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Brigham Young University Brigham Young University
BYU ScholarsArchive BYU ScholarsArchive
Faculty Publications
2016
The Application of Layer Theory to Design: The Control Layer The Application of Layer Theory to Design: The Control Layer
Andrew S. Gibbons III Brigham Young University, andy_gibbons@byu.edu
Matt Langton BYU
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BYU ScholarsArchive Citation BYU ScholarsArchive Citation Gibbons, Andrew S. III and Langton, Matt, "The Application of Layer Theory to Design: The Control Layer" (2016). Faculty Publications. 2968. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/facpub/2968
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TheApplicationofLayerTheorytoDesign:TheControlLayer
AndrewS.Gibbons MatthewB.Langton
BrighamYoungUniversity
Abstract
Validation of an architectural theory of instructional design layering is accomplished for one of the proposed layers by verifying the theory’s claim that for every layer there exists a body of design theory from outside the field of instructional design that is capable of informing design within that layer.
“Oftenthemainvalueofatheoryliesinthenewkindsofresearchitgenerates.” N.L.Gage(1964,p.281)
Prologue
In1985StephenHawkinglostthelastvestigesofhisvoice,andhiscommunicationchanneltotheoutsideworldnearlyclosed.AllofHawking’smotorfunctionshaddeterioratedduetomotorneurondiseasetothepointwhereeventhesimplestmovementsrequiredstrenuouseffort,andin1985hehadatracheotomythattookawayhispowersofspeech.Thisseemedtobetheendofabrilliantcareerincosmologicalphysics.Incredibly,intheyearssincelosinghisvoice,andinthefaceofadvancingincapacitation,Hawking’sscholarlyoutputhasactuallyincreased:
Onhisownwebsite,Hawkinglists194publicationsthroughNovember2008(http://www.hawking.org.uk).Thismorecompletelistincludesitemssuchasbooks,significantlectures,andawardessays.(Lehman,2011,p.6)
Since2011,theyearoftheauthor’s69thbirthday,thereareadditionalpapers,anautobiography,andtwonovelsforyoungreadersoncosmology—thelatestinaseriesofnovelswrittenwithhisdaughter.(Lehman,2011givesmanymoredetailsofHawking’swritinghistory.)
Thisremarkablerecordofproductivity,whichamountstomillionsofwordsofoutput,hadtobeachievedthroughtheuseofacontrolsystemoperatedbyasinglecommandaction:thepressingofaswitch.ThissystemisdescribedbyMehtainachapterappropriatelytitled,“WhenaSingleButtonisAllThatConnectsYoutotheWorld”(Mehta,2007;seealsoMedeiros,2015).
ThecontrolswitchitselfthatoperatesHawking’seditingsystemisnottheinnovation.Later,whenpressingaswitchbecameimpossible,thetwitchofafacialmusclewasusedasacontrol.ThekeytoHawking’sexpressivecontrolconsistsofananticipatory,feed-forwardinterpretationsystemcapableofusingthecontroloperationanditscontexttopredictexpressiveintent,andbydoingsoofferappropriateshorthandcontroloptionsthatmultiplythepossiblemeaningsofasinglecontrolactuation.
Thedesignofthiscontrolsystemconsistsofdesignsforeverythingfromtheswitch/twitchrespondertothetexteditorinterfaceandallofthepredictivesoftwareinbetween.Thedesignofthissystemisanexampleoftheapplicationoftheoreticalprinciplesforcontroldesign.Overtheyears,specifichardwareandsoftwarepartsofHawking’ssystemhavecomeandgone,butthetheoreticalprinciplesunderlyingthedesignhaveremainedthesame.Hawking’scaseisoneofmanycasesthatdemonstratethatthedesignofcontrolsystemsis,orcanbe,morechallengingandmoretheoreticalthanonewouldthink.
Purpose
Thispaperreportsresearchonthevalidityofatheoryofdesignlayers.Gibbons(2014)proposesthatindividualfunctionallayersofadesignconstitutearchitecturalfeaturesofaninstructionaldesignthroughwhichtheoreticalprinciplescaninfluencedesigns.Specifically,thisstudyexaminesasinglefunctionallayer--thecontrollayer--intermsoftheoriesofcontroldesignborrowedfromdisparatedesignfields.Itarguesthatprinciplesforinstructionalcontroldesigncanbederivedfromthetheoriestakenfromtheseotherfieldsandappliedbeneficiallyintoinstructionaldesigns.
Theresultsofthisstudyappeartosupportthepositionthatlayersdoconstituteavalidchannelfortheoreticalinputtodesignforthefollowingreasons:
● Theoriesforcontroldesignfromotherfieldsdocontributeprinciplesthatcanbeabstractedandappliedtothedesignofinstructionalcontrolsystems.
● Theseprinciplesfocusdesignerattentionmoredirectlyonissuesofcontrolsystemdesignbypointingoutconsiderationsthatmightotherwisehavebeenoverlookedbyinstructionaldesigners.
● Applyingtheseprinciplesimprovestheoperationandthedesirablequalitiesofthedesignedartifact.Asdesignsinotherfieldshavebecomemoresophisticated,controldesigntheorieshavebeenshowntobeimportantfordesigningcontrolsystemswithdesirablepropertiesdiscussedinthispaper.Maturingintellectualconceptsofinstructionaldesignandrisingconsumerexpectationsofinstructionalexperienceswillinthefuturemakeitnecessaryforinstructionaldesignerstobecomemorefamiliarwiththetheoreticalbasesoftheircontrolsystemdesigns,apatternthathasalreadytakenholdinotherdesignfields.
Method
Ourmethodhasbeen:
1. Toexaminetherangeofcontrolsusedininstructionaldesignstobringintofocustheextentofthecontroldesignproblem.
2. Toidentifyalistofdesirablepropertiesofcontrolsystemsfoundinotherdesignfields.3. Toidentifytheoreticalprinciplesforcontroldesignfromotherdesignfields.4. Toextrapolatetheapplicationofthosetheoreticalprinciplestoinstructionalcontrolsystemdesign,
showinghowtheorycanleadtonewinsightsforinstructionaldesigners.5. Toidentifyinstanceswhereattentiontocontroldesigntheoryhasimprovedthequalityand
effectivenessofdesignedartifacts.Thecontrollayerwasoriginallyselectedforthisstudywithexpectationthatitwouldprovidearelativelyuncomplicatedexplorationofcontroldesigntheoriesandtheirproperapplicationthroughdesignlayers.Emphasiswasonestablishingthecontrollayerasalegitimateareaofdesignfocus,thereforeaddingvaliditytothetheoryofdesignlayersitself.Asthestudyprogressed,itbecameapparentthat:(1)controlsystemsforinstructionalpurposesweremuchmorecomplexandvariedthanwehadexpected,especiallyformoreadvancedformsofinstruction,(2)thedesirablepropertiesofcontrolsystemsingeneral,andbyextrapolationofinstructionalcontrolsystems,weremorenumerousandexactingthanwehadanticipated,(3)thenumberofcontributingtheoriesfromotherdesignfieldsweremorenumerousandmorefullyevolvedthanwehadexpected,(4)thatthelargenumberofapplicabletheoreticalprinciplesmakesitinfeasibletodescribemorethanahandfulofexamples,ratherthanthemoreexhaustivetreatmentwehadhopedfor,and(5)thatthenumberofexamplesofcontroldesigntheorycontributionstodesigneffectivenessisalsosolargeastopreventafulldescription.
Inbrief,wefoundthatthelayerwehadchosen--theonewethoughtwouldleadtoaquickandsimplecasestudy--wasonewithpracticalimplicationsthatreachedintotheverycoreofinstructionalconversationdesign--thedesignofinteractiveandadaptiveinstructionalexperiences.Thevolumeofcontroldesigntheoriesandprinciplesinvirtuallyeveryotherdesignfieldlengthenedthisstudybyanadditionalyear,andwestillfeellikenovicesonthislargesubject.
Assumptions
Ourprimaryassumptionisthatapplyingtheoryimprovesdesigns.Ifthisassumptionisnotcorrect,thenteachingtheorytonovicedesignershasnopurpose.If,ontheotherhand,instructionaldesignsareimprovedbyapplyingtheory,thenthemannerbywhichtheoryisappliedtodesignsshouldbestudiedinasmuchdepthaspossible.
Asecondassumptionisthatwhatwenormallyrefertoasinstructional“designs”arenotmonolithicentities,butratherintegratedcollectionsofsub-designs,interfacedtooperatetogetherharmoniously(Brand,1994;Gibbons,2014).ThefunctionaldecompositionofdesignproblemsdescribedbyGibbonsiscommoninalmostalldesignfields.Itisdescribedintheliteratureofarchitecture(Brand,1994),computerdesign(Baldwin&Clark,2000),business(Martin,2009),andsoftwaredesign(Fowler,1999).Whatisnewistheapplicationofthisprincipletoinstructionalexperiencedesign.ThecontroldesignlayerwhichisthesubjectofthispaperisjustoneofthefunctionallayersproposedbyGibbonsinanarchitecturaltheoryofinstructionaldesign(Gibbons,2014).Itrepresentsasub-designproblemthatcanbesolvedsemi-independentlyandintegratedwithothersolutionsfromotherlayers.Theprincipleofmodulardesignappliestoinstructionaldesignsaswellastodesignsinotherfields.
TheoryAboutTheory
Theuseoftheterm“theory”inthisstudyrequiresclarification.Thetermisusedintwosenseshere:(1)torefertoscientifictheoryastraditionallydefined(see,forexample,Dickmeyer,1989),and(2)torefertotechnologicaltheoryasithasbeenmorerecentlydefined(Simon,1999;Venable,2006;Carlisle,1997;Vincenti,1990;Constant1984).Scientifictheoryisusedbyscientiststosummarizeandexplainobservedphenomena.Technologicaltheoryisusedbydesignerstoimagineanddevisetoolsandprocessesthatdonotyetexist.Dorst(2010,2015)suggeststhatthisreliesheavilyonabductivereasoning(seealsoKlir,1969;Walton,2005;andJosephson&Josephson,1996).
Scientifictheoryisaffirmedbyrepeatedexperimentalconfirmationofthepredictionsofmodelsthatscientistsbuild.Scientifictheoryiscapableoffalsification.Twocompetingtheoriesattemptingtoexplainthesamephenomenonarepittedagainsteachotheruntilresearchdemonstratesthatoneprovidesthebetterexplanation.(Consider,forexample,thestrugglebetweentheCopernicanandPtolemaicmodelsofthesolarsystem.)
Technologicaltheoryisnotcapableoffalsification.Manydifferenttheoriescancontributetotheevolutionofasingledesign.Technologicaltheorysuggestsstructurestoadesignerthatarecapableofharnessinganddivertingnaturalenergiesandinformationforhumanpurposes.Scientifictheorymaydescribeacomplexrelationshipofentitiesandvariableswithoutsuggestinghowthatrelationshipcanbeused.Therefore,technologicaltheoryguidesdecisionmakingandactioninawaythatscientifictheorycannotaccomplish.Scientifictheorydoesnottranslatedirectlyintotechnologicaltheory,andmuchtechnologicaltheoryevolveswellbeforescientifictheoryisinventedtoexplainhowandwhythingswork.
EducationaltheoristslikeBruner(1966),Gage(1964),andDewey(1929)argueinfavorofthedistinctionbetweenscientificandtechnologicalformsoftheory.Deweyobservedthat“Thesciencesofmechanicsandmathematicsare,inthemselves,thescienceswhichtheyare,notsciencesofbridgebuilding.Theybecomethelatterwhenselectedportionsofthemarefocusedupontheproblemspresentedintheartofbridgebuilding”(p.35).FromtheperspectiveofgeneralsystemstheoryKlir(1969)arguestheimportanceofthisdifference,showingthatthoughbothscienceandengineeringstudysystems,theyarestartingfromdifferentperspectivesandcreatedifferenttypesofknowledge(seealsoVincenti,1990).ThesymbioticrelationshipofscienceandtechnologyinhumanknowledgecreationisdescribedbyGibbonsandBunderson(2005).Thetranslationfromscientifictotechnologicaltheoryisnon-trivialandincludesaprocessnormallyreferredtoasresearchanddevelopment,orineducationalcontexts,“design-basedresearch”.Translationiscritical,however,becauseitiswhatallowsdesignerstoconvertabstractrelationshipsofforcesintostructuringsthatchanneltheforcestowheretheycanproduceanintendedeffect.
Inadditiontothescience-technologytheorydichotomy,thereexistsapossibilityofdistinguishingatleasttwovarietiesoftechnologicaltheoryimportanttothisstudy:(1)designtheory(Simon,1999),and(2)domaintheory(Schon,1987):
● Designtheoryisconcernedwiththemannerinwhichdesignsaremade.Itdescribesapproachestodesignproblemsolvingthatcanhavedirectinfluenceonthedesigner’schoiceofactivities(Simon,1999).Designtheorytendstobeportableacrossdesigndisciplines.Gibbons’theoryoflayersisanadaptationoflayertheoryfrommanyfields,tocreateadesigntheoryforinstructionaldesign.
● Domaintheoryguidestheselectionandarrangementofdesignelementswithinaparticularlayerofadesign(seeSchon,1987).Domaintheoryisusuallyframedwithinaparticulardesignfield.Insomecases,domaintheoriesareportablebetweenfields,butingeneraltheoriesofelectricalgriddesigndonotapplytothedesignofinstruction.Domaintheoriestendtoberelatedmainlytothedesignquestionsofalimiteddomainofartifactsandtheconcernsofaparticularfieldofdesignanditsimmediateneighbors.
Thisstudysurveysportabletheoriesofcontrolsystemdesignfromanumberoffieldsastheyapplytothedesignofeducationalexperiences.
TheControlLayer
ThecontrollayerisoneofsevenlayersnamedbyGibbons(2014)inanattempttodefineanapproachtolearningexperiencedesignbasedonthefunctionalityoftheartifactsbeingdesigned.Alayerisadivisionofadesignproblemdeterminedbythedesignertohavesemi-independenceofotherpartsoftheoveralldesignproblem.Layersareanindividualchoiceofthedesigner.ThesevenlayersofaninstructionaldesignsuggestedbyGibbonsaredividedandsubdividedintosub-layersthatfocusthedesigner’sattentiononspecificareasofthedesign,whileatthesametimeallowingindividuallayerstobeintegratedandharmonizedwitheachother.Layersservepurposesofdivisionoflabor,productmodularization.Mostimportanttothisstudy,layersaidinidentifyingandorganizingbodiesoftheorythatafforddesignprinciplestoinstructionaldesigners.Layersmakeitpossibleforthedesignertoseeentrypointsthroughwhichtheoreticalprinciplescaninfluenceadesign.
Thecontrollayerwasselectedforthisstudybecauseitislessobvioustomostinstructionaldesigners.Fewwouldsuspectthatitwouldbeafitsubjectfortheoreticalstudy.Controlsystemsareanafterthoughtinmanyinstructionaldesigns.Weoriginallyfeltthatifwecouldshowthattheneglectedcontrollayerpossessedarelevantbodyoftheory,thenwemightusethecontrollayerasapatternforillustratingtheory-designlinkagesfortheremaininglayersaswell.
Initsnormalfunction,thecontrollayerisoneofthreesemi-independentlayersthattogetherdefinethe“interface”ofaninstructionaldesign.Besidesthecontrollayer,theotherlayersthatparticipateincreatingtheinterfacearetheMessagelayerandtheRepresentationlayer(seeGibbons,2014).Functioningtogether,thesethreelayerssupplythemeansforatwo-wayconversationbetweenalearningsourceandalearner.Thoughthelayersofadesignfunctiontogether,thedesignrequirements,designquestions,anddesigntheoriesforeachlayerdifferconsiderably.
Incontrollayerdesign,adesigneranticipatestherangeofcontextsinwhichthelearnerwillbeplacedandtherangeofpossiblelearnerintentionsthatneedexpressionwithinthosecontexts.Controlsystemdesignthereforeconsistsofprovidingtoolsfortheexpressionoflearnerintentionswithindesignedlearningcontexts.
Thecontrollayerentailsthedesignoflearner-operatedexpressivecontrols.SinceWWII,controlsystemdesignhasgrownrapidlyasanareaofthestudywithinhuman-machineinterfacedesign.Vincenti(1990)providesanextensivecasestudyofthegrowthofcontroldesigntheoryinaeronautics,notingthatoneofthechallengeswastonoticetheprobleminthefirstplace:“Theengineeringcommunitydidnotknowatthebeginningofourperiod[of25+years]whatflyingqualitieswereneededbypilotsorhowtheycouldbe
specified”(p.51).Describingvirtuouscontrolqualitieswasaproblemthathadtobesolvedoverthecourseofmorethantwodecades.Asmoresophisticatedaircraftdesignsemerged,newaspectsoftheproblembecameapparent.Asthesophisticationofinstructionaldesignsincreasesduetonewcompetitivepressures,wewonderwhetherasimilarperiodofdiscoverywillberequiredtodefinevirtuouscontrolqualitiesforinstructionaldesigns.
InstructionalControlSystems
Instructionalcontrolsystemsseldomreceiveattentionintheeducationaltechnologyliteratureintheirownright.Therefore,thissectiondescribesaselectionofcontrolsystemtypesunderfivecategoriesofcontrolfunction.
AdministrativeControls
Administrativecontrolsareusedincontextsfreeofspecificsubject-matter.Administrativecontrolslaunchprogramsandservices,provideadministrativecommunication,andsupplyhelp.Administrativecontrolsarefoundontherepresentationalsurfacesofoperatingsystems,applicationsoftware,andwebbrowsers.Administrativeinterfacesnormallyprovidesomanypotentialactionsthatsomecontrolsarehiddenwithinmenuhierarchies.Administrativecontrolstaketheformoficonsusedtorunapplications,foldersthatcanbeopened,andoptionlistsonthecontrolpanel.
Inaddition,forinstructionaldesigners,administrativecontrolsperformactionsindependentofspecificsubjectmatter.Therefore,administrativecontrolsareimportanttolearningmanagementsystems.Figure1illustratestheTREKKERsystem,asetofcontrolsforlaunchinginstructionaleventsandmakingadministrativedecisions.Usingsuchcontrols,theuserislikeatrekker,whohasemergedfromthewoodsintoaclearingtoscantheterrainandchartapath.Context-sensitiveTREKKERcontrolscanofferappropriatechoicesatkeytransitionpoints--betweeninstructionaleventsorevenwithininstructionalevents.
Figure1.TREKKERadministrativecontrols(FromGibbons,1997)
Inbothbetween-eventandwithin-eventcontextstherearecontrolsfor:(1)seekingorientation,(2)evaluatingcurrentstatus,(3)formingandexpressinggoals,and(4)expressingactionplans.Thecrossingofthetwocontextswiththefourfunctionscreateseightseparatecontextsfortheprovisionofcontrols(andrelateddecision-supportingdata).
NavigationControls
Navigationcontrolsareassociatedwiththeexplorationofinformationandactionspaces.Theyaffordmovementwithinthespace,facilitateinspectionofthecontentsofthespace,andbringtheusertoplaceswhereactionispossible.GoogleEarth,theAuthorwarecamerademonstration,andresourcesearchingusingasearchengineprovideexamplesofthistypeofcontrol.
GoogleEarthisaverylargesetofcontrolsforexamininggeographicsurfacesandtheirrelateddatabases.GoogleEarthcontrolspermittheusertonavigatetoanypointonanaturalsurfaceusingavarietyofcommands.Controlsfunctionwithpinpointaccuracytotaketheusertoasetofcoordinatesortoaphysicalfeature.Controlsarealsoprovidedtorevealoverlaymarkingsrepresentingroads,politicalboundaries,namedplaces,advertisedplaces,photographplacements,andotherdataitems.
TheGoogleEarthcontrolspermittheaspectandrangeoftheuser’sviewtobechanged.Othercontrolsallowseamlesssurveyingofamovingterrain,thedepositionofcommentsandvisuals,thereplayofcommentsandvisuals,andthecaptureoftracesintheformoffly-buys.
ThecontrolsetofGoogleEarthhasbeenabstractedandfittedtomultiplesimilarproducts.IthasbecomeaproductandametaphorinitsownrightthroughapplicationtosuchapplicationsasGoogleMoon,GoogleMars,andGooglesky.
TheAuthorwarecamerademonstration(usedasamarketingtoolforAuthorware,a1980sdevelopmentsystemthatisnolongersupported)providesthebasisforanotherexampleofnavigation—thistimebyexemplifyingwhatisnotthere.TheAuthorwarecamerademonstrationoriginatedinthe1980sasanauthoringdemonstrationforathenpopularauthoringsystem.Usingthedemonstration,ausercouldsettheF-stop,shutterspeed,andfilmISOvalueonacameraandthenpressashuttercontrolonthedisplay(seeFigure2).Asnapshotdepictingtheresultsoftheuser’sthreesettingswouldthenappearinasmallwindowatthebottomofthedisplay.Fromthistheusercoulddeterminetheeffectsofthesettingsontheappearanceofthesnapshot(dark,washedout,etc.).Afterviewingthisimage,theusercouldthenchangethesettingsandsnapanotherpicture,viewingtheresultsinanewimagedisplayedinthesamewindow.Thisprocesscouldberepeatedasmanytimesastheuserwished,eachtimeproducingthesamepicture,conditionedbythenewsettings.
Figure2.Re-creationoftheAuthorwarecamerademonstrationdisplay.
Thedemonstrationwasapowerfulmarketingtool,butitfellshortinstructionally.Thefaultlayintheinabilityoftheusertocomparesnapshots.Eachtimeapicturewastaken,thepreviouspictureintheviewingwindowwasoverwritten.TheviewspacetheoreticallybeingnavigatedbythemissingcontrolsetisillustratedinFigure3asifithadexisted.Additionalvaluecouldhavebeensuppliedbytheabilitytocomparechangesinthepicturevaluefromthepreviouspicture.Multiplecontrastsrepresentingdifferentsettingswould
eventuallycreateamatrixofcontrastingpicturesalongthreedimensions.Givingtheusertheabilitytonavigatetrajectorieswithinthismatrixwouldallowtheusertoviewthosecontrastsandstudythecombinedeffectsofdifferentsettingsofthethreecontrols.Notonlyweretherecontrolsforsettingpicturevariables,buttherecould/shouldalsohavebeencontrolsfornavigatingaroundthespaceofpicturestakenwithdifferentsettingscombinations.Thus,onefunctionofnavigationcontrolscanbetoallowthelearnertoexplorespaceslookingfordifferencesorcontrasts,ratherthanobjects.
Figure3.TherepresentationspacenavigatedbythemissingAuthorwaredemonstrationcontrols.
AnadditionalcontrolsetofthistypeisdemonstratedbyHansRoslingusingsoftwarecalledGapminder(SeeFigure4).TheprincipleofGapminderisthatamultivariatedatabaseisvisualizeddynamicallyinwhichonedimensionrepresentschangeovertime.WhenRoslingpressesthePlaycontrol,thechangesovertimebecomerepresentedasmovementsofgraphicalobjectsrepresentingpointswithinthedataspace.Inasense,Gapminderaddsdynamismtothecontrol-drivenexplorationofadataspace.AcontrolsystemusedforsettingrangevaluesandnamingdatavectorsisusedtosetdisplayparametersbeforethePlaycontrolisevenpressed.Onceplayisinitiated,graphicalrepresentationsofthedataarecreatedaccordingtothecontrolsettings.Thesecontrolscanbecategorizedasnavigationcontrols,becauseeachsettingmadecontrolstheunfoldingofamotion-dynamicdataspacethattheusercanthenobserve.Changesincontrolsettingschangetheunfoldingandthereforetheinformationavailablewithintherepresentationofthespace.
Figure4.Gapminder’sdynamicdisplayofdatabasevalues.(fromhttp://www.gapminder.org/)
Weblinksarealsoexamplesofnavigationalcontrols.Wecommonlyreferto"navigating"theweb.OnemeansofnavigatingistochainfromWebpagetoWebpage,alonganunplannedpathoverwhichwe“drilldown”acrossseverallinkedpages.
ActionControls
Actioncontrolsareassociatedwithactioncontexts—forexample,wherelearnersareoperatingorcontrollingtheprocessesofasystemoradeviceforexperimentalorproceduralpurposes.Themostcommonexamplesofactioncontrolsarefoundwithinsimulations,whichinvolveperformingactionsondynamic,computedmodelsofcause-effectsystems.Mostgamecontrolsareincludedwithinthiscategory.Actioncontrolsareoftenassociatedwithcontinuousmodelingprocessesthatrequireregulation,adjustment,andongoingattention.Theoperationofactioncontrolsusuallytakesplacewithinacontextwheretracking,differencedetection,andcyberneticcourseadjustmentareinvolved.
Thecontextofactioncontroloperationisoneinwhichalearnermakesacomparisonofapriormomentarystatewiththecurrentstateandactstobringaboutadesiredfuturestate.Trackingandrespondingtodynamicmodelstatechangesarekeyconceptsforthiskindofcontrol.Themodelprocessescontrolledmaybeeithersingle-cycleorcontinuously-cycling.Therefore,thecontrolsthemselvesmaybeoperatedineitherdiscreteorcontinuousmodes,dependingonthetimingofthesimulatedprocess.
StatementandQueryControls
Statementquerycontrolsareassociatedwithcontextswhereverbalorsymbolicexpressionsareexchanged.Controloperationstaketheformofasemanticallysignificantentry:eitheraquestionorananswertoaquestion.Sincesymbolicactionsareincludedinthisgroupofcontrols,raisingahandinaclasssettingconstitutesacontrolinthissense.Statementandquerycontrolsallowthekindsofexpressionsthatmakeupaconversationalexchange.
StatementandQuerycontrolscanhavegreatersemanticrangethanothertypesofcontrol.Therefore,mayconsistofcommenting,annotating,responding,composing,seeking,creating,structuring,hypothesizing,requesting,suggesting,explaining,asking,sketching,outlining,arguing,requesting,claiming,givingevidence,
countering,relating,asserting,disputing,countering,illustrating,proposing,exemplifying,connecting,imagining,persuading,agreeing,supporting,orconcluding--allexpressiveorinquiringactsofaconversation.
Statementandquerycontrolsarecommonlyfoundinhomeworkassignments,classexercises,discussions,quizzes,andtests.Theyarethemostcommonformofclassroomcontrolexercisedbyalearnerduringinstructionalconversations.Achievingamorerobustimplementationofstatementandquerycontrolsusingtechnologicaldeviceshasbeenthepreoccupationofnaturallanguageprocessingresearchformanydecades.Thefruitofthisprocessingresearchisnowappearingon"smart"phoneseverywhere.Thoughthesemanticprocessingofspokenandtypedcontrolsislessthanperfect,lexicalandsyntacticprocessinghasimproved,andnaturallanguageinterpretationtoolsarefoundonalmosteverycomputerandinsearchengines.Searchenginecontrolswerealsomentionedinconnectionwiththenavigationcategory.Thisdemonstratesthatmultiplecategoriesofcontrolmaybeaffordedtotheuseratanygivenmomentduringtheuseofanapplicationandalsothatthesecategoriesblurattheedges.
Aresearchprojectinthe1980scalledCSILE(Computer-SupportedIntentionalLearningEnvironments)(Scardamalia,2004),whicheventuallyevolvedintotheKnowledgeForum(c)commercialproduct,exemplifiesatechnology-basedinstructionalinterfacethatmakesnon-trivialuseofstatementandquerycontrols.
CSILEisavirtualcollaborativeproblem-solvingspace.IntheCSILEspacelearnersconductpersonalprojects,whileatthesametimereviewingandcritiquingtheprojectsofotherlearnersusingthesamevirtualspace.Interactionsrelatedtoprojectscanconsistofsimplecommentaries,engageddebate,orcollaborativeresearchasateam.Intermsofusercontrol,interactionsbetweenusersarecarriedoutthroughastructuredconversationinwhichonlyahandfulofcommonexpressiontypesarelegitimizedaswhatarecalled"scaffolds"thatdisciplinecommenttypes.
Scaffolds,whicharepreselectedbythespacedesigner,mayinclude"proposeatheory","supplyevidence","supplycounterevidence","proposeanexplanation","hypothesize","proposeanexperiment",andothers.ManykindsofprojectscanbecarriedoutinaCSILEspace,includingdebates,jointexperiments,textcomposition,andgroupcreativework.Scaffoldschosentostructurecommunicationsareinessencemeta-controls:controlsthatarecomposedofmoreelementalcontrols.Theydisciplinetheconversation,andovertimetheybecomeinternalizedastypesthatcanbeusedoutsideoftheprojectspace.Statementandquerycontrolsusedduringconversationalinteractionscanresembleactioncontrols,especiallywhenexpressionsconsistofarrangementsofsymbols,icons,ormanipulatives.
AnexampleofthisisprovidedbytheOsmo(c)interactivelearninggames(seeFigure5).AnOsmomirrorredirectsaniPadcamera’sfieldofviewdownward.WhentheiPadisplaceduprightinabase,theredirectedcameraturnsadesktopintoaworksurfaceonwhichobjectscanbearranged.Osmosoftwarecanidentifytheshape,arrangement,andcolorofobjectsontheworksurface.Itcomparestheseagainstanticipatedarrangements.Whenamatchisdetected(e.g.,lettersinatargetwordoraspecificarrangementoftangramshapes),pleasantsoundsandsightssignalsuccesstotheuser,andpointsareawarded.
TheOsmosystemcombinesActioncontrols(arrangingthesymbolsorobjectsontheworksurface)withStatementandInquirycontrolsinauniqueway,becauseactionsareusedtoformexpressionsthatareinsomewaygrammaticalandsemanticallymeaningful.Usingmanipulativesascontrols,theusercreatesexpressions,andthenthecomputerrespondswithajudgmentofwhatitsees.
Figure5.TheOSMOinterface,inwhichthecontrolsaremanipulativesdetectedbyadownward-lookingcamera.
Oviatt(2013)describesaclassofcontrolsthatemploysanelectronicpencapableofwritingnotes,marks,anddiagramsonthedisplaysurfaceinacapturableway.Thesecanbeconsideredaslinguisticandsymbolicexpressions.OsmoprovidesthiskindofcontrolalsoinagamecalledNewton,wherewrittenmarksonasheetofpaperareinterpretedandprocessedasbarriers.BouncingpelletsfallfromthetopoftheOsmodisplayuntiltheyhitabarrier,whichcausesthemtobounceaway.ThegoaloftheNewtongameistodrawbarriersonpaperthatbouncethepelletsontheiPaddisplayintotargetsthatOsmohasplaced.Theremarkablefeatureofthiscontrolsystemisthatthecontrolemergesfromtheuser’schoicesandactionsinrealtime.Thereisnobarrieruntiltheuserdrawsalineoracurveonthepaperwithinthecamera’sview.
NegotiationControls
Negotiationcontrolsareassociatedwithcontextsinwhichcommitmentsarebeingmadeandfulfilled.Thisnormallyinvolvestheprocessofsettingandmonitoringtheattainmentoflearnergoalsortheadjustmentofsomeaspectofthelearningstrategy.Negotiationcontrolsareaspecializedsubsetofstatementandquerycontrols.Theirsignaturefeatureisthepersistenceofthecommitmentmade,whichallowsperiodicmonitoringofaccomplishment.Negotiationcontrolsareformativeconversationsinwhichtheagencyoftheuserandtheagencyofaninstructionalsourcecometoamutualagreement.Whatisbeingnegotiatedisacooperativecontractorcompactbetweenthelearnerandthelearningsourcethatwillrequiretheeffortsofbothpartiesforfulfillment.
QualitativeDimensionsofControlSystems
Controlsystemsarecentralelementsofvirtuallyeveryhuman-machinesystem,ofwhichinstructionalsystemsareanexample.Industrialapplicationsofcontrolsystemsaretoonumeroustocatalog.Perhapsthebestmetaphoricalinstanceofacontrolledsystemisthecomputer.
Cyberneticssuppliestheprincipaltheorybaseforcontrolledsystems.Acyberneticsysteminfluencesitssurroundingsbutalsosensestheenvironmentandmodifiesitsbehavioronthebasisofwhatitsenses.Duringaninstructionalconversation,thecyberneticelementsincludearesponsivesourceoflearningexperience(instructor,mechanism,etc.)andoneormorelearners.Aslearnersact,thelearningsourcesensesandrespondsaccordingtowhateverfixedprogramorintelligenceexistsinthesource.
Conversationalinstructionalinteractionrequiressomemeansforthelearner(s)toexpressaction,whichimpliesacontrolsystem.Controlsystems,whethersimpleorcomplex,possesspropertiesthatassociatedesignswiththeoreticalprinciples.Manyofthesepropertiespertaintocontrolsystemsinanyfieldofdesign:anaircraftcockpit,anautomobileinterior,aheavyequipmentoperatorstation,oraworkplaceenvironment.Ergonomicstudieslistingreatdetailthequalitiesrelatedtocontrolsystemswithacceptableproperties.Thelistbelowisrepresentativeofapoolingofqualitativeconcernsfromavarietyofdesignfields.(See,forexample,Yehetal,2013(aviation);InternationalOrganizationforStandardization,ISO4040:2009(2014)(automotive);Greenetal,1994(automotivenavigation);AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials,2013(medicalequipment).Thelistbelow,whichisabstractedfromstandardssimilartothosereferredtoabove,suggestsarangeofqualitiesdesignersofcontrolsystemsshouldconsiderastheydesign.
Transparency
Controlsystemsshouldnotcallattentiontothemselves,excepttomaketheiraffordancesapparenttotheuser.Controlsystemsshouldminimizecognitiveloadoverandabovetheprocessingrequiredbythetargetperformance.Acontrolsystemshouldavoidtherequirementforspecialtrainingincontroluse.Acontrolsystemshouldallowtheusertomaintainanadequatelevelofconcentrationonthetargettask.(Topromotetransparency,acontrolsystemdesignshouldbeaccompaniedbyamessagingandrepresentationdesigncapableofsupplyingsystemdatanecessaryforoperation.)
Efficiency/Responsiveness
Controlsystemsshouldrespondrapidlytochangesinuserinput.Theyshouldsynchronizecloselywithchangesintherepresentationofindications.Controlactionsshouldrequiretheminimumnumberofoperations.Controlsshouldbeoperablewithaspeedandaccuracyappropriatetoperformancecriteria.Operationsoncontrolsshouldbeaccompaniedbyconfirmationthatoperationshavebeenacceptedandprocessed.
Affordance
Controlsystemsshouldoffertheusertheabilitytocarryoutactionsappropriatetothecurrentperformancegoal.Controlsshouldbesalientinproportiontotheirimportancetotheperformanceand/ortheurgencyoftheiruse.Controlsshouldbereadilydistinguishablefromeachother.Controlsthatlooksimilarshouldbeseparatedsufficientlytopreventunintendedoperation.Controlsshouldbedesignedtosuggesttheactiontheyperform.
Fidelity
Controlsystemsshouldlook,feel,andactnaturallyiftheyareusedinsimulations.Controlstateshouldbeclearlyvisible.Controlsoperateduponshoulddisplaytheirnew,changedstateifthereisone.Controlfeedbackshouldbecontinuousiftheoperationitselfrequirescontinuousaction.Responsetocontrolsshouldbeconsistentlyinproportiontothedegreeofcontroloperation.
Anticipation
Acontrolsystemmayanticipateanactiontoaffordtheuserifithelpsthecontrolsystemtobemoretransparent.Controldesignshouldtakeadvantageasmuchaspossibleofexistingconventions(e.g.,QWERTYkeyboardlayout,habitualpatternsofuse).
UnderlyingModel
Acontrolsystemshouldbebasedonasingle(mental)modeloftheoperatedsystemthattheuserisexpectedtopossess.Acontrolsystemshouldbestyledaccordingtoaconsistentmetaphorical,semantic,orstylistic“theory”ofthecontrolsystem.
Consistency/Unambiguity
Controlsshouldoperateinthesamewayeachtimetheyareaffordedtotheuser,producingthesameresultwhenusedinthesamecontext.Voiceactivatedcontrolsshouldproducethesameinterpretationofcommandsoverrepeateduse.Voiceinterpretationshouldbeunambiguousandaccurate.
Depth/Hierarchy
Acontrolsystemthatishierarchicalshouldrevealnewcontroloptionsinanorderconsistentwiththeuser’smodelofthesystembeingoperated.Acontrolsystemshouldnotincludehiddenfunctionsthatrequirespecial,non-intuitiveoperationstomakethemvisible.Acontrolsystemthatemploysmodesofoperationshouldavoidthepossibilityofbecomingtrappedwithinamode.
Precision
Acontrolsystemshouldbematchedinprecisionwiththedataavailabletotheuserduringoperation.Acontrolsystem’responseshouldbepreciseacrosstheentirerangeofaction.
Expressiveness
Acontrolsystemshouldprovideadegreeofexpressivenessthatisconsistentwiththecriterionoftheperformancebeingmeasured.Acontrolsystemshouldallowausertoexpressallappropriateintentionstothesystem.Acontrolsystemshouldbeawareofthecontextofcontrolactionifthatisnecessarytointerpretationoftheuser’sintention.
Accessibility
Controlsshouldbemadeaccessibletoalluserswithinthetargetdemographic.Acontrolsystemshouldbedesignedforeaseofuseinthetargetenvironment(includinglighting,posture,easeofmovement,etc.).Allpartsofacontrolsystemshouldbedesignedwithadefinedmodeloftheuserandusercapabilitiesinmind.
Safety
Acontrolsystemshouldnotleadtoinjurytotheuser.Acontrolsystemshouldnotcreateasurprisingorstartlingdistractionfromthetaskbeingperformed.Acontrolsystem’soperationalrangeshouldbelimitedtowithinsafeboundariestotheextentpossible.Controlsystemsshouldbedesignedtoreduceuserfatigue.
Recovery
Acontrolsystemshouldallowausertorecoverfrommistakenactions.
Summary
Thislistofcontrolsystempropertiestakenfromavarietyofcontroldesignstandardsisnotexhaustive,butitsuggestsanunexpectedlybroadrangeofpracticalprinciplesthatdesignersmustobservetomakecontrolsystemsusableanduseful.Thesepropertiesapplytoinstructionaldesigns.Thedevelopmentofcontrol
designprinciplesovertimehasbeentheresultofeitherpost-incidenterroranalysisorproactiveresearchanddevelopmentinvolvingsomecombinationofparticipatorydesign,prototyping,and/oruser-testing.
Theseprinciplestakenasawholearetheproductofhuman-machinestudiesthatacceleratedwiththeincreasingcomplexityofsystemsbetweenthefirstandsecondworldwars.Duringthislonghistory,controldesignprincipleshaveemergedfromtwosources:(a)practicalconsiderations,and(b)applicationoftheory.Itisappropriate,therefore,toconsiderthesepropertiesasentrypointsfortheoryintocontrolsystemdesigns.
ExaminingtheTheoreticalBasesofControlSystemDesign
Instructionalcontrolsystemsaredesignedtosupporttheexerciseofcriticalmentalprocessesthatwillleadtoanincreasedprobabilityoflearning.Weassumethatcontroldesigncanbeinformedbytheory.Understandingtheoryallowsthedesignertotranslateconceptualstructuresintorealstructuresthatpreservetheenergyofthedesigner’sintent.Thissectionattemptstorelateseveralcontrol-relatedtheoriestoprinciplesforcontroldesign.
Weexaminetheory-designrelationshipsatmultiplelevels.First,weconsiderthetraditionaltheoreticaldivisionsofbehaviorism,cognitivism,andconstructivismfortheirimplicationsforcontroldesign.Second,weconsideranumberofothertheoriesoriginatingindiversefields.
Behaviorism,Cognitivism,Constructivism
Threeschoolsoflearningandinstructionaltheoryarefrequentlytaughtininstructionaldesignprograms:behaviorism,cognitivism,andconstructivism(see,forexample,Lowyck,2014;Ertmer&Newby,1993).Thesedivisionsoftheorydifferintheirconcernforcontroldesignprinciples.
Behaviorism
Skinnerianbehaviorismhadgreatimpactinthe1960’sontheformativefieldofinstructionaldesign,producingresearchonteachingmachines:anemphasisthatlatermorphedintoresearchonmachine-lessprogrammedinstruction(Benjamin,1988).Thevariedformsofprogrammedinstructionpossessedincommonarequirementforfrequentrespondingonthepartofthelearner,usuallywithinthecontextofa“frame”(Markle,1969).Stylesofprogrammedinstructionwerecharacterizedbydifferentdefinitionsof“frame”anddifferentmodesofresponding.
Teachingmachinecontrolswerephysicalandprovidednumberedorletteredbuttons,levers,keyboards,touchpads,and/orsmallopeningsforwrittenanswers.Paperprogramsusedeithermaskingcardsorpageseparationtohidecorrectanswerswhilethestudentresponded.
Thephysicalcontrolmechanismsofteachingmachinesturnedouttobenon-essential.Thiswasoneofthemainreasonsforthedisappearanceofthemachineasarespondingdevice.Itwasapparentthataprogram’seffectwascreatedbytherequirementforconstantresponding,evenifinsomecasesitwascovert.Controldesignremainedanintegralelementofprogramdesign,becauseothermechanismsforhidingandthenrevealingthecorrectresponsewerestillused.Controldesignwasnottreatedatthetimeasatopicinitsownrightintheliterature,otherthanasanecessarycharacteristicofresponding.
Arobustcultureofresearchonprogrammingprobedmanypossibleconfigurationsofframesandframesequences.Variablesincludedsizeofframe(internally),andstepsizebetweenframes(pace),degreeofprompting,rateofpromptfading,typeoffeedback,acceptableerrorrate,errorcorrectionlogic,andothers.In1967,atthepeakofinterestinprogrammedinstruction,Anderson(1967)observedthat,“itisnowwidelybelievedthatthebehavioralsciencemustbeengineeredintoteachingmethodsandmaterials”(Anderson,p.129).Bythathemeantmanipulationofframeproperties,whichincludedthetypeandrateofresponding.
Designatthetimewasempiricallybased,involvinggoalidentification,behavior/subskillanalysis,“andasmanycyclesoftryout,reanalysis,andrevisionofthelessonsasarenecessarytoattaintheobjectives”(Anderson,p.129).Designwasnotatthetimeconsideredapredictivetheoreticalexerciseasmuchasanempiricalone.SusanMarkle,Skinner’sprotege,stronglydefendedthisempiricalapproachtoprogramdesign(Markle,1967).
Thecommonthreadrunningthroughprogrammedinstructiondesignswasacontinualcycleofresponding,followedbyfeedback.Thedifferencesweremainlythelengthoftimeand/ortheamountandtypeofinformationthelearnerexperiencedbeforetheopportunitywaspresentedforresponding.Weestimatethatcontroldesignwasinfactasimportantinprogrammedinstructiondesignastheprincipleofreinforcementitself,sincecontroloperation,whateverformittook,wasthemainmechanismfordeliveryofthereinforcement.Inmanyformsofprogrammedinstruction,itmightbequestionedwhethertruereinforcementwasoccurring,becauseofthelackofadeprivationstateinthelearner.Itcannotbequestioned,however,thatexercisingcontrolwasaconsistentdesignfactorininstructionalprograms.
Cognitivism
Behaviorismmanipulatedvariablesexternaltothesubject’smind;cognitivismconcentratedonthestudyofmechanisms(informationprocessing)andknowledgerepresentations(models,schemata,etc.)withinthemind.Externalizedcontroloperationsandrespondinginsmallincrementsbecamemuchlessimportant.Mandler(2002)describesthe“cognitiverevolution”thattookplaceoveraperiodofroughly10-15years,fromabout1955toabout1965.Instructionaldesignerswholivedthroughthisrevolutionsawbehavioristtermssuchas”stimulus”,“elicit”,“feedback”,“responding”,and“reinforcement”largelydisappearfrompsychologicalliterature.Wilson,Jonassen,andCole(1993)describetheimplicationsofthisshiftfortheinstructionaldesigner:instructionbecamemorejob-like,instructionalgoalsbecamemorecomplexandhigh-end,andtheconceptoflearningenvironmentsgainedtraction.Progressionsoflearningchallengesandenvironmentsbecameasubjectofstudy.Abodyofliteraturegrewdescribingcognitivetaskanalysismethods.Learnergoalprocessesandknowledgestatesbecameafeatureofadaptive,intelligenttutors,andartificialintelligenceandexpertsystemsappearedinthedesigner’stoolbox.Asthedescriptionofthelearnedcontentgrewincomplexity,sodidthecomplexityofassessmentsandthejudgmentrubricsusedtodeterminecompetence.
Theconcernsoftheinstructionaldesigner,therefore,changedfromframesandfrequentrespondingtocreatinglearningenvironments(e.g.,simulations,microworlds,collaborativespaces)forproblemsolvingand/orexploration.Assessmentsfocusedonhigher-order,lengthier,andcomplexperformances.Verbalrespondingmethodsweresubordinatedtoactualperformancewherepossible.
Attentionshiftedfromempirically-basedtoprinciple-andtheory-baseddesign.Controlsinthenewinstructionalsettingbecamemoreexpressionsoflearnergoalsandnavigationalintentionswithinproblemenvironmentsandlesscorrectresponsestostimuli.Directinstructionalmethodswerejoinedbynewmethodsthatenlistedthelearnerinsolving,discovering,anddesigning.Modesofcontrolexpressionlikenavigationandnegotiationbecamemorecommon,allowinglearnerstooperatewithinchoice-andinitiative-richlearningenvironments.
Equallyimportant,themeaningfulnessofindividualcontroloperationschanged,andthesemantic,context-dependentdimensionofcontroloperationbecamemoreimportant.Operationsofcontrolsbecamemeaningfulexpressionssubjecttosomedegreeofinterpretationtodeterminethelearner’sintentatthemomentofuse.
Constructivism
Theeducationalphilosophyofconstructivismmaintainsthatdifferentpeopleconstructtheirownrealities.Withineducation,constructivistsviewlearnersasconstructingknowledge;theytendtoseeinstructionasaprocessofsupportingknowledgeconstructionbythelearner(seeCunningham&Duffy,1996).This
philosophyhaspromulgatedabroad-rangeofinstructionalmodelsthatemphasizescaffolding,ill-structuredproblems,feedback,collaborativelearningenvironments,andknowledge-building(Scardamalia&Bereiter,1994).
Sociallearningtheorymergedwithcognitivism,introducingnewchoicesfordistributingrolesandresponsibilitiesamonglearners,instructors,andpeers(Lave&Wenger,1991).Thisledtotheprinciplethatinitiativecouldbeshareddynamicallyamongparticipants.Thetheoryofcognitiveapprenticeship(Collins,Brown&Newman,1989)isanexpressionofconstructivism,joinedwithsociallearningtheory.
Inthesamewaycognitivismreducedthedemandforexternalandfrequentrespondingcomparedtobehaviorism,constructivismreducedattentiontothenatureandformofcontroloperationscomparedtocognitivism.Witheachchangeofworldviewonlearning,greateremphasiswasplacedonagentivelearning,self-regulation,learningwithincommunities,andtheinstructor/designerintheroleofacoachandmentorratherthanadeterminer,chooser,andjudge.
Thereducedattentiontothespecificsofcontroloperationsbythelearnerateachstepdidnotremovethedesigner’sresponsibilityforselectingappropriatekindsandamountsofcontrolaction,relativetothegoaloflearning.However,guidelinesfordesignersofcontrolsystemswereleftamatterofindividualpreference,andsystematicattentiontotheprinciplesofcontroldesigndisappearedasatopicformostinstructionaldesigners.Onlyinthefieldofsimulatordesigndidcontroldesigncontinuetoexistandgrow.Consequently,thedevelopmentofcontroltheoryconceptshasbecomelargelyneglectedasatopicintheliterature.
SpecializedTheoriesofControlDesign
Overtime,thetraditionaltheorytypesreviewedabovemigratedawayfrommakingstatementsregardingcontroldesign.Asaresult,thereislittleliteraturegivingguidancetotheinstructionaldesigner,whononethelessmuststilldesigncontrolsystems.Thesectionsthatfollowdescribeseverallocaltheories,mostlyfromoutsideofeducationaltechnology,thatdocontributetocontrolsystemdesignsinsignificantways.However,animportantdistinctionmustfirstbedrawnbetweenthedesignofcontrolsystemsandthedesignofinterfaces.
InterfaceDesign
Wefeelthereisanimportantdistinctionbetweenwhatisgenerallyreferredtoas“interface”designandwhatweareherecalling“controlsystem”design.Theconceptofaninterfaceismoreinclusive;acontrolsystemisbutonepartofaninterface.
Interfacedesignliteratureaddressesthetotalityofanexperiencegeneratedby:(1)arepresentation(sourceofsensoryexperiences:visual,auditory,kinesthetic),(2)asetofcontrolsforuserresponding,and(3)messagesthatdrivethecontentoftherepresentation.ThedivisionoftheinterfacedesignintothesethreefunctionalpartsisproposedbyGibbons(2014),witheachfunctionalareaoftheinterfacebeingconsidereda“layer”oftheinterfacedesign.Thisdivisionencouragesthedesignertoseeandrespondtomoredetaileddesignquestionswhoseanswersdrawupondifferentbodiesoftheory.Themessagelayertendstoderiveprinciplesfromconversationtheory;therepresentationlayeristotheoriesofsymboliccommunication,includingbothpsychologicaltheoriesandsemiotics;thecontrollayerdrawsuponcontrolsystemdesigntheory.
Cybernetictheoryinformsandunifiesthedesignofinterfacesasawhole.Cyberneticsisthestudyoffeedforward(anticipatory)andfeedback(responsive)systems.Inbothofthesecases,asystemanditsenvironmentinteractina“conversational”manner,eachinfluencingtheother.Someofthecontroldesigntheoriesreviewedlaterinthissectioninvolvecyberneticprinciples,buttheemphasisofthereviewswillbeonthecontributionofthatpartofthetheoryrelatedtocontroldesign.
TheoriesforControlSystemDesign
Theoriesrelatedtocontrolsystemdesigncanbefoundintheliteratureofdevelopmentalpsychology,educationaltechnology,computerscience,gamedesign,ergonomics,andcomputerinterfacedesign.
PapertandResnick:Constructionism
Constructionism(Papert,1980;Resnick,1997)isatheoryoflearningbyaction-takingbasedonconstructivistprinciples.Action-takingprovideslearnersthemeansforexperimenting:hypothesizing,making,executing,andobservingresults.Performedmultipletimes,thisexperimentalcycleallowsalearnertocreatepersonal“theories”thatturnintoknowledge.
ThepsychologicalcoreforconstructionistidealsistracedtoPiaget,butmanyadditionaltheoreticalcontributionsinformconstructionisminitscurrentstate.Theseincludeconceptualadditionsembodiedintopracticalinnovations,usuallyintheformofcomputerprogrammingsystems.KeyembodiedsystemsincludetheLogo(McNerney,2004)andScratch(Resnicketal,2009)programminglanguages(andtheirinterfaces),andLegoMindstormscreatedincooperationwiththeLegoCorporationasacommercialproduct(Resnicketal,1988;LEGOMindstorms,n.d.).
Supportforaction-takingisthekeyprincipleunderlyingconstructionism,andmanykindsofoccasionhavebeendevisedtomotivateaction,virtuallyallofthembasedinsomeformofconstructiveplay.Learnersuseconstructionistenvironmentstodesign,invent,discover,andcreate.
AtheoryofcontroldesignisembodiedbytheScratchprogramminglanguageanditsinterface.Asmallnumberofcolor-codedgraphical“programmingblocks”(representingexecutableprogramactions)aredraggedintosequencesinagrowingprogramwithinaworkbench-likevisualspace.Theshapesofconnectorsontheblockssuggestlegalconnections.ThecurrentcontroldesigntheoryforScratchincludesmakingit“tinkerable”(userscanstartbuildingrightawayatanintuitiveinterface),meaningful(permittingdiverseprojects,easy-to-createandpersonalizedcontent),andsocial(encouragingjointprojects,collaboration,communitysharing,andremixing).Allofthesequalitiesofthelanguageandinterfacearecenteredonbasicprinciplesforallowingthelearnertotakeaction.
TheScratchinterfaceistheforwardprojectionofyearsofexperiencewithpredecessorobject-orientedandvisualprogrammingsystemsliketheLOGOandSmallTalk(ref)programminglanguages.Thesepredecessorswereexperimentsinmakingcomputerprogrammingeasierandmoreapproachabletoalesstechnicalaudience.Theprinciplesofmostimportance,refinedovertimethroughtheseexperiments,includecontrolsthat“offer”themselvesandscaffoldtheirownusethroughshapes,colors,andsimplicity.Visibleshapesconstitutetermsintheprogramminglanguagebutalsodoubleascontrolsthatareoperatedbothbymovingthemintoplaceandbyexecutingtheiractions.
Limitingthenumberofprogramcommands(controls)inordertomaintainsimplicityhasbeenachallenge.ThebasicpaletteofScratchcontrolsintroducesbasicprogramingconcepts,buttheseareonlythebeginningofmorepowerfulbutabstractconceptsthatcouldbeembodiedincontrolsandofferedtotheuser(Maloneyetal,2010).MultiplyingcontrolsthatoperateatdifferentlevelsofabstractionandcomplexityisaproblemthattheScratchdevelopmentteamwillsolveastheyinventnewtheoreticprinciplesofcontroldesign.
Wertsch:MediatedAction
Thetheoryofmediatedactionisrelevanttothestudyofcontrolsystemdesignbecauseitisatheoryofhowindividualsactonandinfluencetheirenvironment.JamesWertsch(1998)studiesmentalfunctionintermsofmediatedaction:actionbyanagentthatemploysaninstrumentalityortool.
Wertschstudiesthe“agent-operating-with-mediational-means”(p.24),whichimpliesthathisstudiesaredirectlyrelevanttothedesignofthemeansthemselves,includingtheirvisiblemanifestationsandtheirbehavior.InWertsch’sview,mediationalmeans(tools)includenotonlyobjects,likethepoleusedbythepole
vaulter,butideas,traditions,andmeaningspassedtotheindividualthroughcommonusebyotherswhotakepartthesameculturalmilieu.
Languageisanexampleofanon-objectmediationalmeans.Peopleuselanguagetoaccomplishcommunicativeactionswithinaculturalenvironment.Languageisdefinedbyaculture,buttheactionsofanindividualcanalsoimpactthelanguage.Therefore,thereexistsatwo-wayinfluencebetweenthemediationalmeansandtheagentwhousesit.
Wertschmakestenbasicclaimsthat“characterizemediatedaction”(p.25),ofwhichtheeightconsideredbelowhavedirectimplicationsforcontrolsystemdesign:
1. Thatmediatedactiontypicallyhasmultiplesimultaneousgoals.Thestudentmaybetryingtomaximizeagrade,whileatthesametimetryingtodiscovershortcutsthatallowmorerapidcompletionofatask.TheneedforshortcutsmayindicateasituationthatWertschdescribeswhere“thegoalsoftheagentdonotmapneatlyontothegoalswithwhichthemediationalmeansaretypicallyassociated”(p.34).Controldesign,byimplication,shouldunderstandtherangeofusergoalswithinafluidcontextoflearningandanticipateuserinitiatives.
2. Thatmediatedactionissituatedononeormoredevelopmentpaths.Asusersemploymediationalmeans,bothchange:“bothagentsandtoolsarealwaysintheprocessofundergoingchange”(p.34).Atoolthatwassufficientfortheuserasanovicemayhamperexpressionofactionastheuserbecomesmorecompetent.Therefore,acontrolsystemdesignermusttakeintoaccountmaturationoftheuserandprovideawayforescalatingcompetencetobeexpressed,aswellasentry-levellackofcompetence.Aclearprincipleemergesthatthedesignofatooldefinestherangeofdevelopmentitcansupportintheagentwhousesit.
3. Thatmediationalmeansconstrainaswellasenableaction.Everytoolfacilitatesonesetofactionswhileatthesametimemakingothersmoredifficult.ThecontrolsystemweknowastheQWERTYkeyboardwasdesigneddeliberatelytoslowdowntypingtoaspeedthatearlytypewritermechanismscouldsupport.LaterinventionoftheDvorakkeyboardmadefastertypingspeedspossible,asshownintypingcompetitions.Forone-handedtypists,special“chorded”keyboardshavebeendevelopedthatsolveconstraintsimposedbyboththeQWERTYandtheDvorakkeyboards.
4. Thatnewmediationalmeanstransformmediatedaction.Changesinculturaltoolstransformpatternsofaction,sometimesmodifyingtheactionsthemselves.Newoperatingsystemtechnologieschangedthewayusersexecutedbasiccomputerfunctions;anewtoolcalledthebrowsertransformedthewaynetworkedcomputerscouldbeused.Theinvertedmousethatwecallatrackballintroducednewnavigationalpossibilitiesthatdidnotrequirearmmovement.GoogleEarthintroducednavigationaltoolsthatfacilitateexplorationofasphericalsurface.ThistoolprovedportabletoproductslikeGoogleMoonandGoogleMars.SomeelementsofthiscontrolsystemarealsousedinGoogleMaps.WertschquotesVygotsky’sobservationthat“bybeingincludedintheprocessofbehavior,thepsychologicaltool...alterstheflowandstructureofmentaloperations”(p.43).
5. Thatagents“master”mediationalmeans.Itisatemptationtothinkofcontrolsystemsasbeing“internalized”tothepointofautomatization,butWertschoffersanadditionalconceptofmastery,whichcreatesthedistinctionthatsomeoperationsontoolsmaybemasteredwithoutbecomingautomatized,andthismaybedeliberatelyso.Actsofdrivingandwalkingbecomeautomatic,buttheskillofaddingcolumnsofnumberswithcarryingdoesnotseemtomatureinthesameway.Somecontrolsystemsmaybedesignedtobeonlymastered,whileothersmaybedesignedtobecomeautomatized.
6. Thatagents“appropriate”mediationalmeans.Agentsmaybecomeproficientintheuseofmediationalmeans(suchastheabilitytoreasonwithinanideasystem)withoutbecomingcommittedtoit.Agentshaveagencybydefinition,andtheymaychoosetoresistfully-committingtocertaintools,whileacceptingtheiruse(e.g.,Algebra).Thismaybeexemplifiedbytheselectiveuseofsmartphonefunctions.Ausermayacceptthephoneitselfanduseittomakecallswhileresisting
messagingorothersocialmediafunctions.Likewise,anagentmaywholeheartedlyappropriateamediationalmeans,suchasasecondlanguage,learningtospeakitwithoutanaccent.ThefirstauthoraskedanEnglishmanifhecouldspeakwithouttheBritishaccent.Hesaid,withoutanytraceofaccent,“Yes,butithurtsmythroat.”
7. Thatmediationalmeansarenotalwayscreatedintentionally,noraretheynecessarilyusedinthewayintended.Wertschproposesthat“mostoftheculturaltoolsweemploywerenotdesignedforthepurposestowhichtheyarebeingput”(p.59).InWertsch’swritingaboutmediationalmeans,thereisastrongsenseoftheevolutionarynatureofthemeansandoftheroleofserendipityinfindingappropriatetoolsandadaptationsoftoolstonewuses.Thiswouldseemtoindicatethatthereareno“right”answerstotoolorcontroldesignquestions,butthatexperimentationmightbeusedasanapproachtoarriveatsatisfactorytooldesigns.
8. Thatmediationalmeansareassociatedwithpowerandauthority.Powerandauthorityininstructionaldesignsareoftenexpressedsubtly,evenindesignsdeliberatelyarrangedtoreversetraditionalauthorityrelationships.Wertschproposesthattheemergenceofnewtoolscantransformpowerandauthorityrelationships.However,thereisatrapinassumingthatnewtoolscompletelyreversethebalanceofpower.Ifinstructionisseenasthecooperativeinteractionoftwoagentsforapurpose,thenanappropriatewaytoconceiveoftheroleofmediationalmeans(toolsfortheexpressionofchoice)istoseeitasgrantingappropriatelevelsofchoicetoeachoftheagentsinvolvedintherelationship.Thatis,controlsbecomeacriticalpointinthenegotiationoflevelsofchoiceassignedtoeachagentandbecomeatoolinalargersensefordrawingforthandeducatingtheexecutivecompetenciesofthelearnerwithrespecttotheirowninstructionandlearning.
Wertsch’stheorydescribestheinteractionofenvironmentandtheindividualthroughtooluse.Wertsch’sprinciplescanbereadilytranslatedintoguidelinesforcontrolsystemdesign.
Crawford:LinguisticsandControlDesign
GamedesignerChrisCrawfordisvitallyinterestedinthepracticalaspectsoffullinteractiondesign.However,inhisbookTheArtofInteractiveDesign(Crawford,2003)heoutlinesatheoryofcontroldesignbasedinlinguisticprinciples.Thoughhisfirstconcernispracticaldesign,Crawfordoffersdesignadviceatamoreabstractlevel:
Thebreakneckpaceoftechnologyinducesmanydesignerstograbforquicksolutions.Butitispreciselythetorridpaceofdevelopmentthatrequiresustoconcentrateonunderstandingthefundamentalsratherthansnatchingquickiepatches.Today’ssolutionswillbeobsoleteinafewyears,butthefundamentals(andthisbook)willstillbeusefulyearsfromnow.(Fromthepreface,“ReadMe”)
Crawford’sgameinterfacesmustpossessthequalitiesoftransparency,agility,andexpressivenessdiscussedearlier.Thesegamecontrolsystemsforhimarenotancillaryinthedesign:theyareacentralissue,becauseattheircoregamesconsistmainlyofprolongedsequencesofcontroloperation(workingincoordinationwithmessageandrepresentationgeneration).
Crawford’sphilosophyofcontrolscharacterizesinteractionsasaconversation.Hestates,“Ateverystepinthedesign,youmustaskyourself,amItalkingatmyuserortalkingwithhim?”(p.29,emphasisadded).Crawfordnamesthreeactivitiesheconsidersnecessaryforconversations:listening,thinking,andspeaking.Henotesthatcomputersandhumansspeakdifferentlanguages,withthefollowingresult:
Youshoutatit,pointtothescreen,stabatthekeyboardwithyourfingers,andyouknowperfectlywellthatthecomputerseesyouasagrunting,inarticulatedeaf-mute.Youknowwhatyouwant,butyoucan’tfindthewordstosayittothecomputer….Thefailurearisesnotfromyourlackofcommunicationskills,butratherfromthedeficienciesofthelanguageofferedbythedesigner(p.49).
Crawford'sconversationaltheoryofcontroldesignuseslinguisticterms:"youmustgiveyouruserthelanguagetospeakwell"(p.49).However,hesays,"thegloriousadvancesintechnologyoverthepast20yearshavebypassedthelisteningsideofourtask"(p.50).Thecomputerhebelievestobelanguage-challengedintheexpressiveoptionsitofferstheuser.
AccordingtoCrawford,helpingthecomputerto"listen"totheuserbeginswithexpandingtheuser'sexpressivevocabulary,and“theinputdevicedeterminesthesizeofthevocabularyavailabletotheuser"(p.51).Hecomparescomputerinputmeansintermsofthevocabularytheyoffertotheuser.
● Singlebutton--Twoterms:yes/no.● Joystick--18terms:8directionsplusbuttonplusnocontrol.● Keyboard--Textcharacterentry:fewsymbols,arrowkeysfordirectionalcontrol;keycombinations
forshortcutsforpowerusers.● Mouse,pen,andtouchscreen--Pixel-addressablelocation;oneormorebuttonsforselections.● Voice--Limitedonlybyrecognitionandinterpretationsoftware.● Specializedcontroldevices--Combinationsofmultiplebuttons,joysticks,andsteeringcontrols(e.g.,
gamesystems).Crawford'scategoriesarebasedonlyonphysicaldevices.Anotherwaytocategorizecontrolsisasbeingeithercontext-insensitive(singlebutton,keyboard,andvoice),orcontext-sensitive(alloftherest).Context-sensitivecontrolsusethecombinationofdisplaylocation(definedbyhotspots,individualpixels,oraudiblecontexts)andsimultaneouscontrolactivation(buttonpress,touch,orutterance).Context-sensitivecontrolsincreasethevocabularyoftheuser,buttheyplaceonthedesigneradditionalresponsibilityfor:(a)contextdefinition,and(b)interpretation.
Contextdefinitionaddsasemanticdimensiontocontroldesign:theuser’smeaningofselectingapixelorahotspotcannotbedeterminedwithoutknowledgeofwhattheuserisexperiencingatthemomentofcontrolactuation.Thisprincipleholdstrueforaudibledisplaysaswell.Todesignacontext-sensitivecontrol,adesignermustfirstorsimultaneouslydesigncontexts,whichservesasdynamicmenuswithvirtuallyinfinitechoices.
Context-sensitivecontrolsnaturallyimposeasecondresponsibilityonthedesigner:interpretationofcontrolactuationsandsequencesofactuation.Sincetheoperationofacontrolcantakeplaceagainstthebackdropofa(virtually)infinitemenu,theintentofthecontrolatanygivendisplaylocationandmomentintimemustbeinterpretedrelativetoalocation-momentpair.Thisprincipleisclearlyidentifiableinmoving,changingdisplays,butisalsoclearlyinoperationforstaticdisplaysaswell;locatingastaticpulldownmenuitemandthenselectingitrequiresinterpretation,asdoeshighlightingdisplayoptionsusingarrowkeysandpressingenter.
Aseconddimensionofinterpretationisaddedbyvoiceandtextinput,bothofwhichrequirenotonlytheinterpretationofprimarysymbols(individualtextcharactersorspokenwords)buttheinterpretationofsymbolsequences(blocksoftextandmulti-wordutterances).Thecomplextechnologiesoftextandspeechinterpretationhaveadvancedrapidlyintothecommercialproductworldoverthepasttwodecades,butanyonewhoisspokentoasmartphone“assistant”recentlyrealizesthatthetechnologyhasfartogotorealizeitsenormouspotential.
Crawfordfurtherapplieslinguisticpatternsbyrecommendingthatafirststepincontrolsystemdesignbeidentifyingasetof"actions(verbs)[that]mostdirectlyexpresstheuser'sgoals"(p.62).
Ifyouaredevelopinganeducationalprogram,whatisthelikelymindsetofyouruser?Whatdoesshealreadyknow,andwhatdoyoudesiretoteach?Donotlookatitfromyourpointofviewastheteacher;lookatitfromthestudent’spointofview.Specifically,don'tjustorganizelotsofinformationintotidylittlestructuresthatmakeperfectsensetosomebodywhoalreadyunderstandseverything.Trytoimagineyourselfignorant;whatquestionswouldyouask?Bywhatcircuitousroutesmight
yourcuriosityleadyoutotheinformation?Rememberthatyoucan'tteachanybodyanything;youcanonlyfacilitateaperson'sownlearningprocess.Whatactions,then,wouldacuriousstudentneedtotaketolearnthematerial?(p.62-3).
Controlsystemdesignforinstructionalpurposesinvolvesanticipatingusergoalsinadvancewithinthedifferentcontextsofactionthatwillexistatanygivenmoment.Toavertcontrolchaos,thismeansdefiningacoresetofactions(verbs)andinadditionasetofobjects(nouns)thatcanbeactedupon,aswellasthecontextsinwhichtheyareactive.
"Doit"isanevenmoreabstractformofthecommand;itrequiresthattheverbinquestionbesetuppreviouslybygrabbingthedevice[displaysymbol]orotherwiseunambiguouslyspecifyingthe"it"tobedone(p.65).
Crawfordorganizes"its"intothreemaingroups:menus(andmenuitems),maps,andgizmos.These"it's"supplynoun-objectsthatcanbeactedupon.Menusandtheirhierarchicalstructuresarefamiliartotheaveragecomputeruser.Mapsarealsofamiliar,especiallyforusersofvirtualnavigationsystemslikeGoogleEarth;however,filingsystemsthatplacelikeitemswithinahierarchicalgrouping(folder)arealsoatypeofmap.Gizmosincludefamiliarcheckboxes,buttons,andtextentryfields,buttheyalsoincludehypertextlinks.
Crawford'slinguisticapproachtocontroldesigntheoryishome-grown.Crawfordisagamedesignerwhoseexperience,viewpoint,andcredentialsareclearlyestablishedintherealworldofproductionandplay.Histheoryisbuiltfromtheground-upexperienceaswellastop-downimpositionofalinguisticmetaphor.Itisatheorybuiltthroughabstraction:"assystemsgrowbiggerandmorecomplex,theyevolvemoreabstractstructurestocopewiththeincreasingcomplexity"(p.250).Crawford'stheoryisanabstractionfromhisownindividualgamecontroldesigns,throughmultiplegamesandversionsofgames,thathasfoundausefulandmeaningfulexpressionandlinguisticterms.
WinogradandFlores:ConversationalforAction
WinogradandFlores(1987)dealdirectlywithcontrolsystemdesignissuesinastudyofsocioculturalinfluencesonhuman-machineinterfacedesign.Intheirview,"wemusttakesocialactivityastheultimatefoundationofintelligibility[betweenhumansandcomputers]"(p.33).WinogradandFloresquestiontraditionalcategoriesofinterfacedesign,levellingexistingassumptionstoconstructanewviewofinterfacebasedonthephilosophiesofGadamer,Heidigger,Maturana,andothers.
Muchofourtheoryisatheoryoflanguage,andourunderstandingofthecomputercentersontheroleitwillplayinmediatingandfacilitatinglinguisticactionastheessentialhumanactivity(p.7).
Activityimpliestheuseofdifferentcontrolstocarryoutintentions.Theoperationofcontrols,accordingtoWinogradandFlores,dependsonthe“concernful[goal-related]activity”wethinkweareengagedin.
Insteadoftryingtorationalizehowhumansshouldinteractwithcomputers,WinogradandFloresbeginwiththecaseofatypicalcomputeruser:normallysomeonewithlittleunderstandingofitsinternalmechanisms.Thefocusoftheuserisonoperatingthesoftwareandnotonhowthecomputerandthesoftwarework.WinogradandFloressaythatthecomputeruseris"thrown"intothesituationofoperatingthesoftwaretoaccomplishapurpose.
Theuseroperatesthesoftwareinpursuitofthisgoaluntilabreakdownoccurs--perhapssomeunexplainableprogrambehavior.Whenthishappens,WinogradandFloresproposethatthegoalsoftheuserchange,andtheuseris“thrown”intoanewsituationthatrequiresnewactivity,newwaysofacting,andnewunderstandingofthesoftware’soperations:implyingnewcontrolsaswell.Itistheuser’sgoalsandintentionsratherthanthetechnicaldesignofthecomputersystemthatdefinewhatisneededatthispoint.WinogradandFlorescontendthatthismakesthedesigneranswerabletotheuser’sfunctionsandintentionsratherthantothecomputer’s(p.39).
[Toachievehis/hergoals]thepersonselectsamongbasicmechanisms,thatthemachineprovides,togetworkdone.Ifthemechanismsdon'tdowhatisneeded,othersmayhavetobeadded.Theywilloftenbeusedinwaysthatwerenotanticipatedintheirdesign(p.53).
Whenusersoperatecontrolstoachievegoalsinwaysnotoriginallyintended,itisacluethatarationalizeddesignmissedsomething:thereisauserintentionforwhichnomeansofexpressionwasprovided.Thatmaybeasignthatthedesignerfailedtothinkoftheinteractioninconversationaltermsandtheuserasanagentwithintentionsthatneedtobecarriedout.
Toanswerthisneed,WinogradandFloresappealtoatheoryofspeechactsthatconsidersthehumanandthecomputerasactorsinajointdialoguedirectedatthegoalsandintentionsofboth.Theauthorsproposethat"meaningiscreatedbyanactivelisteninginwhichlinguisticformtriggersinterpretation[andacorrespondingspeechact]"(p.57).Thespeechactofoneconversantresultsinacorrespondinginterpretationandspeechactfromtheother.Speechactsconstitutesomeformofcommitment,evenifitisnothingmorethanacommitmenttocontinueinteracting.Therefore,WinogradandFlorespropose,"everylanguageacthasconsequencesfortheparticipants,leadingtootherimmediateactionsandtocommitmentsforfutureaction"(P.59).
OnthisbasisWinogradandFloresproposea"basicconversationforaction"formofinteraction,depictedinFigure6.Thisformconsistsof"requests"and"commissives"directedtoward"explicitcooperativeaction"(p.64).Thispattern,accordingtoWinogradandFlores,canfunction"asthebasisforcomputertoolsforconductingconversations”.
Figure6.WinogradandFlores’basicconversationforactionform(fromGibbons,2014,afterWinograd&Flores,1987).
InFigure6,numberedboxesrepresentstatesinaconversationforaction.Statesarereachedfollowingspeechacts--offivetypesidentifiedbyAustin(1962):assertives,directives,commissives,expressives,anddeclarations.Movementtotherightinthisformgenerallysignifiesagreementandprogresstowardagreeing
onorattainingamutualgoal.State3signifiesthatapromiseorcommitmenthasbeenmade;state5signifiesthatthecommitmenthasbeenfulfilledtothesatisfactionofbothconversants.Movementdownwardsignifieseithernon-acceptanceofaprofferedagreementandadesireofnegotiating,orrefusaltoengagefurther.
Theconversationforactionpatternisrecursive,whichisthequalitythatallowsthegoal-focusduringaninteractiontochangefrommomenttomoment.Inthecourseofnegotiatingrelativetoahigher-levelgoal,asubordinategoalmayhavetobeproposed,agreed,andsatisfiedforthehigher-levelgoaltobesatisfied.Abreakdowncanoccuratanypoint,spawninganewsubordinategoalthatrequiressatisfactoryattainmentbeforeprogresscanbeclaimed.
Theconversationforactionpatternprovidesausefulstructureforinstructionalconversationandcontroldesigninvolvinggoalnegotiationandsatisfaction.Assuch,itsuppliesapatternforcontrolsystemdesignforinstructionalconversations.Truetoitsphilosophicalbasis,itrespectstheagencyoftheuser,whomayrefuseofferedgoalsandactions,makecounteroffers,andnegotiate.Inthisrespect,itisnotaninstructionaltheoryspecifyingdesirabledegreesoffreedomausershouldbegiven:itisnotatheoryoflearnerversusinstructorcontrol.Theconversationforactionformcanbeviewedasagenericdesigntheorydefininghowcontroldesignissuesrelatetothegoalsofhuman-computerorhuman-humaninteractions.
GibsonandNorman:AffordanceTheory
AffordancetheorywasoriginallyproposedbyJamesGibson,aresearcherintheareaofvisualperception(Gibson,2014).Gibsonbelievedthatthebrainperceivedtheunchangingelementsinitsenvironmentintermsofsurfacesandedgesthatbecomerecognizedasobjectsbythereflectionoflight.Gibsonproposedthatinvariantpartsofavisualscenebecomeobjectsthat“afford”actionoruse.Thepartsofascenethatchangeprovidecontrastwiththosethatremainstable,astheever-movingeyescanstheenvironment.
ForGibson,anaffordanceistheperceivedobjectand“whatitoffers”(p.56).Mankindarrangestheenvironment“tochangewhatitaffordshim”intermsofusefulactions.Gibsonsuggeststhat“whatweperceivewhenwelookatobjectsaretheiraffordances,nottheirqualities”(p.58).Heproposesthat“whatanobjectaffordsusiswhatwepayattentionto”(p.58).
Perceivedobjectsthatareotherpersonsoranimalsnotonlycanbeactedupon,buttheyrespondtoaction:
Whentouchedtheytouchback,whenstrucktheystrikeback;inshort,theyinteractwiththeobserverandwithoneanother.Behavioraffordsbehavior,andthewholesubjectmatterofpsychologyandofthesocialsciencescanbethoughtofasanelaborationofthisbasicfact.”(p.58)
DonaldNorman(1990,1993,2013)appliedGibson’stheorytoexplorethemannerinwhichhumansmodifytheirenvironmenttoincreaseitsutilityandusability.Hestudiedhowhuman-madeartifactssuggest(ornot)howtheymightbeused.Hismostfamiliarexampleofartifactaffordancesisthedesignofaglassdoor.Somedoors,henoted,haveidentifiableelementsthatsignalwhethertopushorpull,andwheretopushorpull,toopenthem.
Normanproposesthattheabilityofausertooperatewithinanaffording(control)environmentdependsonthematchbetweenthedesigner’sconceptualmodeloftheenvironmentandtheuser’sconceptualmodel.Heemphasizes,therefore,theimportanceofthematchbetweentheuseranddesignermodels.
AccordingtoNorman(1999),theappearanceofadevicecouldorshould“providethecriticalcluesrequiredforitsproperoperation”(n.p.).Normanemphasizestheimportanceofthe“meaningfulness”ofanaffordance.Anactismeaningfulwhenauseractsbasedonsharedculturalconstraintsandconventions:thatis,onalanguageofcontrolusesharedwithinthecultureofusers.
Norman’semphasisoftheimportanceoftheconceptualmodelpossessedbytheuserdefinesamajordifferencebetweenthepsychologicalviewsofGibsonandthoseofNorman.Gibsondeniedtheclaimofcognitivepsychology,thatintermediarycognitivestructuressuchasNorman’s“models”exist.Thisdifference
ofopinionwasthesourceofaseriesoffriendlydiscussionsbetweenthetwopsychologistsoveraperiodoftime.Thepointofmentioningthisisthattheconceptofaffordanceisusefultothedesigner,despiteconflictsthatmightexistinitsdeeperexplanatory-theoreticalbasis.
Norman(1993)namessevenstagesoftakinganaction:
1. Formingthegoal2. Formingtheintentiontoact3. Specifyingtheaction4. Executingtheaction5. Perceivingthestateoftheworld6. Interpretingthestateoftheworld7. Evaluatingtheoutcome
Thesestagesshouldbeconsideredbyacontrolsystemdesigner,astheyseparatestatesofmindsurroundingtheactualuseofcontrols.Onlyinstage4isacontrolactuated.Betweenstage1andstage3agoalbecomesanintentionandameansisselected,whichincludesacontroltobeusedand,ifapplicable,thevalueofthecontroltobeexercisedorthecontentofthecontrolassertion.Stages5through7includereadingfeedbackfromtheaction,determiningwhethertheintendedactionwascompleted,andthendeterminingwhethertheactionwastherightoneandasatisficingone.ThisstructureofstagesinperforminganactionisverysimilarinformandintenttotheTOTE(test,operate,test,exit)unitproposedin1980byMiller,Galanter,andPribram,inPlansandtheStructureofBehavior(1960).
ParrishandLaurel:AestheticsofControlSystems
Controldesignisdeeplyinvolvedinlearningexperiencesthatplacelearnerswithinaroleinanarrativespacewheretheyengageinthefirst-personorasavatar-actors.Controlsinsuchsettingsarethe“means”for“agents”toexecute“actions”inthe“setting”tohelpfulfilla“goal”:inthiscase,agoalaimedatlearning(Parrish,2007).Thiskindofapplicationrequirescontrolstobecomepartofalargeraestheticexperience--navigatingaspace,exploring,solvingproblems,makingdecisions,andperhapsdesigningorcreatinganartifactintheprocess.
Designsofthiskindstringactionstogetherwitheachotheraspartofthe“telling”ofthenarrative.Therefore,“theobjectofaninterfaceisawholeinteraction,justastheobjectofaplayisthewholeaction”(Laurel,1986,p.83).Individualactionshavemeaningonlyinrelationtoaspecificpointintheever-changingnarrative,ratherthanhavingdiscreteinterpretations.Whiledesigningthistypeoflearningexperience,Parrishrecommendsthatthedesignerwrite‘designstories’todeterminethenarrativeoftheexperiencefromtheuser’sperspective(Parrish,2006).Thisneednotchartspecificpathstheusercanfollow,butitcaninvolvethat.Controlsshouldallowlearnerstoparticipateinanunfoldingnarrativeandshouldleadtonarrativeunity(2007).
Controlsinthisenvironmentaremorecloselyrelatedtotherepresentationalelementoftheinterfacebecausetheyblendwiththefictionalorimaginativeaspectoftherepresentation.Theymaybeexpectedtofunctionasanextensionoftheuser’srole,whichLaurelreferstoas“first-personness”,whichLaurelsaysis:
...affectedbytherepresentationalaspectsoftheinterface;thatis,howtheuser'schoicesandactionsareintroducedintothesystem,andhowtheactivitiesofthesystemarerepresentedtotheuser”(Laurel,1986,p.77).
Inthesecases,theexperienceitselfmaybepartoftheobjective.
Laurelidentifiesthreeaspectsimportantinthedesignoffirst-personcontrols:(1)interactionfrequency,(2)interactionrange,and(3)interactionsignificance(Laurel,p.78).Frequencyisacontinuumrepresentinghowoftenuserinputisenabled.Rangereferstothedegreeofconstraintplaceduponthecontrolsoffered.
Significancereferstothemeaningorinterpretationofcontrolactuationsatagivenpointinanever-shiftingcontext.
First-personnessismostcompletelyrealizedattheextremeendofeachoftheinteractivevariables'continuum:[where]frequencyiscontinuous;rangeisinfinite;[and]significanceismaximal"(Laurel,1986,p.79).
Vincenti:EvolutionofControlTheoryThroughResearchandDevelopment
Vincenti(1990)presentsadetailedcasestudyoftheevolutionofcontroldesigntheoryconductedoverfourdecades.Thecaseinvolvesofthediscoveryandsolutionofacontroldesignproblemthatelucidatedtheprocessoftheorycreation.Intheearliestdaysoftheaviationindustry,fewresearcherspaidattentiontoflyingqualitiesofaircraft.
AspilotingexperienceaccumulatedduringandafterWorldWarI,pilotsbegantorefertoplanesashaving"light","sluggish",or“firm”controlsthatmadeaircrafteithereasierorhardertofly,orinsomecasesdangerous.Comparisonsbetweencontrolsystemsaccumulatedasmakesandmodelsofaircraftproliferated.Thismadepilotsawareofthevarietyofflyingqualitiesandbroughttheproblemofcontroldesignintofocus.Thisledto"thenotionthatspecificationscouldbeusefullywrittenforsomethingassubjectivelyperceivedasflyingqualities....Itwasnotatallobviousnorobviouslyusefulideaattheoutset”(P.52).
Vincenti'scasestudyshowsthatadesigncommunitymustdetectcontroldesignasaproblem,thenidentifythevalueofasolutiontousersanddesigners,thenidentifykeyvariablesandanalyticconcepts,andfinallyperformresearchtodefineboundariesofsatisfactorycontrolperformance.Theresultofthisprocessisasetofspecificationsforacceptablecontrolsystems.
Thoughtheaviationcontrolproblemmaynotseemrelevanttothedesignofcomputercontrolinterfaces,oneneedonlyrecallthestruggletodefinespecificationsfortheApplecomputerGUI(seeMoggridge(2007).Asthesophisticationofcomputer-deliveredlearningexperiencegrows,therewillnecessarilybeasimilarprocesscarriedouttoguidetheworkofeducationalinterfacedesigners.Partoftheresultwillbeasetoftheories,norms,andstandardsforeducationalinterfacecontroldesign.Forthisreason,wesuggesttheaviationexampleishighlypertinenttolearningexperiencecontrols.
Inanearliersectionweprovidedacompositeviewofcontroldesignprinciplesgatheredfromthestandardsofmanydesignfields.Virtuallyallofthequalitieslistedtherearecandidatesasdesirablequalitiesinlearningsystemcontrols.Thoughthereisnotthesamelife-and-deathconsequenceforeducationalcontrolsthatexistsinsomeoftheotherfields,somethingevenmoreimportantmaybeatstake:thecoststotheunderachieverthatcouldbeattributedtopoorcontroldesign,viewedintheirtotalimpactacrossthousandsofusers,willbeconsiderable.JustastheevaluationofoperatingsystemGUIstandardshasimprovedtheefficiencyofthecomputeruser,reducingthetimeandattentionrequiredofthecomputerlearnerwillincreaselearningproductivity.Ifefficiencyanddepthoflearningcanbeimprovedincrementallyacrossalargepopulationofeducationalcomputerusers,theinvestmentinthestudyofinstructionalcontroldesignswillbeworththeeffortitrequires.
Vincentiidentifiesresearchstagesthroughwhichacontrolproblemisidentified,eventuallyresultinginspecifications.Instructionalcontrolsystemdesignersshouldtakenoteofandanticipatethestepsinthisresearchprocess.Inwhatfollowswewilltrytoapplylessonsfromtheaviationcommunitytotheinstructionaldesigncommunity.
1.Familiarizationwiththeproblem.
Aninitialstepfortheaviationcommunitywaslearning"thetruenatureoftheairplane"(p.102).Thoughairfoilsandcontrolsurfaces(andtheirassociatedcockpitcontrols)couldbedesigned,theycouldnotalways
bemadesafelyflyable,astheWrightBrotherslearned.Unexpectedcombinationsofforcescouldde-stabilizeanotherwisestableaircraft,resultinginsuddenlossofcontrol.Likewise,wefeelthat"thetruenatureofthelearningexperience"hasyettoemerge.
2.Identificationofbasicvariablesandderivationofanalyticalconceptsandcriteria.
Aviationhadtodiscoverbasicvariablesofcontrolsystemsbyflyingandby--overaperiodoftime--amassingmountainsofdataonaircraftperformancefordifferentaircraftdesigns.Onlyaftermuchflyingdatahadbeenrelatedtoflyingqualityreportscouldqualityconcepts(descriptions,subjectivejudgments)emergeintotheliterature,asmeasurablevariablesandcriteria.
AccordingtoVincenti:
Identificationofcriteriaincludedsuchthingsasstickforceandelevatorangleaspertinentvariables,andlong-andshort-periodmodesasconceptsindynamicstability,andstickforcepergasacriterionofcontrol.Theissueherewashowtorepresentflyingqualitiesquantitativelyinengineeringterms(p.102).
Itshouldbenotedthatastechnicalandimpersonalasthesetermsmakeitsound,theemphasisincontrolsystemresearchwasoncreatingaircraftsystemsthatweresafer,measurablyeasiertouse,andsubjectivelymoreagreeabletotheuser.Inthissimplifiedsense,studyofinstructionalcontrolsandtheirapplicationshouldbeexpectedtohaveasimilarimpact.
3.Developmentofinstrumentsandtechniquesformeasurement.
Instrumentation,theemergenceofanalyticalconcepts,andmeasurablevariablesemergedintheaviationindustryinacycleofmutualinteraction.Measureswerecenteredarounddynamicqualities,suchasaircraftstabilitymoment-to-moment.Thechallengesofaircraftandinstructionalcontrol-relatedmeasurementaresimilarinthattheydealwithcontrolwithinadynamic,changingenvironment.Theyarebothproblemsofmeasuringandmaintainingstabilitywithinanenvironment,keepinginbalanceatenuousstabilitythatisalwaysonlysecondsawayfromvanishing.
Theissueofcontrol,therefore,isnotjustamatterofacceptingandprocessingindividualcontrolinputs,butratheroneinvolvingfeedforwardandfeedbackcyberneticprocessesofcontinuoustracking,adjusting,correcting,andanticipatingofatrajectory.Thenewresearchdirectioninlearninganalyticscangiveanedgetoinstructionaldesignstudiesovertheearlyaeronauticalstudiesofinstrumentationbecauseofthecomputer'sincreasedabilitytocaptureenormousamountsofdataandsiftthemforpatternsusingsophisticatedstatisticaltechniques.However,theresultsofintensivelearninganalyticstudieswillonlybeasusefulasthecategoriesanticipatedbythevariables,theanalyticconcepts,andthegranularityofthedatacaptured.Itisunlikelythatthecurrentappreciationof"thetruenatureoftheinstructionalexperience"willsupplyanadequatebasisforrealprogress.Itislikelythatnewconceptsofdynamicallybalancedprocessesoflearningandinstructionwillberequired,justastheywererequiredinaviation.
4.Growthandrefinementofuseropinionregardingdesirableoperatingproperties
Inaviationthenumberofpilotsgrewrapidlyinbothwartimeandpost-wartimeenvironments.Similarly,wecanexpectthenumberofcomputer-usinglearnerstosurgeinthenearfuture.Pilotswerenotaeronauticalengineers,buttheirexperienceandtheirresponsetoaircraftandcontroldesign,nonethelessprovidedimportantcluesforbridgingtheworldsoftheengineerandtheuser,justaswillthejudgmentsofthelearner:
Thereasonswhyanairplanemustbestableormoreorlessobvious.Amoderatelyunstableairplanemaybeflownsafelyifthepilotcontinuallymanipulatesthecontrols.However,thisprocedureisverynerve-wrackingandtiring.Landingortake-offisdangerousinanunstableship.Inflyingblind,itisagreatcomforttoknowthatifthecontrolsarereleased,theshipwillcontinueonitscoursesafelyeveninroughair(p.72-3).
Vincentinotesthatin1910thishadbeenacontroversialidea,butthatby1935ithadbecome"obvious".Growthinthenumberofcomputer-basedlearningusersmaysimilarlyturncontroversialideasregardinginstructionalcontrolsystemdesigninto"obvious"principlestoguidedesign.Thiswillprobablyhappeninaresponsetouseropinionsthataresharedbyusersthroughsocialmedia“likes”andproductreviews.Controldesignprincipleswillprobablybeshapedasmuchbyuserpreferencesasbypsychologicalortheoreticalprinciples,andfrompatternsofuserpreferencetherewillmostlikelyemergenewtheoriesforcontroldesign.
Thisshouldnotbetakenasanexcusetoavoidtheorizingaboutinstructionalsystemcontroldesignunderdynamiclearningconditions,becauseovertheyearstheconvergenceoftheengineer’sworldandtheuser’sworldgrewtogetherasdemandsforincreasinglyimprovedperformanceescalated.Vincentidescribeshowdisagreementsbetweenpilotsandengineerswereresolvedinonecase:
[Agroupofpilotsandengineers]turnedthemselvesintoresearchpilotsandflight-researchengineers.Theprocesswasprobablyanunconsciousonethattookplacenaturallyoutofthedemandsofthejob(p.76).
Inanotherinstanceasimilarpatternwasnotedinthecooperationoftwofamoustestpilots,oneofwhomwasbytraininganengineerandoneofwhomwasbyexperienceatestpilot:
MelGough...wasverymuchinterestedinhandlingqualities.Hedidn’tknowtoomuchaboutwhyanairplanedidwhatitdid,butheknewwhatheliked.Heusedtotakemeupandshowmewhatairplaneswoulddo.Whenhegotanairplanethatwasrogue,he’dsay“IwantyoutocomeupbecauseIwanttoshowyouthis.Maybeyoucantellmehowtofixit.”Andsowedidalotofflyingtogether.Infactweevenflewonetimeinasingleseater.Ihadafootononepedalandhehadafootontheother(InterviewwithGilruth,1986,quotedbyVincenti,p.91).
Theincreasingimportanceofuseropinioninaviationcontroldesignmayhaveananalogininstructionalcontroldesign.Factorscitedbypilotsincludedfatigueexperiencedduringlongerflights,duringflightswerecontinuousmanipulationofcontrolswasrequiredtomaintainflightregime,higherperformancesystems(e.g.,speed),increasedblindflyingduetoconditions(e.g.,night,whether),increasingperipheralduties(e.g.,communications).Vincentiexplainsopened,"theartofflyinghadgrownupandbecomemorecomplex”(p.73).
Likewise,shouldwenotanticipateasimilarpatternwithinstructionaltrends:longersessionsofinstructionalinteraction(fatiguefactor),increasedrateorintensityofresponding(responsefrequencyfactor),moresophisticatedproducts(performancefactor),increasedvarietyofinstructionalplacesandconditions(environmentalfactor),anddemandsforincreasedmultitasking(peripheraldutiesfactor)?Asthesefactorsvieforthelearner’sattentionandenergy,instructionalcontrolsystemsmustbecomeincreasinglytransparentinwaysthatmaynotbereadilyapparenttoeitherthedesignerortheuserbutthatwillrequiredesigner-users-in-one-skintobridgethegap.Asthingsstandtoday,surprisinglyfewdesignersofcomputer-basedlearningsystemshavethemselvesbeenextensiveusersofthekindsofproductstheydesignforothers.Inaviation:
Howthevariousinfluencesbecametranslatedintobooksandarticlesisnotthekindofthingthatappearsintherecord.Itmusthaveinvolvedpilots,designers,researchengineers,andacademicstalkingtoeachotherandparticipatingtosomeextentineachother'sactivities.However,ittookplace,itreflectedacomplexandwidespreadlearningprocessbyconsiderableengineeringcommunity(p.73).
5.Adeliberateschemeofresearch.
Afterdecadesofuncertaintytheaviationindustryconvergedonafocusedresearchagenda,promptedbyajointcooperativeeffortofmanufacturersandgovernmentandindustryorganizations.Themulti-year
researchplanwasseededbyanaircraftspecificationthatforthefirsttimeincludedadetailedsectiononrequiredflyingqualities.Thespecification"embodiedforthefirsttimethenotionthatdesiredsubjectiveperceptionsofpilotscouldbeattainedthroughobjectivespecificationsfordesigners"(p.81).Thespecificationsappeartohavebeenarrivedatafterconsultationwithairlinepilots,engineers,andresearchers.
Inasense,thismarkedthetransitionfromwhathadbeenmainlyacademicresearch,toaprogramofcooperativeR&Dthatbroughttogetherengineersandresearchersrepresentingmanufacturers,theacademy,government,professionalorganizations,andusers.Asimilarefforttofocuseducationaldesignisunprecedented,exceptfortheperiodfollowingthelaunchofSputnikin1957.Thefocusbehindtheaviationresearchprogramwassharpenedbythecleardefinitionoftheresearchprocess,necessitatedbyinter-organizationalcoordination.Theresearchplanfollowedexactlythestagesoutlinedbyitems#2,#3,and#4above.Theresearchprogramwasfurtherfocusedbecauseitwascarriedoutwithrespecttoadesignofaspecificaircraft.
Asaircraftdevelopmentandprogrammaticresearchproceededinparallel,researchresultsfedbackintothespecificationtoimproveit.Vincentinotesthatthisistypicalofcurrentengineeringresearch:
...Engineeringresearchtypicallytakesplacewithinacontextofpracticaldemands.Sincethedemandsusuallywillnotwait,researchengineersareoftencalledupontogiveadvicewhentheirknowledgeisstillataformativestage.Doingsorequiresthemtoarticulateandsometimesalterandimprovetheirdevelopingideas.Suchconstructiveexchangebetweenthegeneratorsandusersofengineeringknowledgeisanessentialelementinthelearningprocess(p.89)
Intheend,severalthingswereaccomplishedbythisresearchprogram,themostimportantofwhichrelatesthepresenttheme:thatcontrolaspectsofthetechnologicaldesignhavegreatimportance,andthatwhatmightbeconsideredsubjectivequalitiesofthecontrolsystemdesigncanbesubjecttoempiricalresearch,development,andtheapplicationoftheory,justascantheirphysicalandmechanicalpropertiesandfunctions.Themainproblemforaviationcontroldesignsbeyondthispointbecame"mainlyoneofdesigning(i.e.,proportioning)theairplaneratherthandecidingatthesametimewhattodesignfor"(p.97,emphasisintheoriginal).
Conclusion
Thissurveyofcontroldesigntheoryandatheory-buildingcasestudyillustratesawiderangeofcontrol-relatedissuesfromthedesigner’spointofview.Itshowsthatthereexistsasubstantialbodyofrelevanttheorythatcanimproveeducationalexperiencedesignsatafundamentallevel.Designerstendtotakecontroldesignissuesforgranted,andresearchersoftenneglectthem.Webelievetheissuesofthecontrollayerdeservetobeestablishedintheinstructionaldesignliterature,iffornootherreasonthanthatsignificantinstructionalinteractivitydependsonappropriatecontroldesigns.Controlsarethemeansbywhichlearnerspracticetheuseofnascentknowledge.Controlsarewhatenablethelearnertoactinsignificantandrelevantwaysaslearningtakesplace.Controldesignshouldoneofthefirstconsiderationsofadesign,notanafterthought.
Theumbrellaterm“interface”hascenteredourthoughtsonthevisible,surfacefeaturesofinterfacedesigns,ratherthanontheexerciseofknowledgeprovidedbycontrols.Theexistenceofcontrol-relatedtheorysuggeststhatthatweshouldfocusmoreattentiononhowtoengagethelearnerinsignificantmentalprocessingthroughintelligentlydesignedcontrols.Thiswouldconstituteafirststepinunpackingtheinterfaceconcept.Wesuggestthatfurtherstepsshouldincludeconsideringlayersofmessageandrepresentationseparatelyaswell,todiscoverthetheoreticalandpracticalquestionstheseraiseforthedesignerandwhatcanbelearnedfromotherdesignfieldsabouttheselayersofadesign.
Asdesignsinotherfieldshavebecomemoresophisticated,controldesigntheorieshavebecomeimportantfordesigningcontrolsystemswithpropertiesmatchedtothelearningtask.Maturingintellectualconceptsofinstructionaldesignandrisingconsumerexpectationsofinstructionalexperienceswillinthefuturemakeit
necessaryforinstructionaldesignerstobecomemorefamiliarwiththetheoreticalbasesoftheircontrolsystemdesigns.
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