fuel cell vehicles vis-à-vis
conventional IC engine based vehicles
Centre for Science and
Environment, TERI & SIAM
8. Mapping / techno-economic
assessment of hydrogen retail outlets
IOCL, HPCL, BPCL & GAIL
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for setting of supply & distribution
infrastructure in metro cities.
9. Other aspects, such as safety,
drivability, customer convenience and
societal impacts
IIT-Bombay, NEERI, TERI
10 Compatibility of existing CNG
cylinders for storing upto 20% v/v
HCNG blends.
ARAI, PESO, NMRL, CGCRI,
IIT-Kharagpur, IOC R&D
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181
CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS
182
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9.0 Conclusions & Recommendations
Hydrogen has been considered as green fuel for futuristic transportation
as an alternative to the petrol / diesel oil without / with reduced environmental
concerns like emission of harmful gases and global warming effect. The modes
of transportation may be hydrogen fuelled vehicles based on IC engine / fuel cell
technologies. Such vehicles have attracted more attention by the automakers,
Governments and the customers despite the limitations (i) Safety regulations are
to be followed during handling hydrogen (its transportation, storage and use as
gaseous fuel) since hydrogen being flammable and explosive gas (ii) hydrogen
being produced from the sources other than primary fuel sources is expensive,
(iii) fuel cells having higher efficiencies but presently too expensive and (iv)
absence of infrastructure that delivers / dispenses hydrogen or its precursors.
Fuel cell vehicles can’t be commercialized till they become cost-wise competitive
in the market and infrastructure for dispensing hydrogen is established.
9.1 Hydrogen IC Engines
a) The Internal Combustion (IC) engines are the backbone of the present
vehicular system. For transition to hydrogen economy, various options for
hydrogen in IC engines viz. neat hydrogen, hydrogen supplementation like
hydrogen + gasoline, hydrogen + CNG and hydrogen + diesel. The existing
IC engines may be modified by optimizing various operating parameters like
fuel induction mechanism, compression ratio, spark timing, injection timing,
and injection pressure and injection duration. India may go ahead with
hydrogen blending in CNG and graduating to neat hydrogen, because of the
availability of CNG infrastructure available in the country. Combination of
diesel with hydrogen was not pursued in developed countries, however it is
important in India, since diesel is being used in decentralized manner for
transportation and power generation. The IC engines may be modified as
detailed below and commercialized with some incremental cost:
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Hydrogen fuelled SI engines can be developed for high power
outputs and low emissions by direct injection of hydrogen into the
cylinder. These injectors have to be developed. Engine control
units also have to be developed. Hydrogen enhanced biogas can
be studied for stationary applications and also for mobile
applications like locomotives where biogas can be an option.
The dual fuel Hydrogen-diesel/biodiesel engine with common rail
engine controller is capable of varying fuel injection quantities of
diesel/biodiesel and hydrogen as per the demand without knock.
Direct injector of hydrogen could be developed and integrated with
a suitable controller. Hydrogen may also be used along with biogas
or other low grade gaseous fuels in the dual fuel mode. The niche
applications in such a mode may be in locomotives and stationary
power generation.
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) engine
operate with high thermal efficiencies and low NOx emissions with
hydrogen as fuel. However, the load range is limited. The range is
higher in the case of hydrogen-diesel is used as dual fuel.
Hydrogen can be a good additive to biogas-diesel as it raises
efficiency and extends the load range. It also enables operation at
low charge temperatures.
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai is planning to work
with combustion in hybrid mode of HCCI engine. It can start with
diesel at very low loads. It will shift to hydrogen & diesel mode and
later again to diesel mode depending upon the operating
conditions. Such engine may be useful for gen-set, so that it may
recognize the load and change the operating mode accordingly.
b) The Society of Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) implemented a project on
the use of Hydrogen (up to 30%) as Fuel Blended with Compressed Natural
Gas in Internal Combustion Engines in collaboration with automobile
companies. Seven vehicles (two buses of different makes, one jeep, one car,
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one passenger three wheeler, one cargo three wheeler and one cargo truck)
were modified for the use of hydrogen-CNG blend and field tried. This project
was supported by the Government of India. The hydrogen-CNG blend was
optimized and arrived at an appropriate common blend ratio i.e. 18%
hydrogen with CNG for all type of vehicles (under consideration) in view of its
implementation in actual practice. It has been found that CO has been
reduced in exhaust gases with the use of 82% CNG (18% hydrogen) in
comparison to the use of 100% CNG in all vehicles. Hydrocarbons have also
been reduced in most of the vehicles but nitrogen oxide (NOx) has gone up.
It may be due to the facts that engines are psychometric in India. These NOx
can be reduced by burning lean or deploy a catalyst as in US and get these
NOx be reduced. Overall behavior is consistent. The engine can be cooled
down with exhaust gas recirculation. Thus, this problem can be solved by
undertaking R&D. Material (metallic and non-metallic) compatibility of CNG
gas kit components / parts have been studied for different sets of H-CNG
blends (10%, 18% and 30% hydrogen content) by the Automobile Research
Association of India, Pune under a project sponsored by the Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS). Project report has been submitted along with seven draft
standards on hydrogen. The Standing Committee on Emissions (SCoE)
under Ministry of Road Transport and Highways) is looking after the
implications of storage of Hydrogen blended CNG up to 20% in Type-1 CNG
cylinder. IOCL observed no degradation in these cylinders after H-CNG
project was over. The SCoE will also consider declaration of hydrogen as
fuel in vehicles.
c) Mahindra and Mahindra modified CRDI diesel engine with electronic control
unit of its SUV for the use of Diesel-Hydrogen Dual fuel and optimized blend
ratio for hydrogen & diesel. This project was supported by Government of
India. A fleet of five vehicles has been built and ready for field trials to cover
a distance of 1,00,000 Km.
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d) UNIDO/ICHET sponsored a project on ‘Del-hy-3W’ (Delhi-Hydrogen-
3Wheelers) to a consortium of Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi (for
engine optimization, performance, durability validation), Mahindra &
Mahindra (for field trials, vehicular optimization and maintenance), Air
Products (for setting up fuelling Station to dispense hydrogen), India Trade
Promotion Organization Delhi (for trial management in the area of ITPO) for
the development and demonstration of H2-fuelled three-wheelers in New
Delhi. Under this project 15 hydrogen powered 3-Wheelers were developed
and demonstrated at Pragati Maidan, New Delhi. The MNRE sanctioned this
project to continue demonstration of these 3-wheelers for evaluation of
performance, durability, cost of the technologies on the hydrogen power
engine and fueling technology. Field Trial and Demonstration are to be done
for 15,000 km of each vehicle. There are a few challenges like these 3-
wheelers are giving less mileage & consume more hydrogen. It is practically
very difficult to manage continued experimentation, because transported
hydrogen is exorbitantly costly. Tube Trailers and Bullets need to be
introduced for making delivered hydrogen cheaper.
e) The Banaras Hindu University modified IC engines of motorcycles and three
wheelers for demonstration of hydrogen storage in solid phase and its
recovery from the thermal energy of the vehicles exhaust.
9.2 Fuel Cell Vehicles
f) The Governments in many countries USA, United Kingdom, Japan,
Germany, and China are very active in the development of fuel cell vehicles
and providing support to the developers. As a result a number of companies
have come forward to develop such vehicles. Electric mobility programme
have been launched on large scale in many countries with the aim to reduce
pollution in the crowded cities and also from the angle of futuristic
foresightedness i.e. after the exhaustion of the petroleum sources, these
vehicles may be coupled with the electricity generation from hydrogen fuel
cell or from natural / renewable resources like solar, wind, biological sources
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etc., so that transportation mode remains unhindered. India is also
considering launching such a programme on Electric Mobility Mission Plan
2020. Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles share a large proportion of the
electric motor and drive train technology.
g) Fuel cells (which generate electricity with hydrogen as fuel) have been
commercialized in many countries but their cost is still high. This makes
vehicles based on fuel cell costly. Efforts are being made world over to
reduce cost of the fuel cells. In India, many industries, OEMs and academic
institutes are involved in the fuel cell research.
h) The Government of India sanctioned a project for the development and
demonstration of ten fuel cell buses to the Tata Motors Limited. Since the
fuel cells are not being manufactured in the country, these have been
imported for the deployment in these buses. The Government of India
alongwith other stakeholders is making efforts to indigenize the
manufacturing of the components and the system. The auto companies
desire that Government of India should formulate policies to provide financial
support and other incentives for the promotion of fuel cell vehicles in the
country till the time it becomes self-sustaining.
i) Purity of hydrogen is another issue. Purity of hydrogen does not matter for
the use in the IC engine vehicles, since hydrogen is burnt in the presence of
air in the cylinder. No pollutants other than hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides
are emitted. These pollutants have no erosion / corrosion or any other effect
on the material of construction of the vehicle. But in case of fuel cell
vehicles, very hydrogen of the order of 99.999% purity is required, because
the noble metal (platinum) poisons by the presence of carbon monoxide.
Hydrogen available as byproduct in Chlor-Alkali unit is 99.999% pure and
may be used as fuel for the fuel cell vehicles. So there is requirement for
creating infrastructure re-filling facility to different kinds of on-board storage
vessels at different pressures say from 200 to 700 bar. Very pure hydrogen
188
may also be produced by the electrolyser. Technology has been developed
to produce pure hydrogen at high pressures. The storage tanks of the
vehicles may refilled by the pressure difference. No extra compressor is
required and hence no requirement of electricity for filling the storage tank. In
case hydrogen is produced through the carbonaceous sources like coal,
petroleum products, biomass etc. other products are also produced together
with hydrogen. These are need to be separated out. Hydrogen capacities in
refineries can be leveraged to initiate the fuel cell program in the country
j) The Government of India may constitute an Automobile Council with various
stakeholders as members. This Council may look into and address all
concerns for the research, development, commercialization and market
penetration of the hydrogen fuel vehicles in the country.
9.3 Infrastructure development for supply and Distribution
k) Delivery technology for hydrogen infrastructure is currently available
commercially, and several companies deliver bulk hydrogen in some
countries. Some of the infrastructure is already in place in the country,
because hydrogen has long been used in industrial applications, but it's not
sufficient to support widespread consumer use of hydrogen as an energy
carrier. Hydrogen having relatively low volumetric energy density costs
significantly for its transportation, storage, and delivery to the point of use.
Options and trade-offs for hydrogen delivery from central, semi-central, and
distributed production facilities to the point of use are complex. The choice of
a hydrogen production strategy greatly affects the cost and method of
delivery. For example, larger, centralized facilities can produce hydrogen at
relatively low costs due to economies of scale, but the delivery costs for
centrally produced hydrogen are higher than the delivery costs for semi-
central or distributed production options (because the point of use is farther
away). Thus, creation of infrastructure needs appropriate planning, so that
cost of hydrogen delivery is minimum forever. Huge amount of hydrogen is
189
required for the development, demonstration and commercialization of
hydrogen fuelled vehicles based on the IC engine or fuel cell technology,
since the devices/systems work initially very inefficiently during the
development phase. Therefore, hydrogen cost is the major player in the
promotion of hydrogen fueled vehicles based on internal combustion engine
and fuel cell technologies.
l) In order to ensure safety of hydrogen fuelled vehicles regulations and
standards are required to be followed. These regulations and standards are
key requirement for commercialization of the technology. Regulations and
standards will help to overcome technological barriers to commercialization,
facilitate manufacturers’ investment in manufacturing such vehicles and
facilitate public acceptance by providing a systematic and accurate means of
assessing and communicating the risk associated with the use of hydrogen
vehicles.
9.4 In view of above, the Committee on Transportation through
Hydrogen concludes the following:
a) A study may be initiated for the assessment of (a) Well to Wheel analyses of
fuel cell using hydrogen produced from different sources, (b) Direct
economic costs (both capital and operation for new fuel cell electric vehicles
and conversion cost for on-road vehicles), (c) Environmental, safety, and
health effects of hydrogen based IC engine / fuel cell vehicles vis-à-vis
conventional IC engine based vehicles, (d) Other aspects, such as safety,
drivability, customer convenience and societal impacts, and (e) Mapping /
techno-economic assessment of hydrogen retail outlets for setting of supply
& distribution infrastructure in metro cities.
b) Considering global developments, issues of energy security and
environmental concerns, hydrogen may be promoted as fuel for automobiles
operating on engines / fuel cells. Risk assessment & safety hazop studies to
be undertaken at the vehicular level as well as at dispensing stations.
190
c) Unless hydrogen is declared as an automotive fuel, hydrogen fuelled
vehicles can’t be plied on the public roads. The Ministry of Road Transport
and Highways may look after this issue.
d) Standards and regulations may be developed for handling hydrogen during
transportation, storage and utilization.
e) Priority is to be given to utilize hydrogen produced in Chlor-Alkali units and
the refineries by installing purification, compressing and dispensing facilities
for filling compressed gas.
f) Corridor for trial and demonstration of vehicles may be planned and
permitted in the nearby areas of hydrogen outlets.
g) After utilization of available hydrogen, captive use of hydrogen for heating
purposes may be replaced by other locally available fuels like biomass, solar
energy etc. to use hydrogen for high grade usage in automobiles.
h) Target oriented policy may be formulated by the Government of India to
support different activities at different stages till the entire value change
becomes self-sustaining. Once the technology is ready for
commercialization, taxes and duties may be waived off for hydrogen fuelled
vehicles for the initial period.
i) Constitution of a Council or Steering group with all stakeholders as
members, to identify problems being faced for the development, testing, field
trials and commercialization of IC engine / fuel cell vehicles.
j) Preparation of Hydrogen Mobility & infrastructure Plan for the country to be
developed upon consultation among various stakeholders like concerned
Ministries, oil companies and automotive manufacturers. Once the plan is
prepared, the government may formulate the policies based on the directions
contained therein by the respective Ministries to support various activities for
the promotion of hydrogen vehicles based on the IC engine/fuel cell
technology in the country.
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9.5 Recommendations
9.5.1 Fuel Cell Vehicles
The following are recommended for fuel cell vehicles:
a. Design & development of a fleet comprising of 10 passenger cars, 10 two-
wheelers, 10 SUVs, 10 three-wheelers, 10 buses operating on fuel cell
technology may be taken-up as a Mission Mode Project alongwith the 10
dispensing stations at different sites. MNRE may support this initiative
through proposed Centre of Excellence on Hydrogen & Fuel Cells being
set-up by IOC R&D.
b. Fleet demonstration trials of the fuel cell buses run by STUs.
c. R&D institutes and leading research labs may undertake Simulation
studies of BoP components & hydrogen storage & supply system to be
installed in the vehicle leading to indigenize development of the same.
d. Development & demonstration of Fuel cell Range Extended vehicles &
their performance evaluation. Optimization of control system & fuel
(hydrogen) quality for maximization of durability with minimal operating
cost.
e. Establishment of test facilities for fuel cell components, stacks and
systems.
f. Establishing the hydrogen safe labs for fuel cell / hydrogen vehicle testing
at ARAI, NATRIP and proposed MNRE/IOC Centre of Excellence for
Hydrogen & Fuel cells.
g. Development & standardization of fuel cell vehicle and stack testing
standards for Indian conditions.
h. Understanding the global quality control standards for different stack
components / systems and their modification for indigenous conditions.
i. Undertake the contamination studies both on fuel side as well as on air
side to establish the long term durability impact on the fuel cell vehicle
performance
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j. Development of required human resources for various activities like
carrying out further RD&D activities, indigenous production, repair &
maintenance services etc.
9.5.2 Hydrogen Fuelled IC Engine
The following Work has been proposed for the research, development,
demonstration and commercialization of Hydrogen Fuelled IC Engine
Technology:
a. 20 vehicles based on Hydrogen direct injection technology to developed
and demonstrated as a part of Mission Mode project discussed above.
b. Pilot studies to be initiated for conversion of CNG buses may be converted
into H-CNG buses in the initial phase based on the Compact Reformer
technology developed by IOC R&D. Performance monitoring of the buses
to be carried out for establishing the on-field long term durability
c. Combustion chamber designs and cylinder head designs for direct
injection SI engines running on hydrogen have to be developed.
d. Engine control units for dual fuel, HCCI and direct hydrogen injection
engines with effective control strategies in some cases to switch between
modes have to be developed. Academic institutions could do the initial
part of working out modes of operation and strategies using experiments
and simulation models. However, industry partners have to take it to the
level of making ECU hardware and software that matches industry
standards.
e. Strategies to combine HCCI operation with dual fuel and CI modes to
extend the load range can be developed. This will enable the effective use
of HCCI for applications like generator sets and locomotives. Here
academic institutions can do the basic experimental work and perform
simulation studies while industries may implement the strategies in the
field for evaluation.
193
f. Development of after treatment device for NOx reduction (Lean NOx trap,
SCR etc.), which will help to reduce NOx emission while operating the
engine at a higher equivalence ratio to improve the power output. This is
relevant for development of heavy duty engines with hydrogen.
g. Application of hydrogen blends with various fuels like CNG, LPG, Diesel,
Biogas in the existing SI engines etc.
h. Combustion research to be undertaken by the leading labs and institutes
to establish the performance of hydrogen fuelled engines
9.5.3 Hydrogen infrastructure
The establishment of hydrogen infrastructure may be planned in the following
steps:
a. Hydrogen supply must be ensured at the workshop / industry / testing
facility, where prototype hydrogen vehicle is developed and tested.
Therefore, Oil Companies may set-up 10 additional hydrogen dispensing
stations and supply hydrogen from refineries as a part of Mission mode
project to facilitate the pilot studies to be conducted on hydrogen IC
engine based as well as fuel cell vehicles
b. Studies on understanding the purity of hydrogen required for both IC
engines and fuel cells must be carried out by the research institutes to be
ensured as per its application as fuel for the IC engine / fuel cell based
vehicles.
c. Opportunities to use hydrogen produced in Oil Refineries and Chlor-Alkali
plants may be explored. Inter-ministerial group may be formed to expedite
the supply of hydrogen from refineries for different hydrogen applications.
d. The delivered cost of hydrogen through steel cylinders at 200 bar is too
high. It is therefore required to have alternate means of transportation of
hydrogen like compressed hydrogen tube trailer or cryogenic liquid
hydrogen trailer. The fuel cell buses use composite cylinders for storing
hydrogen on-board at 350 bars. These cylinders are not manufactured in
194
the country. Efforts should be made to have indigenous production of
these cylinders.
e. The composite cylinders, which are imported, can withstand upto 350 bar
pressure, but the valve deployed on the cylinder is Indian and can
withstand only upto 200 bar pressure. In case of cylinder and valve are
imported and have test certificate upto 350 bars, the same shall be
allowed in our country.
f. Research activities on pipeline to be undertaken for examining the long
term efficacy of hydrogen transportation through pipelines and the
utilization of existing pipeline network.
g. Adequate establishment of test facilities for cylinders and other
components of the hydrogen fuelled vehicles in any Government /
autonomous institutions to for timely testing and certification of the
vehicles.
h. Creation of following test facility for certification of the hydrogen fuelled
vehicles (like passenger cars and light duty vehicles, motorcycles and
heavy duty vehicles (on/off road)) and their components:
i. Safety bunker for stationary & cyclic testing facility upto 800 bar
ii. Laboratory for sensor testing
iii. Dispersion / explosion modeling
iv. Laboratory for storage capacity characterization
v. Refueling stations
vi. Environmental and vibration testing of fuel cell systems and their
performance
vii. Efficiency measurement, engine performance evaluation and
emission testing
h. The institutions like, ARAI, and MNRE / IOC R&D’s proposed CoE for
Hydrogen & Fuel Cells to provide support by creating the following:
i. Certification test facilities for stacks and fuel cell sub systems
195
ii. Facilities for Evaluation of Balance of Plant components
iii. Hydrogen safe labs for Testing & performance evaluation of fuel
cell electric vehicles / dual fuel vehicles / hydrogen engines /
vehicles.
196
197
BIBLIOGRAPHY
198
199
10.0 Bibliography
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6. US Department of Energy, Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program “Pathways
to Commercial Success: Technologies and Products Supported by the
Fuel Cell Technologies Program,” Department of Energy, September
2012.
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7. Ogden J.M. and L. Anderson, Sustainable Transportation Energy
Pathways, Institute of Transportation Studies. University of California,
Davis, Regents of the University of California, Davis campus.
8. Fuel Cell today – London taxis
7. Nguyen, T., J. Ward, K. Johnson, “Well-to-Wheels Greenhouse Gas
Emissions and Petroleum Use for Mid-Size Light-Duty Vehicles,” Program
Record (Offices of Bioenergy Technologies, Fuel Cell Technologies &
Vehicle Technologies, US Department of Energy
8. California Fuel Cell Partnership, “A California Road Map: Bringing
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles to the Golden State,” describing the
infrastructure necessary to successfully launch commercial FCEVs.
http://cafcp.org/RoadMap
9. Greene, D. L., Leiby, P. N., James, B., Perez, J., Melendez, M., Milbrandt,
A., Unnasch, S., and Hooks, M., “Analysis of the Transition to Hydrogen
Fuel Cell Vehicles and the Potential Hydrogen Energy Infrastructure
Requirements,” RNL/TM-2008/30. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2008
10. National Research Council, Transitions to Alternative Transportation
Technologies: A Focus on Hydrogen, ISBN-13: 978-0-309-12100-2.
Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2008
11. UKH2 mobility: Synopsis of Phase 1 results, February 2013
10.3 Testing, Standards, Codes and Regulations for Hydrogen Vehicles
1. ISO TC 197 Website
2. Presentation from Mr. Srivastava, PESO
3. Presentation from Dr. Thipse, ARAI
4. US NHTSA Hydrogen Vehicle Safety Report
5. UNIDO-ICHET Report on Hydrogen Vehicles
6. UNECE-GRSP-49-28
7. Presentation from Clean Cities, US DOE
8. BIS Website
9. Website of H2 Training, USA
10. Presentation from SIAM
Recommended