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I
Heriot-Watt University
School of Engineering and Physical Sciences
MSc in Energy
Project / Dissertation 2008-2009
Title:
Environmental advantages from the cogeneration in Greece
Author:
Mrs. Tampou Aliki - 061182660
Supervisor:
Dr. Emilia Kondili (HWU – TEIP)
F L A M E Flexible Learning Advanced Masters in Energy
II
F L A M E MSc in Energy
Declaration of Authorship I, Mrs. Tampou Aliki– 061182660 – Cohort 2 (surname first then name and matriculation number) confirm that the report entitled Environmental advantages of cogeneration in Greece is part of my assessment for module B49IR I declare that the report is my own work. I have not copied other material verbatim
except in explicit quotes, and I have identified the sources of the material clearly. Tampou Aliki (Signature)
Piraeus, 30/08/2009 (Place and Date)
III
Abstract
The aim of this research is to measure at what level the main greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions, namely CO2 produced by industries, hospitals and hotels can be minimized using
cogeneration systems.
The context of the research has focused on the technical aspect of the technology of CHP in
the industrial and commercial sectors. The research focuses on CO2 emissions although the
two other main GHG pollutants are mentioned; SO2, NOx. This will be done following the
axis of the current Greek emissions problem caused by industry, with estimations based on
the CHP technologies and general characteristics.
Thereafter, a survey on CHP units installed and operating now in Greece, as well as their
environmental impacts will be presented and evaluated. The survey will address the issues of
implementation scenarios and environmental pollution avoidance. To be in a position to
detect accurately the reasons why those units have not been adopted on a greater scale, the
drawbacks of CHP are presented and estimated.
The analysis concerns finding a way to calculate the exact current reduction in GHG
emissions in Greece and to make a prediction on the potential reductions that could be made if
more CHP technology were to penetrate further into the industrial and commercial sectors.
IV
Contents
Figures ...................................................................................................................... VI
Tables ................................................................................................................... VIII
Glossary ...................................................................................................................... IX
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH............................................................................... 1
1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND/OR HYPOTHESIS ............................................................. 5
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH (INCLUDING AIMS) ......................................... 5
1.4 METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................. 9
1.5 DELIMITATION OF SCOPE ............................................................................................. 10
1.6 OUTLINE OF THE DISSERTATION................................................................................ 10
1.7 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH DEFINITION ...................................................................... 12
2.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 12
2.2 THE PRACTICAL PROBLEM........................................................................................... 12
2.3 THE THEORETICAL PROBLEM...................................................................................... 15
2.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND/OR HYPOTHESIS ........................................................ 21
2.5 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY..................................................................................... 22
3.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 22
3.2 RESEARCH PROCESS PLAN ........................................................................................... 22
3.3 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................................................... 26
3.4 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS AND RESULTS..................................................................... 27
4.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 27
4.2 RESULTS OF ANALYSIS: THE FINDINGS .................................................................... 27
4.2.1 Energy consumption in industry ....................................................................................... 28
4.2.2 Energy consumption in residential and tertiary sector ...................................................... 29
4.2.3 National levels of GHG emissions for the period of 1990-2010....................................... 29
4.2.4 CHP plants currently in operation in Greece .................................................................... 31
4.2.5 Consumption of Greek Industry........................................................................................ 36
4.2.6 Typical consumption of the Greek Tertiary Sector........................................................... 37
4.2.6.1 Health Care Buildings .................................................................................................... 37
V
4.2.6.2 Hotels ...................................................................................................................... 38
4.2.7 Typical emissions of GHG................................................................................................ 39
4.2.7.1 Typical GHG emissions for industrial sector................................................................. 39
4.2.7.2 Typical GHG emissions of tertiary sector...................................................................... 45
4.2.8 Emissions and emission reductions of operating Greek CHP plants ................................ 49
4.3 CHP penetration scenarios in industrial and tertiary sector ................................................. 52
4.4 Reasons that have prevented further CHP implementation in Greece ................................. 57
4.5 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................. 59
5.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 59
5.2 RELIABILITY OF THE DATA AND THE FINDINGS.................................................... 59
5.3 THE MEANING OF THE FINDINGS IN RELATION TO OTHER WORK.................... 61
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS......................................................................................... 64
6.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 64
6.2 CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE RESEARCH PROBLEM................................................. 64
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 67
APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................... 72
VI
Figures
Figure 1.1: Conventional Energy System versus cogeneration system ...................................... 2
Figure 1.2: Cogeneration as a share of national power production............................................. 3
Figure 3.1: The research process plan....................................................................................... 25
Figure 4.1: Final energy consumption by the economic sector ................................................ 28
Figure 4.2: Final energy consumption in industry by energy carrier ........................................ 28
Figure 4.3: Final energy consumption in the residential and tertiary sectors by energy carrier29
Figure 4.4: CO2 emission levels for the period of 1990-2000 ................................................. 30
Figure 4.5: SO2 and NOx emission levels for the period of 1990-2000 .................................. 31
Figure 4.8a : NOx emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in industries and total
Greek emissions after CHP scenario)......................................................................................... 44
Figure 4.8b : NOx emissions(total Greek industrial emissions before CHP scenario and total
Greek industrial emissions after CHP scenario). ....................................................................... 44
Figure 4.9a : CO2 emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in tertiary and total
Greek emissions after CHP scenario in). ................................................................................... 46
Figure 4.9b : CO2 emissions(total Greek tertiary emissions before CHP scenario and total
Greek tertiary emissions after CHP scenario). ........................................................................... 46
Figure 4.10a : NOx emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in tertiary and total
Greek emissions after CHP scenario)......................................................................................... 47
Figure 4.10b : NOx emissions(total Greek tertiary emissions before CHP scenario and total
Greek tertiary emissions after CHP scenario). ........................................................................... 47
Figure 4.11a : SO2 emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in tertiary and total
Greek emissions after CHP scenario)......................................................................................... 48
Figure 4.11b : SO2 emissions(total Greek tertiary emissions before CHP scenario and total
Greek tertiary emissions after CHP scenario). ........................................................................... 48
Figure 4.12 : CO2 emissions of operating units prior and before their installation.................. 50
Figure 4.13 : NOx emissions of operating units prior and before their installation.................. 50
Figure 4.14 : SO2 emissions of operating units prior and before their installation. ................. 51
Figure 4.15 : Efficiency % to Heat-to –electricity ration of Greek operating CHP plants. ...... 51
Figure 4.17 : CO2 emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared
with CO2 reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies
between 100-75-50-25%. ........................................................................................................... 53
VII
Figure 4.18 : CO2 emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared
with CO2 reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies
between 100-75-50-25%. ........................................................................................................... 53
Figure 4.19 : CO2 emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with CO2
reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies between
100-25-50-75%. ...................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 4.20 : SO2 emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared
with SO2 reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies
between 100-25-50-75% ............................................................................................................ 54
Figure 4.21 : SO2 emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared
with SO2 reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies
between 100-25-50-75% ............................................................................................................ 55
Figure 4.22 : SO2 emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with SO2
reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies between
100-25-50-75%. ...................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 4.23 : NOx emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared
with NOx reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies
between 100-25-50-75% ............................................................................................................ 56
Figure 4.24 : NOx emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared
with NOx reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector
varies between 100-25-50-75%.................................................................................................. 56
Figure 4.25 : NOx emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with NOx
reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies between
100-25-50-75% ...................................................................................................................... 57
VIII
Tables
Table 2.1: Cogeneration sector-fuel-size matrix. ...................................................................... 17
Table 2.2: Possible opportunities for application of cogeneration............................................ 18
Table 2.3: Energy and Carbon Use and Savings for Current Small-scale CHP Technologies, for
1 GWe of Installed Capacity(presents "Today's" results, not for a 100 kW Unit, but scaled up to
1 GW of installed capacity ......................................................................................................... 19
Table 4.1: CHP Units in operation in Greece............................................................................ 32
Table 4.2: Greek industry’s fuel mix for years 1990-2005. ...................................................... 36
Table 4.3: Tertiary sector plants, with an installed CHP unit. .................................................. 37
Table 4.4: Distribution of Greek health care (HC) buildings for different construction
periods. ...................................................................................................................... 38
Table 4.10: Pollutant emissions per fuel (g/kg fuel). ................................................................ 39
Table 5.1: Industrial GHG Emissions ....................................................................................... 60
Table 5.2: Residential-Commercial-Institutional sector GHG Emissions ................................ 60
Table 5.3: Tertiary and GHG Emissions .................................................................................. 61
Table 5.4: Estimated energy needed to cover Greek industry’s needs and saved
CO2 emissions. ...................................................................................................................... 62
Table 5.5: Comparison between literature and estimated SO2 and NOx savings in gr/KWh. . 63
Table 5.6: Fuel displaced and CO2 savings .............................................................................. 63
Table 4.4: Distribution of Greek health care (HC) buildings for different construction
periods. ...................................................................................................................... 72
Table 4.11: Carbon content γ of each fuel (tn C/k tn). .............................................................. 76
Table 4.12: Estimated thermal energy (GWh). ........................................................................ 78
Table 4.13: Sulfur Content % of fuel consumed in Greek industry ......................................... 81
Table 4.14: Pollutant emissions per fuel (g/kg fuel). ................................................................ 85
Table 4.15: Amount of fuel used to cover industry’s needs(extract from table 4.2)................ 85
Table 4.16: Pollutant emissions per fuel (g/kg fuel) and for on-grid electrical energy
(tn/GWh). ...................................................................................................................... 88
Table 4.17 :Fuel in K tn used to meet thermal energy needs of CHP industrial operating
plants. ...................................................................................................................... 91
IX
Glossary
ACEEE American Council for Energy Efficiency Economy
BKB/Peat Briquettes BKB are composition fuels manufactured from brown coal,
produced by briquetting under high pressure. These figures
include peat briquettes, dried lignite fines and dust, and
brown coal breeze.
°C Degree Celsius
CO2 Carbon Dioxide; the main Greenhouse gas
CHP Combined Heat and Power
COGEN Europe European Association for the Promotion of Cogeneration
CRES Greek Centre for Renewable Energy Sources
DHC District Heating and Cooling
EDUCOGEN European Educational Tool of Cogeneration
EEC European Economic Community, the former name of the
European Community
EU European Union
GHG Greenhouse Gas (in the current project the term includes
CO2, SO2 and NOx)
GW gigawatts power
HACHP Hellenic Combined Heat and Power Association
IEA International Energy Agency; an energy policy advisor to
its member countries in order to ensure reliable, affordable
and clean energy for their citizens
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; a scientific
intergovernmental body set up by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and by the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP)
IPPC Directive 96/61/EC concerning Integrated Pollution
Prevention and Control
kg kilogram
kWh kilowatt-hour (1 kWh = 3,600 kJ = 3.6 MJ)
kWe kilowatts electric power
kWth kilowatts thermal power
micro-CHP CHP plants under 20 kWe
X
MWe megawatts electric power
MWth megawatts thermal power
NCV Net Calorific Value
NTUA National Technical University of Athens
OPET Organisation for the Promotion of Energy Technologies
PP Power Plant
POCs Persistent Organic Pollutants
PGC The Greek Public Gas Corporation
PPC The Greek Public Power Corporation
RES Renewable Energy Sources
SCF Support Community Framework
TCG Technical Chamber of Greece
TOE tonne of oil equivalent
USA United States of America
VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds
WRI World Resources Institute
ZREU Zentrum für rationelle Energieanwendung und Umwelt –
Germany (Center for rational application of energy and
environment)
6EAP Sixth Environmental Action Programme (European
Council,2002)
XI
Acknowledgements I would like to thank for her support and advice Dr. Emilia Kondili under whose supervision
this research was conducted. Deep appreciation is also expressed to Dr. John K. Kaldellis for
his kind advice and encouragement throughout the work and to Dr. Phil Skittides for his
helpful assistance and proofreading of the text.
1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH
Greece, along with Europe and the rest of the world is called to tackle a body of energy
problems that will challenge governments, industries and the public in the 21st century. In the
year 2000, the world’s emissions reached the amount of 9,000 million tons of carbon
equivalent and will have reached 15,000 millions by 2025 according to an estimate from the
World Resources Institute (WRI). Looking back we can see that during the last 50 years the
global emissions of CO2 from fossil fuels have risen from 5 billion tons to 24 billion tons
(WRI).
Most energy consumption is derived from fossil fuels, depleting natural resources and
contributing to global climate change, through increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
When the EU signed the Kyoto protocol, it promised to reduce these emissions by 2012 by
8% in comparison to 1990 levels, an equivalent reduction of 300 million tonnes. To meet this
commitment, significant changes of behaviour are required now, both in terms of energy
supply and demand management.
Today all thermal power stations in Greece-with the exception of two, using as fuel natural
gas, use either national lignite or mazut-diesel for their operation. Electricity generation is
found to be responsible for almost 55% of the CO2 production, reaching the amount of 55,000
Ktn in the year 2002. (Kaldellis J. et al., 2004).
Literature often provides as definition of CHP the following: “Cogeneration is the
thermodynamically sequential production of two more useful forms of energy from a single
primary energy source”. Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems can generate electricity
(and/or mechanical energy) and thermal energy in a single, integrated system (see Figure 1).
As shown in the following figure, to produce, via separate heat and power plants, 35 units of
electricity and 50 units of heat, 180 units of primary input is required which is considerably
greater than the 100 units of primary input used in a CHP plant. CHP is not a specific
technology but rather a combination of technologies to meet end-user needs for heating and/or
cooling, and mechanical and/or electrical power.
2
Figure 1.1: Conventional Energy System versus cogeneration system (source: Kaarsberg,
1998)
The EU recognised that CHP is one of the primary means to achieve its energy policy
objective of improving energy efficiency and its environmental policy objective of reducing
GHG emissions.
The EU issued in 2004, directive 2004/8/EC named “On the promotion of cogeneration based
on a useful heat demand in the internal energy market and amending directive 92/42/EEC”.
As implied within the aforementioned directive “the increased use of cogeneration geared
towards making primary energy savings could constitute an important part of the package of
measures needed to comply with the Kyoto protocol and the United Nations Framework
convention on climate change”.
The OPET (Organisation for the Promotion of Energy Technologies) CHP Consortium
consisting of thirty one European countries and China, coordinated by the Danish
Technological Institute outlined eight reasons to promote CHP:
1. conformity with EU energy policy
2. reliability
3. high thermal efficiency
4. lower environmental impact
5. fuel flexibility
6. high availability
3
7. supply security and market benefits
8. economic benefits
The following figure shows the percentage of electricity produced through cogeneration in the
EU in 1999.
Figure 1.2: Cogeneration as a share of national power production (source: COGEN Europe-
EDUCOGEN , 2001)
As CHP constitutes an important element, an increased share of funding for CHP by EU
programmes has been foreseen. Some of these programmes are:
• Joule/Thermie
• Save/Altener
• Phare, Tacis, Synergie and Meda
The commission examines ways in which to integrate the energy and environmental benefits
of CHP in its taxation policy. Financial instruments such as Third Party Financing are
encouraged for CHP investments in the industrial sector.
4
In Greece, the implementation of law 2244/94 has ended a 45 year monopoly on electricity
production by the Greek Public Power Corporation (PPC). This law allows the private sector
to produce energy from renewable energy sources (RES) and natural gas.
Some of the main CHP applications currently operating are at:
• Hellenic Petroleum S.A.
• Aluminium of Greece
• Motor oil
CHP plants operating in Greece are presented in Chapter 4.2.
CHP can boost market competitiveness by increasing the efficiency and productivity of our
use of fuels, capital, and human resources. Money saved on energy would become available
to spend on other goods and services, promoting economic growth. Past research in the USA
by ACEEE (American Council for Energy Efficiency Economy-1995) has shown that savings
are retained in the local economy and generate greater economic benefit than money spent on
energy. Recovery and productive use of waste heat from power generation is a critical first
step in a productivity-oriented environmental strategy. Specifically, CHP can be an engine for
economic development, offering clean, low-cost energy solutions to many sectors of the
economy (Shipley A.et al., 2001).
A large amount of the energy consumed is wasted due to the fact that the rule of the thumb to
make rational use of energy seems extraordinary, nonsense or even lyxury .Nowadays that
finite resources seem to become extinct or be very expensive CHP should be seen as a
technology that encourages further the energy conservation and the rational energy use.
Rational use of energy does not mean restriction or sacrifice of comfortable living conditions,
but the effort for reduction of losses of energy in the biggest possible scale and maximize the
exploitation of each energy unit so that total final consumption of energy is decreased. Using
energy rationally is interpreted as the most optimal management of energy resources. Basic
beginning of rational energy use is that the final consumer should each time use precisely the
amount of energy that it needs in order to it covers his needs. Moreover, the energy profits are
maximized when suitable tools, such as products and applications, are used that offer us
technological improvement in terms of energy efficiency.
5
Some of the energy saving measures and therefore measure towards rational energy use in a
industrial and tertiary sector are the often maintenance and where necessary replacement of
boilers, insulation of piping system, installation of BIM system or CHP plant that provides
higher efficiency by producing two more useful forms of energy from a single primary energy
source than producing those forms of energy separately.
1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND/OR HYPOTHESIS
This investigation addresses the environmental gains that can be achieved from using the
method of combined heat and power generation in smaller and individual energy generation
applications such as industry, hospitals and hotels.
Some of the topics that will help outline the environmental significance of Combined Heat
and Power generation systems are the demand for air pollution control, the near extinction of
fossil fuels reserves and the amount of reduction that can be achieved using cogeneration.
The first step would be to outline the drawbacks that have so far prevented those units from
being used in the Greek energy supply system and secondly to present what needs to be done
to integrate such units of Combined Heat and Power in the industrial and tertiary sector.
Additionally, it would be useful to refer to the current state of the Greek pollution problem.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH (INCLUDING AIMS)
European leaders are set to agree to cut greenhouse gases by a fifth, hoping that the tough and
binding target will set an example for a global post-Kyoto settlement. But behind this current
agreement, European leaders are bitterly divided over how to share the burden of reducing
harmful emissions.
Conventional and nuclear energy that possess the lion’s share in the energy generation sector
are to be replaced without question since they are not compatible with the global sustainable
6
policy. The problem is that no one has been able to find the ultimate solution in order to
replace energy sources that cause irreversible environmental problems. Renewable energy
sources have the potential to help, though they are not yet in a position, for various reasons, to
replace completely conventional energy sources.
To this end, CHP aims to give a permanent or temporary solution to the need for a more
efficient and a cleaner form of energy. Last year, serious attempts from associations and
organisations were made to outline the significance of CHP in the effort towards
environmental assurance.
Among them is COGEN Europe, a registered charity which was created in 1993 under the
guidance of the European Commission. A considerable part of the thematic work of COGEN
Europe is done through five working groups:
• Working Group 'Cogeneration from renewable energy sources'
• Working Group 'Industrial CHP Users'
• Working Group 'Emissions Trading & CHP'
• Working Group 'Micro-Cogeneration'
• Working Group 'Small and Medium-scale Cogeneration'
COGEN Europe and the working group involved in the emissions trading, highlight some
valuable publications such as Position Statement-EU Emissions Trading and Combined Heat
and Power and EDUCOGEN-The European Educational Tool of Cogeneration. The first
publication indicates the necessary complementary mechanisms to prevent negative
consequences of cogeneration, while the second as indicated in the handbook “aims to
develop the integration of cogeneration within technical universities and engineering
colleges”. This report presents a variety of technologies in use, applications, economic
analysis, impacts, optimal design, current status and prospects that all together compose the
role, significance and potential of cogeneration.
On November 16th, 2006 the annual British conference of CHP Association took place and
various speakers from Great Britain expressed their concerns relative to CHP. The director of
CHP Association P. Piddington referred to cogeneration as highly competitive and supported
it by citing that cogeneration uses 20-30% less fuel, produces up to 1MT carbon savings per
GW power and finally estimated that the cost benefit rises up to £1.5 billion per GW power.
7
Snoek and Spurr in their paper “The Role of District Heating & Cooling(DHC) and Combined
Heat and Power Systems in Reducing Fossil Fuels Use and Combating Harmful Emissions”,
draw our attention to an application not yet totally applied, but which promises to give more
than just a satisfactory solution. “The fundamental idea of DHC is simple but powerful;
connect multiple thermal energy users through a piping network to environmentally optimum
energy sources, such as CHP, industrial waste heat and renewable energy sources such as
biomass, geothermal and natural sources of heating and cooling. The ability to assemble and
connect thermal loads enables these environmentally optimum sources to be used in a cost-
effective way. Not only do DHC systems allow for the optimum use of energy, but they also
provide input energy flexibility (oil, natural gas, biomass, coal, etc.).”
Furthermore, the Hellenic CHP Association (HACHP) was established in 1995 and aims to
support and outline the necessity of CHP plants in Greece. To this end various publications
have been made.
The director of the association, in a conference of the Technical Chamber of Greece on the
subject of lignite, natural gas and its role in the electricity generation sector referred to the
CHP capacity and identified potentials, perspectives and made a comparison between CO2
emissions per kg CO2 of MWth generated through a coal-fired steam turbine and coal, gas and
biofuel CHP plants.
Additionally, other Greek attempts have been made to survey CHP potentials and
technologies and present them in order that Greek industries and other individual electricity
generators become familiar with the cogeneration technology and adopt it. The Greek Centre
of Renewable Energy Sources (CRES) and the relevant German organisation (ZREU), under
the financing of the European Commission, published a handbook called Training Guide on
CHP Systems containing subjects such as CHP principles and other technological issues,
operation, maintenance as well as financial opportunities and assessments and legal status for
the EU in general and for Greece and Germany in particular.
During the past years, the EU has begun highlighting the significance of CHP plants through
the issue of Directive 2004/8/EC. In this directive, the European Union sees CHP as “a
measure to save energy” and it is only a matter of time, technology and governments’
initiative before CHP units are integrated in the electricity generation market.
8
Fossil fuels and finite energy cannot be totally replaced by RES all at once. CHP has the
privilege of using finite or RES energy products and by actually producing both power and
thermal energy, it can reduce significantly the use of the energy product itself.
The aim of this work is to investigate whether and to what degree the use of CHP plants in
Greece can actually have a positive environmental impact and furthermore to quantify it. The
major environmental benefits are mainly due to the fact that since CHP plants have greater
efficiency than conventional ones, we need a lower amount of primary energy and thus fewer
GHG emissions are released.
The research work will be carried out in the following order: initially the pollution avoided
with the use of cogeneration plants will be estimated based on the existing plants. A survey on
CHP units installed and operating now in Greece, their environmental impacts will be
presented and evaluated as well.
Secondly, the scenario of CHP plant installations in percentage of penetration will be
examined. Specifically.
Reduction savings will be estimated in comparison with the tertiary and industrial
sector GHG emissions
Reduction savings will be estimated in comparison with the national GHG emissions
levels
In addition, the drawbacks of CHP plants will be presented and an estimation of the
drawbacks that prevented the integration of CHP units instead of conventional power units
will be made so as to be in a position to detect accurately the reasons why those units have not
been adopted on a greater scale.
9
1.4 METHODOLOGY
The present research aims to answer the question of to what extent and in what way the
technology of combined heat and power generation can give a solution to the problem of
harmful emissions in Greece. This research uses as input, cogeneration technologies, the
urgent environmental need for pollution control and the cogeneration potential of Greece. The
empirical research method is a class of research method in which empirical observations or
data are collected in order to answer particular research questions. In this investigation
relevant literature will also be reviewed. Therefore, since all of the aforementioned methods
constitute the key ideas of empirical research, the approach method to be used is the
empirical.
The environmental advantages of cogeneration arise from data, observation and assumption of
what is likely to happen if cogeneration systems are to be used in Greek power plants. This
investigation is going to predict a causal relation to the cogeneration theory, based on the
higher efficiency and on the decreased use of fossil fuels that the plants might achieve using
this specific technology.
Thus, based on the cogeneration theories of higher efficiency and the decreased use of fossil
fuels, the research is going to follow the structure of predicting a casual relation to the
aforementioned theories. As a result, it seem obvious that this is a deductive research. During
recent years there has been an active response from competent authorities and private energy
sectors towards cogeneration and thus some serious attempts have been made to promote
CHP technologies. Therefore, there is data-though limited- available that can be used to
confirm CHP theories relative to the environmental advantages that arise and consequently,
the research can be characterised as inductive as well.
Byman (1989) states that “survey research entails the collection of data on a number of units
[…], with a view to collecting systematically a body of quantifiable data in respect of a
number of variables which are then examined to discern patterns of association”. The type of
design to be used is survey, as the investigation relative to the environmental advantages
emerges basically from data and information that are qualitative, such as CHP technology.
Furthermore, the research is going to be neither experimental nor a case study, but the output
10
of an array of CHP plants. The main aim the research has to fulfil is to what extent
environmental benefits arise.
The category of activity is not longitudinal mainly because CHP is a technology that is not yet
common in Greece and thus the investigation cannot be conducted over a definite period of
time. Cohen, et al. (2000) state that “where different respondents are studied at different
points in time the study is called ‘cross-sectional’ ”. Instead of longitudinal, we will follow
the cross-sectional method that allows us to face CHP as a group of various technologies and
applications to be applied in Greek power stations in order to reduce the harmful emissions.
Finally, the data collection technique will be a collection of secondary data. This data will
include the amount of Greek emission levels, the CHP applications that have so far been used
in Greece and finally the GHG emissions and the potential amount of fuel saved by using
CHP. Public records and/or company records presenting the electricity and heat consumption,
before and after the implementation of a CHP unit, are to be used in the research providing an
extensive presentation of the environmental advantages.
1.5 DELIMITATION OF SCOPE
This research study is about calculating the reduction in GHG emissions and reduction in fuel
consumption based on the CHP data of the companies so far operating and/or designed.
It attempts to calculate the aforementioned environmental gain from the current designed
units and proceed to an evaluation of those units.
The analysis has focused on data analysis and has not extended to an economic evaluation of
cogeneration plants due to the need for a more focused research.
1.6 OUTLINE OF THE DISSERTATION
In the first chapter, an introduction of the present CHP study is made. This chapter provides
an identification of the research problem and its importance. Aims of the current research are
outlined while relative extensive justification is carried out. Moreover, an insightful review of
the chosen methodology is presented and a detailed validation of the specific choices is
presented.
11
The theoretical and practical problems are presented in the second chapter. The theoretical
problem is defined by means of pollution control and CHP technology, while the practical
problem introduces the environment and context of the problem, aiming to facilitate on a
greater scale CHP units in Greece. The research problem and questions are presented in detail
helping to define the problem.
The sequence of steps adopted during the research is presented via the research process plan.
The Research process plan presented in the third chapter provides extensive information on
the methods that will be followed using flow diagrams leading from the aims to the final
output of the research.
The fourth chapter includes the analysis and results. Findings, by means of primary research,
the data collected and their analysis are presented. The analysis which follows is a series of
calculations and determines on what scale CHP technology provides environmental gains in
Greece.
Ultimately, in the final chapter conclusions of the current research work are presented.
Conclusions stem directly from the analysis and results and relate fully to the research
problem.
1.7 SUMMARY
This chapter introduced the environmental prospects in the era of CHP technology. As GHG
emissions are gradually rising, Greece along with the rest of the world is trying to tackle
serious and adverse environmental problems. Environmental issues are outlined and the
research problem is defined. The methodology followed and closed the introductory chapter
of the current research.
12
CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH DEFINITION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The current chapter defines the theoretical and practical problems. Within the theoretical
problem, issues such as pollution control, CHP technology and lack of knowledge of the use
and performance of cogeneration units are investigated.
The practical problem section includes the demand for pollution control and national policies
on pollution control. The research questions provide assistance by presenting the quality of
the findings that are going to be presented hereafter within the fourth chapter.
2.2 THE PRACTICAL PROBLEM
The problem environment: The demand for pollution control
Climate change is one of the four key environmental priorities of the EU sixth environmental
action programme (6EAP) (European Council, 2002). In the EU strategy for sustainable
development (European Commission, 2001a), climate change is mentioned as one of the main
threats to sustainable development, and energy use is explicitly linked to this by proposing the
limitation of climate change and increase in the use of clean energy as a combined priority
objective. Climate change has to be analysed in an integrated way together with other
environmental issues such as air pollution, water pollution, deforestation and loss of
biodiversity, due to the interactive relations all those issues have. Pollution of all kinds has
caused irreversible impacts for the world presented in the report of European Environment
Agency titled “Climate change and a European low-carbon energy system” in 2005, include:
• a temperature increase in the past 100 years of 0.70 C globally and of 10C in Europe,
while the warmest European years recorded were in the last 14 years
• precipitation in northern Europe increased by about 10-40 % in the past 100 years and
decreased by up 20% in southern Europe
• the frequency of draughts, heat waves and extreme precipitation events in Europe has
increased while the frequency of cold extremes has decreased
• glaciers in the Alps lost approximately one third of their size and one half of their
mass. The extent and duration of snow cover across Europe has decreased.
• reductions in the sea ice will shrink the habitats of polar bears and seals
13
• several costal zones will experience increasing problems due to sea level rise and the
melting thawing ground will disrupt transportation, buildings and other infrastructure
• river discharge is projected to increase in northern and north-western Europe and to
decrease in parts of Mediterranean Europe
• the cultivated area can be expanded in northern Europe while at the same time due to
increase water stress in southern Europe, agriculture might be threatened
• during the summer of 2003 more than 20,000 deaths occurred in Europe attributable to
a combination of heat and pollution.
• the “abrupt” climate theory (IPCC, 2001a;Hadley Centre,2005a) describes various
non-linear, abrupt changes with global and regional consequences such as 13m
increase in global sea level or general decrease in temperature
All of the above forms of impacts are the apparent proof that the demand for pollution control
is far beyond urgent, and that we are at a point where it has become a necessity for the planet
earth. Europe, having realised how important environment assurance is, has established
various models monitoring the environment and in particular IMAGE, Euromove and FAIR
models which are related to GHG emissions and climate change.
The problem context: National policies on pollution control
In Europe, the first step was taken by the European Parliament with the issuance of Directive
96/61/EC which as described in its body “…establishes the general framework for integrated
pollution prevention and control; it lays down the measures necessary to implement integrated
pollution prevention and control…”. As a result, all of the member states have to take all the
necessary steps which include the issuing of relevant national laws.
Within the Directive is implied that in order to receive a permit, an industrial or agricultural
installation must comply with certain basic obligations. In particular, it must:
• use all appropriate pollution-prevention measures, namely the best available
techniques (which produce the least waste, use less hazardous substances, enable the
recovery and recycling of substances generated, etc.);
• prevent all large-scale pollution;
• prevent, recycle or dispose of waste in the least polluting way possible;
• use energy efficiently;
• ensure accident prevention and damage limitation;
14
• restore sites to their original state when the activity is over.
In addition to regulations and laws, treaties and protocols are intergovernmental methods
aimed at confronting pollution. The most widely known is the Kyoto Protocol presented for
signature in 1997 in Japan and enforced almost seven years later. In this Protocol, countries
commit to reduce their emissions of six greenhouse gases by 5.2 % compared to their level in
1990. As of January 2009, 183 parties have ratified the protocol and which entered into force
on 16 February 2005. The objective is the stabilization of GHG concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system.
Other Protocols established mainly to record, control and prevent air pollution are still in
force and their objective is to extend the implementation and progress of national policies and
strategies. Some examples of these are Sulphur Protocol in 1985, Protocol on Nitrogen
Oxides in 1988, Protocol on Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in 1991, Protocol on
Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions in 1994, Protocol on Heavy Metals in 1998, Protocol
on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in 1998, Protocol to Abate Acidification and
Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone in 1999.
The problem of interest: What needs to be done to integrate more CHP units in the industrial
and hospital sector in Greece?
In the report of GOGEN Europe titled “The future of CHP in the EU market-The European
cogeneration study’’ in 2001 refers among others “… Cogeneration in supplied about 2.5% of
the electricity produced within Greece. The majority of this is in the industrial sector.
Fuelling is increasingly dominated by gas, which has been replacing coal during the last
decade. During the next 20 years, cogeneration capacity in the EU is predicted to almost
triple from approximately 70 GWe to 190 GWe. This majority of growth will be shared
between the industrial and domestic micro-CHP. Cogeneration in Germany contributes to
10% of the electrical capacity, and 16% of electricity in Italy is dominated by large scale
cogeneration industrial plants. Cogeneration in Finland, supplies 32 % and 75% of electricity
and heat respectively, mainly in space heating and the industrial sector. In other European
Countries, like Sweden and the UK, cogeneration contributes at a percentage of 5-6 % to
electricity production…” .
The potential of CHP in Greece is estimated to be 400-500MWe in the industrial sector and
300MWe in the commercial sector (Theofylaktos G., 2005). A plan has to be followed in
order to integrate CHP plants in the industrial and commercial sectors (hospitals and hotels).
15
This plan should provide a solution to major issues that CHP plants are facing, in order to
facilitate their establishment in the Greek electricity generation scheme. Owners of industrial
and commercial units should be economically assisted and the initial capital cost should be
reduced while other economic motivations, such as reduced taxation should be adopted.
Another great problem that CHP units face is that although some plants manage to receive the
production licence from the Greek Ministry of Development and be funded, only some of
them actually obtain the operational licence that is the last prerequisite to operate their CHP
unit. Usually those situations occur when mistaken designs in the CHP unit have taken place
and thus remarkable efforts should be made so that those situations are no longer an obstacle
for CHP establishment in Greece.
2.3 THE THEORETICAL PROBLEM
The subject: Pollution Control
“Global demand for energy is increasing. World energy demand – and CO2 emissions – is
expected to rise by some 60% by 2030. Global oil consumption has increased by 20% since
1994, and global oil demand is projected to grow by 1.6% per year”. This is one of the
energy strategy points stated within the Green Paper -A European Strategy for Sustainable,
Competitive and Secure Energy of 2006.
A report issued in May 2007 by the World Wildlife Fund called “Thirty Dirty” sets out the 30
‘dirtiest’ European power plants and has in its two first places PP Ag.Dimitriou and PP
Kardia, both of which are in Greece. Not surprisingly the dirtiest power plants use, as a
majority coal as fuel. This happens mostly due to the plants’ low efficiency and the low
calorific value of coal. Here, Greece highlights the urgent need for pollution control and for
the adaptation of an effective solution.
According to the Stern Review, as a result of climate change, a 30 C temperature rise will be
one reason among many, why 3 million people will not have access to water, up to 200
million people will be suffering from malaria and malnutrition and 25 % of species will face
extinction (both fauna and flora). This review also notes that “the latest science suggests that
the Earth’s average temperature will rise by even more than 5 or 6°C if emissions continue to
grow and positive feedbacks amplify the warming effect of greenhouse gases (e.g. release of
carbon dioxide from soils or methane from permafrost). This level of global temperature rise
would be equivalent to the amount of warming that occurred between the last age (refers to
2006 when this report was issued) and today – and is likely to lead to major disruption and
16
large-scale movement of population. Such “socially contingent” effects could be catastrophic,
but are currently very hard to capture with current models as temperatures would be so far
outside human experience.”
Electricity production is responsible for 50% of Greek CO2 emissions, while combustion of
fossil fuel accounts for 91% of total emissions, according to the National Observatory of
Athens.
The Area: CHP Technology
Cogeneration uses a single process to generate both electricity and usable heat or cooling. The
proportions of heat and power needed (heat:power ratio) vary from site to site, so the type of
plant must be selected carefully and an appropriate operating regime must be established to
match demands as closely as possible. The plant may therefore be set up to supply part or all
of the site’s heat and electricity loads, or a surplus may even be exported if a suitable
customer is available.
A Cogeneration plant consists of four basic elements:
• a prime mover (engine);
• an electricity generator;
• a heat recovery system;
• a control system.
Cogeneration units are generally classified by the type of prime mover (i.e. drive system),
generator and fuel used. In table 1, a cogeneration sector-fuel-size matrix is presented.
Depending on site requirements, the prime mover may be a steam turbine, reciprocating
engine, gas turbine and combined cycle. In the future, new technology options will include
micro-turbines, Stirling engines and fuel cells. The prime mover drives the electricity
generator and usable heat is recovered. The basic elements are all well established items of
equipment, of proven performance and reliability.
17
Table 2.1: Cogeneration sector-fuel-size matrix (source: ESD, COGEN Europe et. al, 2001).
Sector Plant Size
(MWe)
Natural Gas
Coal & products
Heavy Fuel Oil
Light Oil
Solid Biomass
Solid Wastes Biogas
Domestic <0.015 * * * * Commerce 0.015-
0.1 * * * * *
0.1-1 * * * * * 1-5 * * * * * * * Industry 1-5 * * * * * * * 5-50 * * * * * * * >50 * * * * *
Cogeneration plants are available which can provide outputs from 1 kWe to 500 MWe. For
larger scale applications (greater than 1 MWe) there is no "standard" cogeneration kit:
equipment is specified to maximise cost-effectiveness for each individual site. For small-scale
cogeneration applications, equipment is normally available in pre-packaged units, helping to
simplify installations.
Plants for industrial applications typically fall into the range 1-50 MWe. In general, it can be
said that from 1 MWe to 10 MWe it will be medium, and above 10 MWe will be large. Non
industrial applications also cover a full range of sizes, from 1 kWe for a domestic dwelling to
about 10 MWe for a large district heating cogeneration scheme. Everything under 1 MWe
can be considered small-scale. “Mini” is under 500 kWe and “micro” under 20 kWe.
Cogeneration has a long history of use in many types of industry, particularly in the paper and
bulk chemicals industries, which have large concurrent heat and power demands. In recent
years, the greater availability and wider choice of suitable technology has meant that
cogeneration has become an attractive and practical proposal for a wide range of applications.
These include the process industries, commercial and public sector buildings and district
heating schemes, all of which have considerable heat demand. These applications are
summarised in the table below. In the table, lists of renewable fuels that can enhance the value
of cogeneration are also presented, though fossil fuels, particularly natural gas, are more
widely used.
18
Table 2.2: Possible opportunities for application of cogeneration (Source: COGEN Europe,
2001).
Industrial Buildings Renewable Energy Energy from waste
Pharmaceuticals
& fine chemicals
District
heating
Sewage treatment
works
Gasified Municipal
Solid Waste
Paper and board
manufacture
Hotels Poultry and other
farm sites
Municipal
incinerators
Brewing,
distilling &
malting
Hospitals Short rotation
coppice woodland
Landfill sites
Ceramics Leisure
centres &
swimming
pools
Energy crops Hospital waste
incinerators
Brick
College
campuses &
schools
Agro-wastes (ex:
bio gas)
Cement Airports
Food processing
Prisons,
police
stations
Textile
processing
Supermarkets
and large
stores
Minerals
processing
Office
buildings
Oil Refineries Individual
Houses
Iron and Steel
Motor industry
Horticulture and
glasshouses
Timber
processing
19
Apart from industrial cogeneration schemes, other applications include district heating and
Residential and Commercial Cogeneration. In District Heating (DH) applications, the heat
provided by cogeneration is ideal for providing space heating and hot water for domestic,
commercial or industrial use. DH systems are sometimes based on the incineration of
municipal waste, and with adequate emission controls are a better environmental solution than
disposing of waste in landfills. DH systems are also able to use biomass while natural gas as a
fuel gives added flexibility to district heating systems. The cogeneration systems used in
residential and commercial applications tend to be smaller systems, often based on 'packaged'
units. Packaged units comprise a reciprocating engine, a small generator, and a heat recovery
system, housed in a container. The only connections to the unit are for fuel, normally natural
gas, and the connections for the heat and electricity output of the unit. These systems are
commonly used in hotels, leisure centres, offices, smaller hospitals, and multi-residential
accommodation.
Kaarsberg et.al in 1998 presented a case of a hotel or hospital using CHP. Assuming CHP
heat displaces natural gas burnt at 80% efficiency for space heat and 65% efficiency for hot
water, the most interesting results are the two central columns: "Energy Saved" and "Carbon
Avoided." The CHP engine uses 37% less fuel and generates 41% less carbon than the current
grid for electricity and gas space and water heating.
Table 2.3: Energy and Carbon Use and Savings for Current Small-scale CHP Technologies,
for 1 GWe of Installed Capacity(presents "Today's" results, not for a 100 kW Unit, but scaled up to 1 GW
of installed capacity )(Source: Kaarsberg et.al. 1998).
Primary Energy in TBtu, for 1 GWe Running 4,928
Hours/year
Carbon in MtC per Installed GWe CHP
Technology CHP Fuel
SHP Electric
SHP Heat
Savings(SHP-CHP)
Energy Savings
%
CarbonAvoided
% CHP Fuel
SHP Electric
SHP Heat
Savings(SHP-CHP)
Today's Engine-
new Bldg. 48 56 20 28 37% 41% 0.7 0.89 0.29 0.48
20
The gap in knowledge: The lack of knowledge concerning the use and performance of CHP
plants in Greece
In Greece, CHP has been under development during recent years and serious attempts for
CHP applications have been made after the issue of Directive 2004/8/EC of February 11th,
2004. Thus, a few plants have been installed and are now operating, some of which have now
exceeded their “pilot phase”. However, district heating applications have been constructed in
the cities of Ptolemaida, Kozani, Megalopoli and Amynteo where the distance between the
station and the recipients is usually around 10 km. In other towns, the designs of such district
heating systems have not been made yet.
Concerning smaller scale CHP plants, apart from their existence for only a small period of
time, there are other factors that prevent their development. These include, the wide variety of
technologies used, the fuel used and the pollutant preventing technologies. Diversity along
with the short period of time that CHP technology has been used is a great obstacle towards
achieving the knowledge of the use and performance of such units.
Due to the fact that CHP is practically new and not yet widely used in Greece technology,
many users such as industries, hotels and hospitals are rather sceptical towards using such a
plant. In order to promote this technology, specific aspects of CHP plants relevant to their
performance are to be highlighted.
Guidelines are presented, giving instructions to matters such as which applications are likely
to have more benefits, how the efficiency can contribute to the overall performance of the
plant. Other matters include the electricity to heat ratio EHR and how this contributes to the
reduction of fuel used and GHG emissions.
In particular all those information are going to be estimated in the axis of Greece, using real
data from currently operating CHP plants.
21
2.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND/OR HYPOTHESIS
The research questions help determine what evidence needs to be collected to answer the
research problem, whilst also setting the boundaries for the practical and theoretical problems
by stating what is part of the research problem and what is not. A correct definition of the
research questions will define the problem and a clearer picture of it will emerge as the
researcher will be fine-tuning and investigating the data collected.
1. What are the current GHG emission levels in Greece?
2. To what extent have CHP units been used?
3. What are the drawbacks that have so far prevented the utilization of CHP plants?
4. What is the amount of reduction in emissions that can be achieved using cogeneration?
2.5 SUMMARY
In the second chapter, research definition is achieved via presenting and analysing the
theoretical and the practical problems. In the context of the theoretical problem, the status of
CO2 emissions in Greece is presented, whereas the practical problem defines the amount of
GHG reduction which is achieved with the use of CHP plants. The research questions led the
research towards the discovery of an answer for the research problem.
22
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the research process plan has been worked out. Steps followed are set in order,
providing the reader with the logical algorithm that the writer has chosen in order to cover the
subject and come to the desirable output. The computational algorithm is analytically
presented so that it allows for an extended description of what steps will be followed and what
needs to be done in a logical order to reach a final conclusion about the aim of the research
problem. Each block in the flow diagram specifies the calculations that will be needed for
finding the reduction of GHG emissions and fuel consumption from the use of CHP units. The
calculations include plants that have been installed already and predictions are made upon
other plants in the industrial and tertiary sectors.
3.2 RESEARCH PROCESS PLAN
The research process plan presents the integration of CHP techniques in the industrial sector
and in a part of the non residential building sector. Furthermore the calculation steps towards
finding the new environmental performance is given throughout, aiming towards reduced
GHG emissions as well as a reduction in the amount of primary energy used. The reduction in
GHG emissions constitutes the main research problem and thus the computational algorithm
has as scope to develop an analytical representation of that. The plan is formed starting from
the present setting, finding and using appropriate data, for theory verification, checking the
application of CHP technology performance, calculating the environmental performance of
current Greek plants and estimating the potential reductions from further use in other plants.
This works ultimate purpose is to find a quantifiable answer to the main research question,
which is “What is the amount of reduction in emissions that can be achieved using
cogeneration?”.
The algorithm of the research process plan includes inputs, outputs and constant
parameters/considerations. The inputs are data retrieved from literature review, public records
as well as technical/performance characteristics of both CHP plants and conventional power
plants. Outputs include results of estimations/calculations.
23
Inputs include:
• the GHG emission levels at national level,
• the number of CHP plants currently in operation,
• fuel consumption of conventional plants for the industrial and tertiary sectors,
• GHG emissions of conventional plants for the industrial and tertiary sectors,
• energy performance of CHP plants,
• fuel consumption of conventional plants,
• recording of possible CHP applications in the industrial and commercial sectors
Outputs include:
• GHG emissions i.e. the GHG emissions of a CHP unit in the industrial sector,
• estimated GHG emissions i.e. the GHG emissions of a future CHP unit in industrial
sector,
• potential saving in GHG emissions i.e. the GHG emissions of a future CHP unit at a
national level,
• fuel consumption in an existing plant
• estimated fuel saving for an existing plant
• estimated potential fuel savings due to future CHP units at a national level
• contribution to the reduction of the national GHG emission level
Constant parameters/considerations include:
• the net calorific value of lignite is an average value of values of PPC’s power plants of
Ptolemais, Aminteo, Megalopolis, Florina, Drama and Elassona,
• we assume average prices of Mazut No1 (1500) High/Low Sulphur and Mazut No3
(3500) of both High/Low Sulphur, where it is not stated which of the two is used
• Emission is measured in 1999 and forecasted up to 2010. Fuel mix is taken for year
2005(Eurostat provides in 2008 data up to 2005), while Greece’s fuel mix is based on
2008 date. Due to difficulty in finding all the aforementioned data for the same year we
assume that no dramatically changes have been done during year 1999 and 2008.
• We assume that the fuel used after the installation of a CHP plant is natural gas.
24
• In tertiary sector assumptions are made that 60% of the thermal energy is produced using
diesel oil as fuel and 40% natural gas, while we also consider 80% efficiency of diesel oil
boilers and 85% efficiency of natural gas boilers.
The steps followed in the research process plan are presented with the following order:
1. the number of CHP applications in operation - general data
2. their energy performance (electricity-heat load –efficiency)
3. shorting of the applications
4. find typical values of consumption for particular sectors in industry-tertiary
5. estimate the energy needs prior to installation of the CHP
6. amount of fuel use prior is estimated
7. amount of GHG emissions prior is estimated
8. amount of GHG emissions after is estimated
9. comparison is carried out between steps 7 and 8
10. combining the current national potential and step 9-due to current operating CHP
units
11. combining the current national potential and step 9-due to future scenarios CHP
units
The aforementioned steps of the research process plan are presented in Figure 3.1 hereafter.
25
Figure 3.1: The research process plan. (Source: The author).
Start
Find/calculate useful data
GHG national emission levels
CHP applications in operation
Consumption of Greek industry
CO2, SO2 and NOx emissions before and after CHP installation
Consumption of Greek tertiary sector (hotels-
health care blds)
Contribution to reduction of national GHG emissions level due to CHP plants in
operation
Potential GHG emission reduction-
penetration scenarios of 25%, 50% and 75 %
amount of fuel used
Electrical and thermal energy used operation
Contribution to reduction of national GHG
emissions level for 100% CHP implementation in
industry
Contribution to reduction of national GHG
emissions level for 100% CHP implementation in
tertiary sector
Electrical and thermal energy used operation
CO2, SO2 and NOx emissions factors
26
3.3 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The present research is not conducted in a laboratory or institutional premises and has not
received any means of funding or any other kind of provision from a public or private sector.
The author has made use of technical and non-technical literature available to the public and
has used public data that have been published in Greece throughout the National Gazette.
Data related to specific companies that have currently adopted the CHP technology to meet
their energy needs could have been included but such was avoided in order to protect the
personal data of those companies. Instead an estimation of energy consumption was conducted
based on national designs from the Hellenic Ministry of Development
Reliable papers, publications and designs are the main input of this work, making the work
trustworthy and the conclusions extracted of adequate gravity. The conclusions of this work
have the potential to be a great motivation for other companies from the industrial and tertiary
sectors to adopt the CHP technology. Additionally, the work can provide information on how
much environmental help can be given to the major phenomenon of global warming and on the
savings that can be achieved in order to slow the depletion of natural resources at a national
level. It does not contain data or issues that can affect negatively personally or legally any
person and thus it does not involve ethical issues.
3.4 SUMMARY
In the third chapter the steps and a schematic approach of the research process plan was
presented. The analysis answers the research questions of the work, which is by how much
GHG emissions and fuel can be reduced at a national level, through the adoption of CHP
technology. Estimations were made comparing conventional means of meeting the energy
needs in the industrial and commercial sectors. The Research problem’s inputs, outputs,
constant parameters/considerations as well as the steps followed in the research process plan
were presented.
27
CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The fourth chapter contains the analysis of the findings gathered. A review of CHP units
operating now is presented together with some characteristics of the plants. The GHG emission
problem is addressed via presenting the levels of GHG emissions for the period of 1990-2000
and estimates are given for the years 2000-2010. The current situation of energy consumption
in industry and in the tertiary sector in general is presented in order to define the necessity for
energy saving in those sectors. The energy consumption of each plant currently operating is
calculated, along with the GHG emission estimates for before and after the installation of a
CHP plant. Energy and emission reductions so far gained from currently operating plants are
presented and then penetration scenarios of 25%, 50% and 75% are estimated for further
penetration into separately industrial tertiary sector. Cumulative cases for industrial and
tertiary sector in comparison to Greek GHG emissions are presented in the end of the chapter.
4.2 RESULTS OF ANALYSIS: THE FINDINGS
Final energy demand in Greece in 2000 totalled 18.9 Mtoe, of which 24% was used in
industry, 39% for transportation and 37% by the residential and tertiary sector. The mean
annual increase rate for the time period 1990–2000 is estimated at 2.5%. The per capita final
energy consumption increased by 20% over the time period 1990–2000 (1.45 and 1.74 toe/cap,
respectively), while the respective figure at EU-level is estimated at 9% (from 2.54 toe/cap in
1990 to 2.78 toe/cap in 2000).
All three sectors increased their energy use over the time period 1990–2000, with the
residential and tertiary sector showing the most significant increase (by 44%), followed by
transportation (by 24%) and industry (by 16%) (Figure 4.1). This resulted in a total increase of
28% between 1990 and 2000.
28
Figure 4.1: Final energy consumption by the economic sector (source: Ministry for the
Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works, 2002) 4.2.1 Energy consumption in industry In 2000, the total energy consumption of the industrial sector totalled 4.6 Mtoe (Figure 4.2),
which equals 24% of the total energy demand in Greece. The main structural changes
regarding energy consumption in industry refer to the gradual replacement of petroleum
products by coal products (a trend almost solely attributed to the increased use of steam coal
by the cement industry) during the time period 1980–1995 and to the penetration of natural gas
for thermal uses and for use as feedstock in the chemical industry.
In 2000, oil products accounted for approximately 44% of the total energy needs of the sector,
compared to 46% in 1995 and 69% in 1980. Electricity consumption has steadily increased
since 1993. In 2000, it reached a total of approximately 1.2 Mtoe or 25% of the total energy
use of the sector.
Figure 4.2: Final energy consumption in industry by energy carrier (source: Ministry for the
Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works, 2002)
29
4.2.2 Energy consumption in residential and tertiary sector In 2000, the energy use in the residential and tertiary sectors totalled 7 Mtoe or 37% of the
total energy demand in Greece, compared to 4.8 Mtoe in 1990 (Figure 4.3). This energy was
primarily used for space heating and cooling, and domestic hot water production in residential,
public and commercial premises. Other energy uses were in the form of electricity for
appliances/equipment and for the operation of building services systems in residential, public
and commercial premises. The figure also includes energy use in agriculture. The changes in
the energy consumption of the sector reflect both the improving living standards of Greek
society and an increase in the number of housing units. These two factors have resulted in
improved levels of heating and, recently, of cooling, and a rise in the ownership of home
electrical appliances. The floor area of commercial premises has also increased substantially,
thus contributing to an increase in demand for electricity for ventilation, lighting and other
office equipment.
Figure 4.3: Final energy consumption in the residential and tertiary sectors by energy carrier
(source: Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works, 2002)
4.2.3 National levels of GHG emissions for the period of 1990-2010 Figures 4.4 and 4.5 present summary results for the emission estimates for CO2, SO2 and NOx
for the years 1990-2010. For the period 1990-2000 data are real, while for years 2001-2010
data presented are an estimation and have been calculated using the function “forecast” of
Microsoft-Excel. From 1990 until 2000 the amount of carbon dioxide emitted steadily
increased with an average increase rate of 3% (except for years 1995 and 1999) and the
30
amount of emissions is expected to reach almost 130,000 Kt in 2010. Industry contributes at a
rate of 9% to the total CO2 emissions, mainly due to the industrial processes(mainly the
production of cement, lime, aluminium and ammonia).
CO2 Emission for the period of 1990-2010
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
year
Kt
CO2
Figure 4.4: CO2 emission levels for the period of 1990-2000 (source: Ministry for the
Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works, National Observatory of Athens,2002) and
for the period of 2001-2010 forecast by author.
The industrial sector is responsible for 3% of total SO2 emissions and these derive from the
production of sulphuric acid, cement and aluminium. In 1999, total SO2 emissions were
approximately 11% higher than 1990 levels. The decrease of emissions in 1994 was mainly
due to decrease of sulphur content in heavy fuel oil used in industry at the two largest urban
areas; Athens and Thessaloniki. In 2002, total SO2 emissions were lower by 2.1 % compared
to 1990 levels. This was mainly due to the decrease of emission in electricity generation sector
(-12%), especially from the unit of Megalopolis, as a result of the operation of the new
desulphurization there(MIN.ENV., NOA, 2002).
31
SO2 and NOx emissions for the period of 1990-2010
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010year
Kt SO2
NOx
Figure 4.5: SO2 and NOx emission levels for the period of 1990-2000 (source: Ministry for
the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works, National Observatory of Athens, 2002)
and for the period of 2001-2010 forecast by author.
Oxides of nitrogen, NO and NO2 are created by fossil fuel combustion lighting, biomass fires
and, in the stratosphere, from nitrous oxide. NOx emissions appear to be steadily increasing
with an average increase rate approximately at 0.8 %.
4.2.4 CHP plants currently in operation in Greece Table 4.1 present the current situation of the CHP units operating in Greece and contains
information on estimated thermal and electricity power, efficiency, location of the plants and
fuel used.
In the following Table 4.1, fifty three companies appear to have installed a CHP plant and
among them are heavy industrial units such as refineries and iron and steel production
companies.
If we group the companies per type of industry the greatest installed power is the iron and steel
production with the amount of 363.5 MW and refineries follow with the amount of 139.3 MW,
while Food, Drink and Milk Industries 63.9MW installed.
32
Table 4.1: CHP Units in operation in Greece (source: Hellenic Ministry of Development, 2008)
S/N COMPANY POWER (MW)
ESTIMATED THERMAL
POWER (MWH/year)
ESTIMATED ELECTRICAL
POWER (MWH/year)
OVERALL EFFICIENCY
% LOCATION FUEL TYPE OF INDUSTRY
1 Hellenic
Petroleum S.A. 50 Aspropirgos-Attica Byproducts Refineries
2
Ceramic Manufacturing
Kothali 1.131 Chrisoupoli-Kavala N.G. Ceramic Manufacturing
3 ELFIKO 1.2 11,765 10,161 85 Schimatari-Biotia N.G. Textile processing
4
Hellenic Sugar Industry S.A.
(EBZ) 6 Seres Μazut
3500/N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries
5
Phosphoric Fertilizers
Industry (BFL) 11.42 Thessaloniki Steam
Large Volume Inorganic Chemicals-Ammonia, acids and fertilizers
6
Hellenic Sugar Industry S.A.
(EBZ) 16 Xanthi Μazut
3500/N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries
7
Hellenic Sugar Industry S.A.
(EBZ) 10 Orestiada Μazut 3500 Food, Drink and Milk Industries
8
Phosphoric Fertilizers
Industry (BFL) 18.868 Kavala Steam
Large Volume Inorganic Chemicals-Ammonia, acids and fertilizers
9 Μaillis 2.1 Inofita-Biotia N.G. Polymers
10 Αmilim Hellas 4.5 Thessaloniki N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries
11 Thermi Seron 16.5 147,931 105,130 80.17 Thermi-Seres N.G. Energy Companies
33
S/N COMPANY POWER (MW)
ESTIMATED THERMAL
POWER (MWH/year)
ESTIMATED ELECTRICAL
POWER (MWH/year)
OVERALL EFFICIENCY
% LOCATION FUEL TYPE OF INDUSTRY
12
Hellenic Sugar Industry S.A.
(EBZ) 12 Larissa Μazut /N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries
13
Hellenic Sugar Industry S.A.
(EBZ) 12 Plati-Imathia N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries
14 Corinth
Pipeworks S.A. 15 Thisvi-Biotia Diesel Iron and Steel Production
15 Alluminium of
Greece S.A. 125 1,350,000 920,000 76 Biotia N.G. Iron and Steel Production
16 Alluminium of
Greece S.A. 125 1,350,000 920,000 76 Biotia N.G. Iron and Steel Production
17 Alluminium of
Greece S.A. 84 Biotia N.G. Iron and Steel Production
18
Athens Water Supply and Sewerage Company
(EYDAP SA) 14 154,400 112,000 79.2 Psitaleia N.G.
Common Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment management systems
19 EXALCO 2.72 Larissa N.G. Iron and Steel Production
20
Phosphoric Fertilizers
Industry (BFL) 2.35 16,468 80 Kavala Steam
Large Volume Inorganic Chemicals-Ammonia, acids and fertilizers
21 COCA COLA 1.4 6,160 5,610 77.2 Schimatari-Biotia N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries
22 Motoroil 17 232,140 145,942 93.5 Agioi Theodoroi-
Korinthia Byproducts Refineries
23 Chalibas S.A. 11.5 169,000 77,000 76.9 Ionia-Thessaloniki N.G. Iron and Steel Production
34
S/N COMPANY POWER (MW)
ESTIMATED THERMAL
POWER (MWH/year)
ESTIMATED ELECTRICAL
POWER (MWH/year)
OVERALL EFFICIENCY
% LOCATION FUEL TYPE OF INDUSTRY
24 Paper Mills of
Thace 9.9 54,780 82,170 65 Magana-Xanthi N.G. Paper 25 Athinaion 0.408 4,351 3,266 83.6 Athens N.G. Hotels
26 Motoroil 32.1 Agioi Theodoroi-
Korinthia Byproducts Refineries
27 ΕΤΕΜ 0.225 690 1,051 91.2 Magoula-Attica N.G. Iron and Steel Production
28 Phisis S.A. 9.5 68,760 Xanthi N.G. -
Biomass
Common Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment management systems
29 ΒΕΑΚ S.A. 1.055 Komotini N.G. Ceramic Manufacturing
30 Hellenic
Petroleum S.A. 5.5 341,600 46,358 75.3 Thessaloniki Steam Refineries
31 Thermi Dramas 18 206,206 115,278 65 Drama N.G./Diesel Energy Companies
32 Delta S.A. 2 14,970 12,040 86.1 Attica N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries
33 ΡΑΡ HOTELS 0.065 701 415 88.5 Thessaloniki N.G. Hotels 34 Motoroil 17 Korithia LPG Refineries
35 Giotas S.A. 0.37 7,460 2,150 Grevena Byproducts Wood Processing Industries
36 Genesis 0.725 3,743 3,049 71.7 Thessaloniki N.G. Hospitals
37 University of
Athens 2,716 5,993 5,258 85.6 Athens N.G. University
38 Architech
Energy 4.965 23,735 17,282 84.9 Imathia N.G. Plant Industries
39 Greenhouse of
Drama 4.8 23,735 17,282 84.9 Drama N.G. Plant Industries 40 Asti S.A. 0.3 Athens N.G. Hotels
35
S/N COMPANY POWER (MW)
ESTIMATED THERMAL
POWER (MWH/year)
ESTIMATED ELECTRICAL
POWER (MWH/year)
OVERALL EFFICIENCY
% LOCATION FUEL TYPE OF INDUSTRY
41 Alfa Wood 0.75 Larissa Biomass Wood Processing Industries
42
DEPA S.A. (Public Gas
Corporation) 15.5 77,000 82,500 84 Revithoussa-Attica N.G. Energy Companies 43 Kavala Oil 17.67 Kavala N.G. Refineries
44 Academy of
Athens 1.49 Athens N.G. University 45 Mitera Hospital 0.56 4,500 3,570 87.8 Attica N.G. Hospitals
46
251 General Hospital of the
Hellenic Air Force 1.4 8,600 6,500 85.6 Athens N.G. Hospitals
47 Bright S.A 0.125 714 427 89.3 Athens Propane Electrical Appliances
48 Genimatas
Hospital 1.3 5,264 7,902 61.65 Athens N.G. Hospitals
49 Evagelismos
Hospital 1.5 15,195 10,839 60.05 Athens N.G. Hospitals
50 Sismanoglio
Hospital 1.2 4,916 6,875 60.03 Athens N.G. Hospitals 51 ΚΑΤ Hospital 1.2 5,486 7,817 61.27 Athens N.G. Hospitals 52 Attikon Hospital 1.65 10,685 10,706 75.93 Athens N.G. Hospitals
53 Hospital of the Hellenic Navy 0.5 Attica N.G. Hospitals
36
4.2.5 Consumption of Greek Industry The consumption of Greek industry is shown in table 4.14 and concerns years from 1990 to 2005 as
provided by Eurostat-New Cronos Database-Theme 8:Energy. For the purposes of this project, the
year 2005 will be taken as the year in which all energy savings are going be estimated. Using the
information provided in this table, fuel used to cover Greek industrial activity will help to illustrate
the energy savings using CHP technology. Energy savings will include both less fuel resources and
less GHG emissions due to fuel combustion.
Table 4.2: Greek industry’s fuel mix for years 1990-2005(source: Eurostat, 2008).
time
Thousands of tons
Har
d C
oal &
D
eriv
ativ
es
Lig
nite
&
Der
ivat
ives
Cok
e
Bro
wn
Coa
l B
riqu
ette
s
Ref
iner
y G
as
LPG
Gas
/ D
iese
l O
il
Res
idua
l Fue
l O
il
Oth
er
Petr
oleu
m
Prod
ucts
Ker
osen
es -
Jet F
uels
Nat
ural
Gas
(t
oe)
Ele
ctri
cal
Ene
rgy
(Mto
e)
1990 1,420.0 615.0 41.0 100.0 28.0 101.0 354.0 1,152.0 102.0 0 0 1,041.0 1991 1,501.0 507.0 25.0 75.0 22.0 125.0 192.0 1,107.0 96.0 0 0 1,023.0 1992 1,403.0 392.0 19.0 13.0 25.0 148.0 290.0 1,096.0 117.0 0 0 1,010.0 1993 1,369.0 569.0 16.0 17.0 24.0 158.0 296.0 910.0 171.0 0 0 976.0 1994 1,383.0 475.0 17.0 69.0 27.0 186.0 320.0 841.0 198.0 0 0 1,002.0 1995 1,375.0 465.0 11.0 57.0 22.0 222.0 457.0 957.0 262.0 0 0 1,037.0 1996 1,322.0 554.0 13.0 51.0 25.0 256.0 490.0 1,067.0 279.0 0 3.0 1,043.0 1997 1,223.0 418.0 20.0 0 34.0 289.0 500.0 1,045.0 305.0 1.0 33.0 1,070.0 1998 1,259.0 362.0 3.0 0 34.0 328.0 525.0 928.0 322.0 1.0 129.0 1,110.0 1999 1,028.0 235.0 1.0 0 7.0 315.0 560.0 769.0 343.0 1.0 190.0 1,109.0 2000 1,115.0 460.0 0.0 79.0 11.0 305.0 504.0 882.0 312.0 1.0 244.0 1,165.0 2001 1,230.0 252.0 4.0 80.0 5.0 310.0 500.0 830.0 357.0 1.0 294.0 1,183.0 2002 955.0 367.0 3.0 105.0 0.0 298.0 500.0 847.0 430.0 2.0 309.0 1,215.0 2003 795.0 302.0 4.0 107.0 0.0 304.0 550.0 778.0 430.0 4.0 328.0 1,217.0 2004 776.0 292.0 4.0 97.0 0.0 273.0 227.0 801.0 547.0 4.0 373.0 1,203.0 2005 564.0 337.0 4.0 113.0 0.00 254.0 439.0 667.0 564.0 4.0 426.0 1,240.0
37
4.2.6 Typical consumption of the Greek Tertiary Sector In table 4.1 the current plants that have a CHP plant are shown. However, using the literature for the
relevant sector the overall consumption of both health care buildings and hotels will be examined.
In this way an overall estimation will be achieved and energy and emission reductions can be
quantified.
Table 4.3: Tertiary sector plants, with an installed CHP unit. (source: the author)
4.2.6.1 Health Care Buildings Health care buildings, including hospitals, clinics and health centers represent the lowest
percentage, 0.05% of the total Hellenic non residential building stock, while they have the highest
energy consumption per unit floor area when compared to other non residential buildings. The high
energy consumption is due to the high use of ventilation loads and continuous 24 hour operation for
the majority of the facilities. Year of construction has an impact on the energy consumption of the
building and thus it is taken into account and an average value is assumed in the final stage of
calculations.
In table 4.4 the distribution of Greek health care buildings for different construction periods and
climatic zones is presented. The average electrical and thermal energy consumption for one health
care building to cover its annual energy needs is approximately 0.26 GWh and 0.4 GWh
respectively.
Tertiary Sector Number of CHP units
Hospitals 9 Hotels 3
38
Table 4.4: Distribution of Greek health care (HC) buildings for different construction periods
(source: Gaglia A., Balaras C., et.al.,2006).
Distribution of the Hellenic health care (HC) buildings for different construction periods
and climatic zones
Average annual electrical and thermal energy consumption (kWh/m2)in Hellenic Health Care buildings for the different climatic zones at different construction periods
year of construction
Number of buildings
Floor area (m2)
Electrical energy
consumption (kWh/m2)
Thermal energy
consumption (kWh/m2)
Electrical energy
consumption (MWh)
Thermal energy
consumption (MWh)
Pre-1980 1,566 3,394,400 90 145 305,496 492,188 (1981–2001) 117 1,004,400 99 134 99,436 134,590 (2002–2010) 59 580,041 107 129 62,064 74,825 Average - - 99 136 155,665 233,868 Total 1,742 4,978,841 - - 467.00 701.60
4.2.6.2 Hotels
Hotels represent about 0.26 % of the total Greek building stock, which is a quite small percentage
compared to other categories of non residential buildings. On the other hand, hotels exhibit very
high energy consumption that is mainly due to space AC, cooking and high sanitary hot water
needs. The hotels are initially classified in two categories according to their operation period,
namely: summer hotels with operating periods from April to October and annual hotels which
operate throughout the year. Similarly to health care buildings, year of construction has an impact
on the energy consumption of the building and thus it is taken into account and an average value is
assumed in the final stage of calculations. Another factor that is taken into account is the seasonal
use of a large number of hotels in Greece. This is interpreted as a use of seven instead of twelve
months per year. Calculations in appendix I (section 4.2.6.2) come to the conclusion that the total
electrical energy of the Greek hotels reach the amount of 2.22 GWh per year and the relevant
thermal energy is of the amount of 1.78 GWh per year. The average electrical and thermal energy
consumption for one Greek hotel irreverently its seasonal use and its year of construction is
0.741GWh electrical energy and 0.594 GWh thermal energy.
39
4.2.7 Typical emissions of GHG In order to estimate the reduction of the GHG emissions, we firstly have to estimate, based on the
typical consumptions as calculated in section 4.2.5, the emitted CO2, SO2 and NOx that are being
produced on an annual basis due to the combustion of fossil fuels. Table 4.22 provides the amount
of extracted pollutant in g per kg of combusted fuel and is an extract given by the Hellenic Ministry
of Development in an annex in the “Energy investment guide” of the Operational Program
Competitiveness at 2002. However, some fuels are not mentioned in the Energy Investment Guide
and GHG emissions are calculated by the method implied by IEA in “CO2 Emissions from fuel
combustion-Beyond 2020 Documentation (2008 Edition).
Table 4.10: Pollutant emissions per fuel (g/kg fuel). (source: Hellenic Ministry of Development,
2002).
Pollutant emissions (g/kg fuel) Fuel
CO2 SO2 NOx
Mazut Νο 1 (1500) Low Sulphur 3,175 14 5.363
Mazut Νο 1 (1500) High Sulphur 3,109 64 5.251
Mazut Νο 3 (3500) Low Sulphur 3,175 14 5.363
Mazut Νο 3 (3500) High Sulphur 3,091 64 5.221
Diesel 3,142 0.7 2.384
LPG 3,030 0.0 2.102
Natural Gas 2,715 0.0 2.102
4.2.7.1 Typical GHG emissions for industrial sector 4.2.7.1.2 CO2 emission estimations before and after CHP installation
We estimate the CO2 before CHP installation using table 4.2 Greek industry’s fuel mix for year
2005 , CO2 emission factors, national electricity share to estimate the mass of CO2 produced due to
40
industrial consumption of electrical energy which reaches the amount of
22 647,783,121. COtnM COe = at annual basis. The mass of CO2 due to direct fuel consumption of
fuels used in industry as shown in the table 4.2 is estimated summing up the mass CO2 of when
consuming solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
Those amounts are 22 CO tn 901,625,432.=solidCO
d M for solid fuel consisting of hard coal, lignite,
coal and briquettes, 22 CO tn 155,244,586.=liquidCO
d M for liquid fuels consisting of gas/diesel oil,
residual fuel oil, petroleum products and kerosene-jet fuel and
22 CO tn 911,925,341.=gasCO
d M consisting of refinery gas, lpg and natural gas. Those amounts are
summed up in 22 CO tn 968,795,360.=COd M which is the overall mass of CO2 due to fuel
consumption in Greek industry. And the total CO2 produced due to industrial activity in Greece
without using a CHP plant is the sum of the mass of CO2 due to electricity consumption and due to
fuel consumption and reaches the amount of 2CO2 .6016,578,482M COtn= annually.
On the other hand to estimate the CO2 emissions after the installation we estimate the new mass of
CO2 when covering the same energy needs using natural gas instead of other fuel. Therefore the
amount of thermal energy is estimated as GWh 33,026.367=beforeQ and electrical is
Wh14,421.20G=beforeE from which two amounts we estimate the mass of natural gas required
k tn 4,229.73'.. =gnM and the extracted CO2emissions from this amount of natural gas is
2CO2' CO tn .84411,217,127M = per annum when installing CHP plants.
The gain in CO2 is the difference between the prior CHP emissions CO2M and the CO2'M emissions
after which is 2CO2gained CO tn 755,361,354.M = or reduction of 32.34%.
41
CO2 (in Ktn)
98,000
100,000
102,000
104,000
106,000
108,000
110,000
112,000
114,000
116,000
118,000
CO2 115,971.25 104,754.12
Total Greek emissions Total Greek emissions-after CHP scenario in industries
Figure 4.6a: CO2 emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in industries and total
Greek emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).
CO2 (in Ktn)
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
18,000
CO2 16,578.43 11,217.13
Total Greek industrial emissions Total Greek industrial emissions-after CHP scenario in industries
Figure 4.6b: CO2 emissions(total Greek industrial emissions before CHP scenario and total Greek
industrial emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).
42
4.2.7.1.2 SO2 emission estimations before and after CHP installation Relatively to the method that CO2 emission were estimated the mass of SO2 produced due to
electricity production is 22 54.499,361 SOtnM SOe = and the direct mass of SO2 produced due
combustion is the sum of SO tn 82.690,2 22 =solidSO
d M , 22 SO tn 04.629,6=liquidSO
d M and
22 SO tn 84.0051=gasSO
d M which is 22 SO tn 10,325.700=SOd M .
The total SO2 produced due to industrial activity in Greece without using a CHP plant is
2SO2 224146,825.24M SOtn= .
After the CHP installation and due to the fact that the CHP plant will be fired using natural gas that
produces no sulfur emissions the amount of 2SO2 224146,825.24M SOtn= is considered as the
SO2 emissions saved amount.
SO2(in Ktn)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
SO2 513.50 366.67
Total Greek emissions Total Greek emissions-after CHP scenario in industries
Figure 4.7a: SO2 emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in industries and total
Greek emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).
43
SO2(in Ktn)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
SO2 146.83 0.00
Total Greek industrial emissions Total Greek industrial emissions-after CHP scenario in industries
Figure 4.7b: SO2 emissions(total Greek industrial emissions before CHP scenario and total Greek
industrial emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).
4.2.7.1.3 NOx emission estimations before and after CHP installation
Estimations for on mass of NOx emissions prior to CHP plant due to electricity consumption is
NOx tn 31,518.369NOx =Me and NOx emissions due to fuel consumption is
NOx tn 000,8=NOxd M .Thus the overall mass of NOx emission resulting from Greek industrial
activity is NOxtn 37.518,39NOx =M .
After the installation of CHP unit we have that the new mass of natural gas required to cover
electrical and thermal needs is given as referred in SO2 and CO2 estimation paragraphs is
k tn 4,229.73'.. =gnM of natural gas and the extracted emissions from this amount of natural gas is
8,890.89'.. =gnNOXM tn of NOx emission .
Therefore the gain in NOX is the difference between the prior CHP emissions which is
NOx tn 30,627.48M CO2gained = or less emissions per 77.5%.
44
NOx(in Ktn)
300
305
310
315
320
325
330
335
340
345
350
NOx 346.97 316.34
Total Greek emissions Total Greek emissions-after CHP scenario in industries
Figure 4.8a : NOx emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in industries and total
Greek emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).
NOx(in Ktn)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
NOx 39.52 8.89
Total Greek industrial emissions Total Greek industrial emissions-after CHP scenario in industries
Figure 4.8b : NOx emissions(total Greek industrial emissions before CHP scenario and total Greek
industrial emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).
45
4.2.7.2 Typical GHG emissions of tertiary sector
The overall amount of electrical energy on annual basis of tertriary sector is 2,691.15 GWh due to
467GWh from health care buildings and 2,224.15 GWh due to hotels. The emissions CO2, SO2 and
NOx due to annual electrical energy of tertiary are
22 tnCO092,287,474.=COeM , SOn 41,712.76t2 =SO
eM and XNO 3,229.38tn=NOxeM .
In the estimations, assumptions are made that 60% of the thermal energy is produced using diesel
oil as fuel and 40% natural gas, while we also consider 80% efficiency of diesel oil boilers and 85%
efficiency of natural gas boilers.
The estimated mass of natural gas and diesel oil that are used in order to produce thermal energy of
2,485.48 GWh is gas natural tn 88,627.67.. =gnM and oil diesel tn 154,698.11=dieselM
These amounts of fuel produce GHG emissions which are 22 COKtn 288.67726.69108,=COd M
22 SO kg 108,288.67=SOd M and NOxKtn 0.56=NOx
d M .
Consequently, the overall amount of emissions deriving from direct fuel consumptions and
electrical energy of tertiary sector are 22 COK tn 653,014,159.=COM , 22 SOKtn 41.82=SOM
and NOxM NOx K tn 3.78= .
The estimated emissions after the installation of CHP plants are
2'
2 COK tn 1,252.9=COM , 2'
2 SOKtn 0=SOM and NOxM NOx Ktn 0.97' = due to the use of natural
gas 461,472.23 tn as fuel.
Estimated GHG emissions prior and after the installation of a CHP plant in tertiary sector is
presented in figure 4.9, 4.10 and 4.11.
46
CO2(Ktn)
113,000
113,500
114,000
114,500
115,000
115,500
116,000
CO2 115,971.25 114,209.98
Total Greek emissions Total Greek emissions-after CHP scenario in tertriary
Figure 4.9a : CO2 emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in tertiary and total Greek
emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).
CO2(Ktn)
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
CO2 3,014.16 1,252.90
Total Greek tertriary emissions Total Greek tertriary emissions-after CHP scenario in tertriary
Figure 4.9b : CO2 emissions(total Greek tertiary emissions before CHP scenario and total Greek
tertiary emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).
47
NOx(Ktn)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
NOx 346.97 344.15
Total Greek emissions Total Greek emissions-after CHP scenario in tertriary
Figure 4.10a : NOx emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in tertiary and total
Greek emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).
NOx(Ktn)
0
1
2
3
4
5
NOx 3.78 0.97
Total Greek tertriary emissions Total Greek tertriary emissions-after CHP scenario in tertriary
Figure 4.10b : NOx emissions(total Greek tertiary emissions before CHP scenario and total Greek
tertiary emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).
48
SO2(Ktn)
0
100
200
300
400
500
SO2 513.50 471.68
Total Greek emissions Total Greek emissions-after CHP scenario in tertriary
Figure 4.11a : SO2 emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in tertiary and total
Greek emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).
SO2(Ktn)
0
10
20
30
40
50
SO2 41.82 0.00
Total Greek tertriary emissions Total Greek tertriary emissions-after CHP scenario in tertriary
Figure 4.11b : SO2 emissions(total Greek tertiary emissions before CHP scenario and total Greek
tertiary emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).
49
4.2.8 Emissions and emission reductions of operating Greek CHP plants Summing the electrical energy of CHP plants currently operating in both industrial and tertiary
sector we have the amount of Eel=2,736,428MWh and Eth=4,234,260 MWh.
The estimated emissions prior to the use of those CHP plants in the particular industries, hotels and
hospitals are 22 CO tn 2,325,964=COeM , 22 SO tn 42,415=SO
eM and XNO tn 3,284=NOxeM .
The overall electrical energy that is been consumed due to industrial production which amount is
14.421 TWh while the relevant amount only for industries as given in table 4.1-CHP Units in
operation is 2.68 GWh. Therefore units consume 0.019 % of the energy of the overall electrical
energy of the industrial sector. This percentage will help us make the assumptions that the amount
of fuel used by those industrial units is of the percentage of 0.019% of the overall quantities of fuel .
Thus the estimated amounts of GHG emissions due to direct fuel combustion is
22 CO tn 115,474.93=COd M , 22 SO tn 141.301=SO
d M and NOx tn 501=NOxd M .
The overall amount as a sum of direct and electrical of GHG emission if those CHP plants weren’t installed in Greece is MCO2= 2CO tn 932,441,438. ,MSO2= 2SO tn 42,545.14 and MNOx= XNO tn 3,434.00 .
While the GHG emissions of CHP plants currently in operation are for the amount of natural gas
equal to tnM gn 621,404.21'.. = are 2
'2 CO tn 421,687,112.=COM , 2
'2 SOKtn 0=SOM
and NOxM NOx tn 1,306.19' = .
50
CO2(in tn)
0
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
2,500,000
3,000,000
CO2 2,441,438.93 1,687,112.42
Total Greek before CHP installation of operating units
Total Greek GHG savings from operating CHP plants
Figure 4.12 : CO2 emissions of operating units prior and before their installation.
NOx(in tn)
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
NOx 3,434.00 1,306.19
Total Greek before CHP installation of operating units
Total Greek GHG savings from operating CHP plants
Figure 4.13 : NOx emissions of operating units prior and before their installation.
51
SO2(in tn)
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
45,000
SO2 42,545.14 0.00
Total Greek before CHP installation of operating units
Total Greek GHG savings from operating CHP plants
Figure 4.14 : SO2 emissions of operating units prior and before their installation.
Efficiency% -Heat to electricity ratio
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00
Heat to electricity ratio
Figure 4.15 : Efficiency % to Heat-to –electricity ration of Greek operating CHP plants.
52
The ratio of heat to electricity required by one consumer may vary according to seasonal and/or
daily changes. It is the ratio that shows the thermal energy to electricity required to meet the energy
needs of one site. Additionally many CHP plants utilize exhaust gases to improve the heat to
electricity ration which also means even greater environmental benefits. The greater the needs in
heat are the greater the heat to electricity ratio is which practically means that is indeed essential
that the facility should use CHP technology to benefit.
It is interesting to investigate the factor heat to electricity ratio and the overall efficiency of the CHP
plant. Such an attempt is been presented in figure 4.15 using data from table 4.1 which contains
Greek operating CHP plants according to Ministry of Development-2008. in this figure it is
presented that the average of heat to electricity ratio mainly varies around the value of 1.25 with
corresponding efficiency value around 80-85%.
4.3 CHP penetration scenarios in industrial and tertiary sector
Paragraph 4.2 presents savings in industrial and tertiary sector at it whole entity. It is rather
interesting to calculate penetration scenarios of 25%, 50% and 75% and see how these percentages
have the potential to contribute to the overall effort of Greece towards GHG emissions reduction.
Those are illustrated in the figures 4.17-4.25 presented hereafter. In those figures saving percentage
is presented in tertiary, industrial and combined in comparison to national GHG levels.
53
CO2 emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared with CO2 reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector
varies between 100-25-50-75%
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
(Ktn)
CO2(Ktn) 3,014.16 1,252.90 1,693.22 1,820.31 2,573.85Percentage of reduction 58.43% 43.82% 39.61% 14.61%
Prior After-100% After-75% After-50% After25%
Figure 4.17 : CO2 emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared with CO2 reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies between 100-75-50-25%.
CO2 emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared with CO2 reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector
varies between 100-25-50-75%
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
18,000
(Ktn)
CO2(Ktn) 16,578.43 11,217.13 12,557.47 13,897.81 15,238.14Percentage of reduction 32.34% 24.25% 16.17% 8.08%
Prior After-100% After-75% After-50% After25%
Figure 4.18 : CO2 emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared with CO2 reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies between 100-75-50-25%.
54
CO2 emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with CO2 reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies
between 100-25-50-75%
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
(Ktn)
CO2(Ktn) 115,971.25 12,470.03 14,250.68 15,718.11 17,811.99Percentage of reduction 6.14% 4.61% 3.34% 1.54%
Prior After-100% After-75% After-50% After25%
Figure 4.19 : CO2 emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with CO2 reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies between 100-25-50-75%.
SO2 emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared with SO2 reduced emissions in industrial tertiary when CHP installation in the same sector
varies between 100-25-50-75%
0
10
20
30
40
50
(Ktn)
SO2(Ktn) 41.82 0.00 10.46 20.91 31.37Percentage of reduction 100.00% 75.00% 50.00% 25.00%
Prior After-100% After-75% After-50% After25%
Figure 4.20 : SO2 emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared with SO2 reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies between 100-25-50-75%
55
SO2 emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared with SO2 reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector
varies between 100-25-50-75%
0
50
100
150
(Ktn)
SO2(Ktn) 146.83 0.00 36.71 73.41 110.12Percentage of reduction 100.00% 75.00% 50.00% 25.00%
Prior After-100% After-75% After-50% After25%
Figure 4.21 : SO2 emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared with SO2 reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies between 100-25-50-75%
SO2 emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with SO2 reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies
between 100-25-50-75%
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
(Ktn)
SO2(Ktn) 513.50 0 47.16 94.32 141.48Percentage of reduction 36.74% 27.55% 18.37% 9.18%
Prior After-100% After-75% After-50% After25%
Figure 4.22 : SO2 emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with SO2 reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies between 100-25-50-75%.
56
NOx emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared with NOx reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector
varies between 100-25-50-75%
0
1
2
3
4
(Ktn)
NOx(Ktn) 3.78 0.97 1.67 2.38 3.08Percentage of reduction 74.34% 55.75% 37.17% 18.58%
Prior After-100% After-75% After-50% After25%
Figure 4.23 : NOx emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared with NOx reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies between 100-25-50-75%
NOx emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared with NOx reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector
varies between 100-25-50-75%
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
(Ktn)
NOx(Ktn) 39.00 8.89 16.55 24.20 31.86Percentage of reduction 78.54% 58.90% 39.27% 19.64%
Prior After-100% After-75% After-50% After25%
Figure 4.24 : NOx emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared with NOx reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies between 100-25-50-75% .
57
NOx emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with NOx reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies
between 100-25-50-75%
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
(Ktn)
NOx(Ktn) 346.97 9.86 18.22 26.58 34.94Percentage of reduction 9.64% 7.23% 4.82% 2.41%
Prior After-100% After-75% After-50% After25%
Figure 4.25 : NOx emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with NOx reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies between 100-25-50-75%
4.4 Reasons that have prevented further CHP implementation in Greece
Even if many new plants have been constructed, taking into account the subsidy from existing
funding programmes, lately many of the CHP plants have been out of use. The main reason is due
to the relative high purchase price of natural gas and the low selling price, which are both key
factors for the sustainability of CHP units.
The Ministry of development in 2008 outlined that “…the field of cogeneration in Greece until
now, notwithstanding the steps made (eg. L 2773/99, L 3346806, subsidies in CHP plants via
Second Support Community Framework (II SCF) and Operational Programme Competitiveness of
III SCF) remains unpredictable and faces a long development process due to a number of
obstacles:
• rise in the price of oil and consequently the rise of the price of natural gas is the major
obstacle in the way of CHP technology
58
• difficulties in defining the principal “dimensions” for economical and technical analysis in
the energy field
• lack of competitive pricing policy for CHP in the tertiary sector
• lack of competitive pricing policy for CHP in the industrial sector. The current prices of
natural gas for CHP and the way of estimating it was announced by Public Gas
Corporation SA in October 1999, but due to uncertainty and delays, the major CHP plants
that were to be subsidized were left without funding from II SCF.
• Difficulties in further development of the natural gas network.
• Weakness from PGC’s in following the time schedule for the gas connection of bulk
industries
• Lack of experience in energy management and assessment of alternative solutions.
As a consequence of the aforementioned, the contribution of cogeneration to the production of
electricity in Greece is at a rate of 2% whilst the installed capacity is also at a rate of 2%. This is in
contradiction to the rest of the European Countries; 11 countries produce more than 20% of their
electricity from CHP plants, 4 countries produce more than 50% while the European average is
10%..”
4.5 SUMMARY
The fourth chapter begins with the development of a database by using all of the collected data.
Firstly the GHG emission problem is addressed by presenting real data for CO2, SO2 and NOx
emissions for the years 1990 to 2000. Using the forecast method, estimates are presented for the
specific emissions for the years 2000 to 2010.
Current plants operating in Greece are presented and categorised according to either industrial or
tertiary type. The amount of fuel required to cover the energy needs and the GHG emissions derived
from those fuels in the industrial sector is presented using typical fuel consumption for the
industries. For the tertiary sector ,the available data on the number of the hotels and hospitals and
their typical consumption is the input used to estimate the energy consumption and GHG emissions.
GHG emissions are estimated prior to and after the installation of a CHP plant so as to estimate the
GHG ‘profit’. Scenarios are developed to illustrate the wideness of the potential environmental
advantages that can be achieved in both the tertiary-non residential and the industrial sectors in
comparison to national GHG levels.
59
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION 5.1 INTRODUCTION
The fifth chapter deals with the discussion of the findings of the fourth chapter. The discussion
contains an evaluation of the reliability of the data, which were used in the analysis concerning the
environmental gain of using CHP plants in the industrial and tertiary sectors, how accurate is the
analysis and how valid are the findings and presents a comparison between the findings of previous
similar reports and this investigation. Finally, the benefits of this research are discussed.
5.2 INTERNAL DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
The calculation algorithm that was developed in this paper was used in order to relate current Greek
GHG emissions and the industrial and tertiary activity. The comparison was performed in the axis
of CHP plants and their characteristics and the performance that an industry, a hotel or a hospital
had had prior to the CHP plant installation. In the industrial sector I used as input the amount and
type of fuel used to fire the Greek industrial production and all of the necessary calculations were
made in order to come to the conclusion of how those fuels are transformed into GHG emissions.
The source that provides the data of the amount and type of fuel consumed in the industrial sector
was Eurostat and the program New Cronos Database-Theme 8:Energy.
On the other hand the data which was used as input to estimate the GHG emissions in the tertiary
sector came from the paper “Empirical Assessment of the Hellenic Non-residential Building Stock,
Energy Consumption, Emissions and Potential Energy Savings’’ that contains the number of hotels
and hospitals, the year they were constructed and their thermal and electrical energy consumption.
In order to estimate the GHG emissions, due to the fact that the type and amount of fuel were not
available as they were for the industrial sector, assumptions were made. It was assumed for example
that to cover the thermal needs of hospitals and hotels , 60 % is covered by diesel oil and 40% is
covered by natural gas. Therefore in the case of an industrial unit and a tertiary unit , the same
calculation method is not used.
60
Table 5.1: Industrial GHG Emissions (source: NOA, 2002)
tn CO2 NOx SO2 1990 7,685,710.00 1,680.00 10,170.001991 7,589,870.00 1,570.00 11,580.001992 7,510,960.00 1,500.00 8,880.00 1993 7,481,600.00 1,410.00 8,540.00 1994 7,259,730.00 1,360.00 8,560.00 1995 7,709,060.00 1,360.00 9,240.00 1996 7,946,970.00 1,500.00 9,390.00 1997 7,991,290.00 1,360.00 9,590.00 1998 7,973,330.00 1,390.00 9,760.00 1999 7,866,560.00 1,420.00 10,340.002000 7,876,980.00 1,430.00 10,590.002001 7,998,742.18 1,336.00 9,842.36 2002 8,093,522.07 1,347.27 10,008.502003 8,183,039.79 1,355.41 10,586.182004 8,258,986.03 1,362.11 10,821.482005 8,318,950.54 1,357.85 10,968.902006 8,305,875.46 1,342.85 11,050.222007 8,336,475.42 1,322.50 11,190.442008 8,401,882.33 1,328.78 11,318.362009 8,480,303.46 1,313.94 11,441.872010 8,560,600.33 1,302.50 11,556.21
Table 5.2: Residential-Commercial-Institutional sector GHG Emissions (source: NOA, 2002)
Ktn CO2 NOx SO2 1990 5,206.58 6.47 18.69 1991 5,376.36 6.64 19.65 1992 5,246.10 6.56 19.27 1993 5,196.51 5.84 18.23 1994 5,236.84 6.05 11.01 1995 5,510.67 6.16 10.96 1996 7,360.69 8.62 14.64 1997 7,612.90 8.78 15.11 1998 7,968.71 8.99 15.69 1999 7,755.17 8.84 15.00 2000 8,367.64 9.23 16.24 2001 8,645.92 9.72 15.54 2002 9,156.64 10.26 15.60 2003 9,705.61 10.86 15.87 2004 10,217.21 11.47 16.47 2005 10,659.88 11.94 17.81 2006 10,999.20 12.31 18.01 2007 11,230.82 12.50 17.69 2008 11,684.58 13.01 18.01 2009 12,151.86 13.54 18.37 2010 12,651.06 14.08 18.80
61
In order to compare if the GHG emission performance of the industrial and of the tertiary sector has
been calculated properly and if it is in accordance with the national levels, Table 5.1 and Table 5.2
were created. Both tables contain data estimated by NOA and the Ministry for Environment. Tables
5.1 and 5.2 were compared with Table 5.3 which presents the emissions estimated in this paper of
CO2, SO2 and NOx from the industry and tertiary sectors. Tables 5.1 and 5.2 present the emissions
of industry and tertiary but only include the pollution caused when covering the thermal needs and
not the electrical needs of these sectors. Additionally, Table 5.2 includes not only the tertiary sector
GHG emissions but includes residential, commercial and institutional. Therefore when comparing
the emissions of direct industrial activity with the emissions shown in Table 5.1, we see that, for
instance, NOA estimates the values for CO2 as 8,318,950.54 tn, whilst this current study estimates
the value to be 8,795,360.96 tn.
Table 5.3: Tertiary and GHG Emissions (source: NOA, 2002)
tn
CO2
SO2
NOx
INDUSTRY
ELECTRICAL DIRECT ELECTRICAL DIRECT ELECTRICAL DIRECT 2005 7,783,121.64 8,795,360.96 136,499.54 10,325.70 31,518.37 8,000.00
TERTIARY ELECTRICAL DIRECT ELECTRICAL DIRECT ELECTRICAL DIRECT
2005 3,064,687.52 939,250.00 55,885.48 139.97 4,326.62 720.00
5.3 EXTERNAL DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
In 2001, COGEN Europe under the funded SAVE Programme published the Educogen as the
European guide for cogeneration. According to this report, in the chapter regarding CO2 savings , it
is stated that “…savings in carbon dioxide can vary from 100 kg per MWh to more than 1,000 kg/
MWh…”. In the current paper, as shown in Table 5.4 the overall energy of industry is estimated as
33,026,367 GWh and the overall saved amount of CO2 as 5,361,354.75 tn, from which we can
extract an amount of 162 kg/MWh. In the case of the tertiary sector this amount reaches 498
kg/MWh due to overall energy of 6,818.02 GWh and 3,396,145 tn of emitted CO2.
62
Table 5.4: Estimated energy needed to cover Greek industry’s needs and saved CO2 emissions.
overall energy CO2 saved
industry 33,026,367.00 GWh 5,361,354.75 tn
tertiary 6,818.02 GWh 3,760.00 tn
Both 162 kg/MWh and 498 kg/MWh are within the range of the 100-1000kg/MWh as given by the
Educogen while, and are also in agreement with the further point made in the guide; “if it is
assumed that cogeneration displaces electricity from a mix of fuels and heat from a boiler with a
mixed type of fuels, the savings per kWh will be 615g”.
By looking at section 4.3 of this paper, reagrding CHP penetration scenarios in the industrial and
tertiary sectors, and in particular in Figure 4.22 that presents CO2 emissions and CHP penetration
scenarios in the Greek industrial sector vs. overall Greek CO2 emissions for various penetration
scenarios, we can remark that the percentage of reduction is shown to vary from 6.14 % to 1.54 %
for the optimistic to the pessimistic scenario respectively.
Moreover, Mr. K. Theofylaktos, in a conference of the Technical Chamber of Greece in 2005 on the
subject of lignite, natural gas and its role in the electricity generation sector, referred to the CHP
capacity and identified potentials, perspectives and made a comparison between CO2 emissions per
kg CO2 of MWth generated through a coal-fired steam turbine and coal, gas and biofuel CHP
plants. According to the presentation of Theofilaktos K. (2005). Combined Heat and Power in the
New Energy Scene-Lignite, Natural Gas and Greek Electricity Generation, steam turbines emit
1000 kg CO2/MWh, coal CHP 500 kg CO2/MWh and gas CHP 250 kg CO2/MWh.
The above percentages were anticipated to be due to paper of SNOEK C. and SPURR M. that
suggests that “…avoided carbon dioxide emissions from the use of district heating (DH)1 and CHP
is significant and amounts to about one-half of the magnitude of carbon dioxide reduction
presumed in the Kyoto protocol. Globally, DH and CHP (including industrial CHP) reduce the
total existing carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion by 3-4%. This corresponds to an
annual (1998) reduction of 670-890 Mton compared to global emissions of 22700 Mton. The
highest carbon dioxide reductions from DH/CHP occur in Russia (15%), in the former USSR
outside Russia (8%) and in the EU (5%)’’.
63
As estimated in the current paper , there is reduction of up to 146,825,24 tn SO2 in the industrial
sector and of 41.82 Ktn SO2 in the tertiary sector while the level of NOx reaches up to 30.63 Ktn in
the industrial sector and 2.81 Ktn in the tertiary sector. Considering energy of 33,026,367 GWh and
6,818,020 MWh for the industrial and tertiary sectors respectively, we can estimate the saved GHG
per MWh and compare it with relevant data from literature and in particular from Educogen. This
comparison is summarised in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5: Comparison between literature and estimated SO2 and NOx savings in gr/KWh.
Estimations overall energy SO2 saved NOx saved industry 33,026,367.00 GWh 146,825.24 tn 30,627.48 tn tertiary 6,818.02 GWh 41,820.00 tn 28,100.00 tn
Literature 23.2 gr/KWh 2.9 gr/KWh Estimations industry 6.13 gr/KWh 0.41 gr/KWh tertiary 4.5 gr/KWh 1 gr/KWh
The Educogen explains that “… the current share of electricity produced from cogeneration in the
EU is about 10%. The EU target is to reach 18% by 2010. The following table illustrates what this
target could achieve in terms of CO2 emissions reduction. The results are different depending on
the fuel being displaced…”. The optimistic scenario within Greece as presented in this paper
estimates gaining 8.757, 499.75 tn of CO2.
Table 5.6: Fuel displaced and CO2 savings (COGEN, 2001)
Fuel displaced CO2 savings Coal electricity and coal
boilers 342 Million Tonnes
Gas electricity and gas boilers 50 Million Tonnes
Fossil mix electricity and boilers 188 Million Tonnes
64
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS 6.1 INTRODUCTION
The sixth chapter presents the conclusions, which derived from the extensive analysis of the data
presented in chapter four and the discussion in chapter five. Considering the findings obtained, the
conclusions provide answers to the research problem and the research questions.
6.2 CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
By studying GHG at a national level from 1990 until 2000 it is observed that the amount of carbon
dioxide emitted steadily increased, with an average increase rate of 3% except for the years 1995
and 1999. Moreover, using the extrapolation technique it is foreseen that the amount of emissions is
expected to reach almost 130,000 Kt in 2010.
Due to heavy industrial production e.g. aluminium and cement, industry contributes at a rate of 9%
to the total CO2 emissions, 3% of total SO2 emissions. In 1999, total SO2 emissions were
approximately 11% higher than 1990 levels. The decrease of emissions in 1994 was mainly due to
decrease of sulphur content in heavy fuel oil used in industry and in 2002, total SO2 emissions were
lower by 2.1 % compared to 1990 levels.
On the other hand, oxides of nitrogen, NO and NO2 are created by fossil fuel combustion lighting,
biomass fires and, in the stratosphere, from nitrous oxide. NOx emissions appear to be steadily
increasing with an average increase rate of approximately 0.8 %.
The national GHG emissions are shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2 and include the data from NOA and
the emissions extrapolated within this paper until the year 2010.
Fifty three CHP plants are currently operating in Greece with overall estimated thermal energy of
4,234,260 MWh and electrical energy of 2,736,428 MWh annually. The GHG calculations are
estimated based on the amount and type of fuel used in industrial sector and of thermal and
electrical energy needed to cover the needs of hospitals, heath care buildings and hotels.
65
Estimations on GHG savings from the so far operating CHP units are reduced per 754,326.51 tn of
CO2 , 2,127.81tn NOx and 42, 545.14 SO2per annum. This corresponds to a percentage of 0.65%
reduction compared to the national CO2 level, 0.61% reduction compared to the national NOx level
and 8.29% compared to the national SO2 level. However, the main aspect of this paper was to
investigate to what percentage the industrial and tertiary sectors can, individually but also
combined, .contribute to national GHG reduction if CHP technology is applied on a greater scale.
Thus, in the industrial sector, if CHP technology contributes at a percentage of 25%, the reduction
that can be achieved in CO2 emissions is of 8.86 % or 1,340.34 Ktn per annum while for 50% the
reduction that can be achieved is of 16.17 % or 2,680.68 Ktn per annum. For 75 % the reduction
that can be achieved is of 24.25 % or 4,021.02 Ktn per annum while in the more optimistic
scenario, those of 100% penetration of CHP technology, CO2 emissions reduction of 32.34 % or
5,361.35Ktn per annum can be achieved. NOx emissions are reduced by 19.64% for the 25%
penetration CHP scenario up to 78.54 % for the 100% scenario and the emissions vary from 7.66
Ktn NOx to 30.63 Ktn NOx. SO2 emissions vary from 110.12 Ktn SO2 to 0 Ktn SO2.
In the tertiary sector, if CHP technology contributes at a percentage of 25% the reduction that can
be achieved in CO2 emissions is of 14.61 % or 440.32 Ktn per annum while for 50% the reduction
that can be achieved is of 39.61% or 1,193.86 Ktn per annum. For 75 % the reduction that can be
achieved is of 43.82 % or 1,320.95 Ktn per annum while in the more optimistic scenario, those of
100% penetration CO2 emissions reduction of 58.43 % or 1,761.26 Ktn per annum can be achieved.
NOx emissions are reduced by 18.58 % for the 25% penetration CHP scenario up to 74.34 % for the
100% scenario and the emissions vary from 0.70 Ktn NOx to 2.81 Ktn NOx. SO2 emissions vary
from 31.37 Ktn SO2 to 0 Ktn SO2.
Cumulatively in the industrial and tertiary sectors, depending on the penetration scenario, the
reduction that can be achieved in CO2 emissions is 1.54% per annum while for 50% the reduction
that can be achieved is of 3.34% per annum. For 75% the reduction that can be achieved is of
4.61% while in the more optimistic scenario, that of 100% penetration, CO2 emissions can be
reduced by 6.14% annually. NOx emissions can be reduced by 2.41% for the 25% penetration CHP
scenario and by up to 9.64% for the 100% scenario. On the other hand, SO2 emissions can be
reduced at an amount of 9.18% for the 25% penetration CHP scenario and up to an amount of 36.74
% for the 100% scenario.
66
Industry, hotels and hospitals due to the large thermal energy needs are suitable for implementing
CHP technology. CHP technology has the potential to contribute to the reduction of the national
GHG emissions but various factors prevent further penetration, e.g. the fact that natural gas follows
the price of oil makes such an investment rather expensive given that the energy produced by CHP
plants has a relatively low selling point. This study does however support the idea that CHP is a
viable solution towards the decentralization production of energy, especially due to the use of
natural gas, since decentralized energy production is cheaper, more reliable and more
environmentally friendly.
67
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Energy Consumption, Emissions and Potential Energy Savings. Elsevier
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GALANAKIS D. (2006). Natural Gas and Combined Power Heat and Cool Generation: The
Greek Status. Hellenic Association of Combined Heat and Power. Athens (article available in
Greek language, accessed on 30/01/2007 from http://www.hachp.gr)
HELLENIC ASSOCIATION OF COMBINED HEAT AND POWER, Articles at relevant
home page (accessed on 30/01/2007 from http://www.hachp.gr)
INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY. (2008). Electricity Information Edition 2008 Documentation For Beyond 2020 Files. International Energy Agency INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY (2008) Energy Balances of OECD Countries Documentation For Beyond 2020 Files. International Energy Agency
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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY (2008) CO2 Emissions from fuel combustion-Beyond
2020 Documentation (2008 Edition). International Energy Agency
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Savings and Emissions-Reduction Potential of Combined Heat and Power. Proceedings of the
ACEEE 1999 Industrial Summer Study, American Council for an Energy Efficiency Economy.
Washington D.C.
KAARSBERG T., FISKUM R., ROMM J., ROSENFELD A., KOOMEY J., TEAGAN W.
(1998) Combined Heat and Power(CHP or Cogeneration) for Saving Energy and Carbon in
Commercial Buildings. Proceedings of the ACEEE 1998 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency
in Buildings,vol. 9, American Council for an Energy Efficiency Economy. Washington D.C.
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Electricity Generation Sector on the National Air Pollution Problem. KALDELLIS J.,
SPYROPOULOS G., CHALVATZIS K. Athens.
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Evolution of the Sulphur Oxides Emissions from the Greek Electricity Generation Sector.
Environmental Technology.
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MINISTRY FOR THE ENVIRONMENT, PHYSICAL PLANNING AND PUBLIC WORKS
(2002) Climate Change-Emissions Inventory (National Inventory for Greenhouse and other
Gases for years 1990-2000). National Observatory of Athens. Athens.
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Relevant Factors. Ministry of Development. Athens.
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(2005).Combined Heat and Power/District Heating-Results of activities 2003-2005. European
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PIDDINGTON P. (2006). The UK CHP Market: Barriers and Opportunities. Presented at the
Annual British conference of CHP Association. London.
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72
APPENDIX This appendix includes all the estimations and calculations that have been used in this paper. § 4.6.1 Table 4.4: Distribution of Greek health care (HC) buildings for different construction periods (source: Gaglia A., Balaras C., et.al.,2006).
Distribution of the Hellenic health care (HC) buildings for different construction periods
and climatic zones
Average annual electrical and thermal energy consumption (kWh/m2)in Hellenic Health Care buildings for the different climatic zones at different construction periods
year of construction
Number of buildings
Floor area (m2)
Electrical energy
consumption (kWh/m2)
Thermal energy
consumption (kWh/m2)
Electrical energy
consumption (MWh)
Thermal energy
consumption (MWh)
Pre-1980 1,566 3,394,400 90 145 305,496 492,188 (1981–2001) 117 1,004,400 99 134 99,436 134,590 (2002–2010) 59 580,041 107 129 62,064 74,825 Average - - 99 136 155,665 233,868 Total 1,742 4,978,841 - - 467.00 701.60
By multyplying the average annual electrical and thermal energy consumption (kWh/m2) in Greek Health Care buildings, we take the total annual
electrical and thermal energy consumption of Greek health care buildings.
73
§ 4.6.2 Table 4.5: Distribution of Greek hotels for different construction periods and different seasonal use (source: Gaglia A., Balaras C., et.al.,2006) In Table 4.5 the distribution of Greek hotels for different construction periods is presented. Due to seasonal use of summer hotels a factor equal to 7/12 or 0.583 is multiplied with cells 1A, 2A, 3A, 4A and cells 6A, 7A, 8A and 9A is produced. Then the extracted overall total is used and been multiplied by collumns G and H to give collumns I and J that the total annual electrical and thermal energy consumption of Greek hotels. The average electrical and thermal energy of one hotel to meet its annual energy needs is 0.741GWh and 0.594 GWh respectively
Distribution of the Hellenic hotels for
different construction periods A B C D E F G H I J
Summer Hotels (April-October)
Annual Hotels (throughout the year)
Overall Total (total 1*factor+ total 2)
Number of
buildings
Floor area (m2)
Number of
buildings
Floor area (m2)
Number of buildings
Floor area (m2)
Electrical energy
consumption
(kWh/m2)
Thermal energy
consumption
(kWh/m2)
Electrical energy
consumption (MWh)
Thermal energy
consumption (MWh)
1 Pre-1980 3,015 6,524,219 1,543 3,141,430 3,302 6,947,224 70 90 486,306 625,250 2 (1981–2001) 2,580 9,380,098 1,171 3,962,617 2,676 9,434,341 110 80 1,037,777 754,747 3 (2002–2010) 1,214 5,430,632 539 2,217,250 1,247 5,385,119 130 75 700,065 403,884 4 sub-total 6,809 - - - - - - - - - 5 Factor due to April-
October use 0.583 - - - - - - - - - 6 Pre-1980-usage factor 1,759 3,805,794.417 - - - - - - - - 7 (1981–2001)-usage
factor 1,505 5,471,723.833 - - - - - - - - 8 (2002–2010)-usage
factor 708 3,167,868.667 - - - - - - - - 9 Total 1 3,972 12,445,387 - - - - - - - - 10 Total 2 - - 3,253 9,321,297 - - - - - - 11 Overall total - - - - 7,225 21,766,684 - - 2,224.15 1,783.88 12 Average - - - - - - 103 82 741.38 594.63
.
74
§ 4.2.7.1.2 CO2 emission estimations before and after CHP installation
To estimate the air pollution due to direct fuel consumption and due to electricity consumption we
use the following equation:
Mi= ie
id MM + equ.1
where gas
idliquid
idsolid
id
id MMMM ++= equ.2
thus to estimate the CO2 emissions the equation equ. 1 gives us equ.3 MCO2= 22 CO
eCO
d MM + equ.3 where the mass of CO2 produced due to electricity production is
EXXXXM rescores
oilcooil
gncogn
coalcocoal
COe ][ 22..2
..22 εεεε +++= equ.4
where the 2coε is CO2 emission factor and X the share of each fuel in the Greek electricity
production (source:IEA Report Greece 2008) is
GWhCOtn
cocoal 2
2 050,1=ε and 51.4%=coalX
GWhCOtn
cooil 2
2 800=ε and %51=oilX
GWhCOtn
cogn 2
2.. 450=ε and %1.42.. =gnX
GWhCOtn
cores 2
2 10=ε and %3.9=resX
therefore replacing all the above amounts in equ.4 we have
2
22..2..
2
647,783,121.20.421,14*]93.045.1081207.539[
Wh14,421.20G*]093.0*10241.0*45015.0*800514.0*050,1[
][
COtntnGWh
tnGWh
tnGWh
tnGWh
tnEXXXXM resco
resoilco
oilgnco
gncoalco
coalc
e
=+++=
=+++=
=+++= εεεε
22 647,783,121. COtnM CO
e = equ.4 where the direct mass of CO2 produced due combustion is given by
gasCO
dliquidCO
dsolidCO
dCO
d MMMM 2222 ++= equ.5 where for solids that consist of coal products we have the theoretical maximum
75
][1244
bcbbcbckckllc-hc-h2 bcbd
ckd
ld
chdsolid
COd MMMMM ηγηγηγηγ +++= −
equ.6 h-c: hard coal and derivatives
l: lignite and derivatives
ck: coke
bcb: brown coal briquettes
where for liquids that consist of oil products we have
][1244
kjfkjfpop-oo-rfo-rfo-rfo-gdo-gd2 kjfd
podd
ogddliquid
COd MMMMM ηγηγηγηγ +++= −−−
equ.7 gd-o: gas/diesel oil
rf-o: residual fuel oil
o-p: other petroleum products
kjf: kerosenes-jet fuels
where for gaseous fuels we have
][1244
n.g.n.gn.g.lpglpgrgrgrg2 MMMM dlpg
ddgasCO
d ηγηγηγ ++= equ.8
rg: refinery gases
lpg: liquefied petroleum gas
n.g.: natural gas
The values for Fraction of Carbon Oxidised(η) are grouped for coal products, oil products and
gaseous products and equal to :
%98bcbcklc-hcoal ===== ηηηηη (solid) %99kjfp-oo-rfo-gdoil ===== ηηηηη (liquid)
%5.99n.g.lpgrggas ==== ηηηη (gas) Therefore equations equ.6, equ.7 and equ.8 are transformed to
][1244
bcbcklc-hcoal2 bcbd
ckd
ld
chdsolid
COd MMMMM γγγγη +++= − =
= ][98.01244
bcbcklc-h bcbd
ckd
ld
chd MMMM γγγγ +++− equ.9
][1244
kjfp-oo-rfo-rfo-gdoil2 kjfd
podd
ogddliquid
COd MMMMM γγγγη +++= −− =
76
][99.01244
kjfp-oo-rfo-rfo-gd kjfd
podd
ogdd MMMM γγγγ +++= −− equ.10
][995.01244][
1244
n.g.n.g.lpgrgrgn.g.n.g.lpgrgrggas2 MMMMMMM dlpg
dddlpg
ddgasCO
d γγγγγγη ++=++=
equ.11 To estimate the carbon content γ of each fuel we multiply the carbon emission factor of that fuel
with its net calorific value. This estimation will be done for all aforementioned fuels.
Table 4.11: Carbon content γ of each fuel (tn C/k tn).
Fuel
Carbon Emission
Factor (tn C/TJ)
Net Calorific Value
(TJ/k tn)
γ
(tn C/k tn) Hard Coal & Derivatives 26.80 23.90 640.52
Lignite & Derivatives 27.60 5.28 145.73 Coke 28.90 29.57 854.57
Brown Coal Briquettes 25.80 13.23 341.28
Refinery Gas 18.20 47.60 866.32 LPG 17.20 47.31 813.73
Gas / Diesel Oil 20.20 43.38 876.28 Residual Fuel Oil 21.10 40.68 858.35 Other Petroleum
Products 20.00 40.19 803.80 Kerosenes - Jet
Fuels 19.50 44.59 869.51 Natural Gas 15.30 47.51 726.90
when replacing the γ from table 4.11 and M from table 4.1 in equ.9 we have
2
bcbcklc-h2
CO tn 901,625,432.C tn 452,346.82*3.59C]tn 38,564.91)3,418.2949,110.34361,253.28[(59.3]113.00ktn)*C/ktn(341.28tn 4.00ktn)*C/ktn(854.57tn
337.00ktn)*C/ktn(145.73tn 564.00ktn)*C/ktn tn 523.59[(640.
][98.01244
===+++==++
++=
=+++= − bcbd
ckd
ld
chdsolid
COd MMMMM γγγγ
22 CO tn 901,625,432.=solidCO
d M equ.12
77
when replacing the γ and M in equ.10 we have
2
kjfp-oo-rfo-rfo-gd2
CO tn 155,244,586.C tn 571,444,789.*630.3C] tn 3,478.02)484,108.27572,518.12384,685.16[(630.3
ktn) 4.00*C/ktn(869.51tn ktn) 564.00*C/ktn tn (803.80ktn) 667.00*C/ktn tn (858.35ktn) 439.00*C/ktn tn (876.28[630.3
][99.01244
===+++=
=++++=
=+++= −− kjfd
podd
ogddliquid
COd MMMMM γγγγ
22 CO tn 155,244,586.=liquidCO
d M equ.13 due to the fact the amount of natural gas used in industry is given in toe we consider net
Hun.g.=47.51MJ/kg and an efficiency ηn.g.=0.85 and thus the 426 Ktoe of natural gas used in industry
are transformed to mass of natural gas as follows :
426*11.63GWh=0.85*GJ/tn 47.51
GJ 3600*11.63*426 =441.66 103 tn= n.g.Md
when replacing the γ and M in equ.11 we have
2
n.g.n.g.lpgrgrg2
CO tn 911,925,341.Ctn 527,731.91*648.3
C] tn )321,043.98206,687.930[(648.3]441.66ktn)*C/ktn tn (726.90254.00ktn)*C/ktn tn (813.730.00ktn)*C/ktn tn .323.648[(866
][995.01244
===
=++==++=
=++= MMMM dlpg
ddgasCO
d γγγ
equ.14
and equ.5 give as the total mass of CO2 by replacing the equ.12, equ.13 and equ.14 to equ.5 we
have that
2222222 CO91tn 1,925,341.CO tn 155,244,586.CO tn 901,625,432. ++=++= gasCO
dliquidCO
dsolidCO
dCO
d MMMM
22 CO tn 968,795,360.=COd M equ.15 Replacing equ.15 and equ.4 to equ.3 we estimate on the total CO2 produced due to industrial
activity in Greece without using a CHP plant.
22 CO tn 911,925,341.=gasCO
d M
78
2CO2
2222CO2
.6016,578,482M
647,783,121. 968,795,360.M
COtn
COtnCOtnMM COe
COd
=
+=+=
equ.3
After the installation of CHP unit we have that the new mass of natural gas required to cover electrical and thermal needs is given by equation equ.16
Where
0....
el
+++++
++++++
++=ΔΕ+++=
−−−−−−
−−
gngnd
lpglpgd
rgrgd
kjfkjfd
popod
orforfd
ogdogdd
bcbbcbd
ckckd
lld
chchd
gasgasd
liquidlliquid
dsolidsolid
dbefore
HuMHuMHuMHuM
HuMHuMHuMHuMHuM
HuMHuMHuMHuMHuMQ
equ.16 All calculations of equ.16 are analytically presented in the following table :
Table 4.12: Estimated thermal energy (GWh).
Fuel
Amount of fuel (103
tonnes)
Net Calorific Value(TJ/103
tonnes) Qbefore(TJ) Qbefore (GWh)
Hard Coal &
Derivatives 564 23.90 13,479.600 3,744.334
Lignite & Derivatives 337 5.28 1,779.360 494.267
Coke 4 29.57 118.280 32.856
Brown Coal
Briquettes 113 13.23 1,494.764 415.212
Gas / Diesel Oil 439 43.38 19,043.820 5,289.950
Residual Fuel Oil 667 40.68 27,133.560 7,537.101
Other Petroleum Products
564 40.19 22,667.160 6,296.434
Kerosenes - Jet Fuels 4 44.59 178.360 49.544
Refinery Gas 0 47.60 0.000 0.000
LPG 254 47.31 12,016.740 3,337.984 Natural
Gas 441.66 47.51 20,983.267 5,828.686
total 118,894.911 33,026.367
79
by replacing all the
GWh 33,026.367=beforeQ equ.16 Electrical energy used in industry is given in toe from the source thus
Wh14,421.20GGWh 630,11*24.124.1 === MtoeEbefore equ.17 Replacing in equation18 the estimated equ.16 and equ.17 as well as the known price for
GJ/tn 51.74.. =gnHu and estimation for efficiency %58CHP =η we have that
tnM gn 40.3840.112170,811,24
0.85* 47.51GJ/tn3600*Wh)14,421.20GGWh 7(33,026.36
η * HuQ E
CHPn.g.
beforebefore'.. =
+=
+=
equ.18
k tn 4,229.73 tn4814,229,728.'.. ==gnM equ.19
Then we can use the equation 20 to calculate the extracted emissions from this amount of natural gas :
][1244' '
n.g.n.gn.g.2 MM gasCO ηγ= equ.20
replacing γnatural gas=726.90 tn C/Ktn and ηn.g.=99.5% in equ.20 we have
] 4,229.73*995.0*/90.726[1244M ..
2CO2' tnktnkCtnM gn
CO ==
2CO2' CO tn .84411,217,127M =
The gain in CO2 is the difference between the prior CHP emissions CO2M and the CO2
'M emissions after.
2CO2gained
22CO2'
CO2CO2gained
CO tn 755,361,354.M
CO tn .84411,217,127CO tn .6016,578,482MMM
=
−=−=
§ 4.2.7.1.2 SO2 emission estimations before and after CHP installation To estimate the SO2 emissions the equation equ. 1 gives us equ.22
80
MSO2= 22 SOe
SOd MM + equ.22
where the mass of SO2 produced due to electricity production is
EXXXXM resSOres
oilSOoil
gnSOgn
coalSOcoal
SOe ][ 22..2
..22 εεεε +++= equ.23
where the 2SOε is SO2 emission factor (source: Kaldellis J., et. al., 2004)
, and X the share of each fuel in the Greek electricity production (source:IEA Report Greece 2008) is
GWhSOtn
SOcoal 2
2 3.14=ε and 51.4%=coalX
GWhSOtn
SOoil 2
2 1.14=ε and %51=oilX
GWhSOtn
SOgn 2
2.. 0=ε and %1.42.. =gnX
GWhSOtn
SOres 2
2 0=ε and %3.9=resX
therefore replacing all the above amounts in equ.22 we have
2
22..2..
2
54.499,36120.421,14*]115.2350.7[
Wh14,421.20G*]15.0*1.14514.0*3.14[
][
SOtntnGWh
tnGWh
tn
EXXXXM resSOres
oilSOoil
gnSOgn
coalSOcoal
Se
=+=
=+=
=+++= εεεε
22 54.499,361 SOtnM SOe = equ.23 where the direct mass of SO2 produced due combustion is given by
gasSO
dliquidSO
dsolidSO
dSO
d MMMM 2222 ++= equ.24 where for solids that consist of coal products we have
]''''''''[3264
bcbbcbckckllc-hc-h2 bcbd
ckd
ld
chdsolid
SOd MMMMM ηγηγηγηγ +++= −
equ.25
h-c: hard coal and derivatives l: lignite and derivatives ck: coke bcb: brown coal briquettes where for liquids that consist of oil products we have
]''''''''[3264
kjfkjfpop-oo-rfo-rfo-rfo-gdo-gd2 kjfd
podd
ogddliquid
SOd MMMMM ηγηγηγηγ +++= −−−
equ.26 gd-o: gas/diesel oil
81
rf-o: residual fuel oil o-p: other petroleum products kjf: kerosenes-jet fuels where for gaseous fuels we have
]''''''[3264
n.g.n.gn.g.lpglpgrgrgrg2 MMMM dlpg
ddgasSO
d ηγηγηγ ++= equ.27
rg: refinery gases lpg: liquefied petroleum gas n.g.: natural gas (natural gas does not contain sulfur) The values for Fraction of Sulfur Oxidized (η) is assumed 99% for all types of fuel.
%99''''' bcbcklc-hcoal ===== ηηηηη %99''''' kjfp-oo-rfo-gdoil ===== ηηηηη
%99'''' n.g.lpgrggas ==== ηηηη Therefore equations equ.25, equ.26 and equ.27 are transformed to
]''''['3264
bcbcklc-hcoal2 bcbd
ckd
ld
chdsolid
SOd MMMMM γγγγη +++= − =
= ]''''[99.03264
bcbcklc-h bcbd
ckd
ld
chd MMMM γγγγ +++−
equ.28
]''''['3264
kjfp-oo-rfo-rfo-gdoil2 kjfd
podd
ogddliquid
SOd MMMMM γγγγη +++= −− =
]''''[99.03264
kjfp-oo-rfo-rfo-gd kjfd
podd
ogdd MMMM γγγγ +++= −−
equ.29
]'''[99.03264]'''['
3264
n.g.n.g.lpgrgrgn.g.n.g.lpgrgrggas2 MMMMMMM dlpg
dddlpg
ddgasSO
d γγγγγγη ++=++=
equ.30 The emissions of sulphur oxides (SOx) are directly related to the sulphur content of the fuel,
which for coal normally varies between 0.3 and 1.2 wt.-% (maf) (up to an extreme value of
4.5 wt.-%) and for fuel oil (including heavy fuel oil) from 0.3 up to 3.0 wt.-%. (CORINAIR, 2006).
Table 4.13: Sulfur Content % of fuel consumed in Greek industry(source:CORINAIR, 2006).
Fuel Sulfur Content %
0
82
Hard Coal & Derivatives 1
Lignite & Derivatives 2 Coke 2
Brown Coal Briquettes 1
Refinery Gas 1 LPG 0.2
Gas / Diesel Oil 2 Residual Fuel Oil 2 Other Petroleum
Products 2 Kerosenes - Jet
Fuels 2 Natural Gas -
SO tn 82.690,2 22 =solidSO
d M equ.31 replacing M in equ.10 we have
2
kjfp-oo-rfo-rfo-gdo-co-c2
SO tn 04.629,6S tn 00.348,3*98.1S] tn )00.800.128,100.334,199.878[(98.1
ktn) 4.00*S/ktn tn (2ktn) 564.00*S/ktn tn (2ktn) 667.00*S/ktn tn (2ktn) 439.00*S/ktn tn (2[98.1
]'''''[99.03264
===+++==++
++=
=++++= −− kjfd
podd
ogdddliquid
SOd MMMMMM γγγγγ
22 SO tn 04.629,6=liquidSO
d M equ.32 when replacing M in equ.11 we have
equ.33
22 SO tn 84.0051,=gasSO
d M
2
bcbcklbc-h2
SO tn 82.690,2S tn 1,359.00*98.1S]tn 00.11300.800.67400.564[98.1
]113.00ktn)*S/ktn(1tn 4.00ktn)*S/ktn(2tn 337.00ktn)*S/ktn(2tn 564.00ktn)*S/ktn tn [(198.1
]'''''[99.03264
===+++=
=++++=
=++++= − bcbd
ckd
ld
bd
chdsolid
SOd MMMMMM γγγγγ
2
lpg2
SO tn 84.005,1S] tn )00.508[(98.1
]254.00ktn)*S/ktn tn [(0.298.1
]'[99.03264
===
==
== lpgdgas
SOd MM γ
83
equ.24 give as the total direct mass of SO2 by replacing the equ.31, equ.32 and equ.33 to equ.24 we
have that
2222222 SO tn 84.0051,SOtn 04.629,6SO tn 82.690,2 ++=++= gasSO
dliquidSO
dsolidSO
dSO
d MMMM
22 SO tn 10,325.700=SOd M equ.34
Replacing equ.34 and equ.23 to equ.22 we estimate on the total SO2 produced due to industrial
activity in Greece without using a CHP plant.
2SO2
2222SO2
224146,825.24M
54.499,36110,325.700M
SOtn
SOtnSOtnMM SOe
SOd
=
+=+= equ.35
Since the CHP plant will be fired using natural gas that produces no sulfur emissions the amount of
2SO2 224146,825.24M SOtn= is considered as the saved amount of SO2 emissions.
§ 4.2.7.1.3 NOx emission estimations before and after CHP installation To estimate the NOx emissions we use the equation
MNOx= NOXe
NOxd MM + equ.36
where NOxd M is the mass of emission pollutant due to direct combustion of fuel and
NOXeM is the mass of emission pollutant due to electricity production
The the mass of emission pollutant due to electricity production is calculated using the following
equation
NOx tn 31,518.36920.421,14*]0.0491.5540.583[
Wh14,421.20G*]241.0*202.015.0*36.0514.0*134.1[
][ NOx..NOx..
NOxNOx
=++=
=++=
=++=
tnGWh
tnGWh
tnGWh
tn
EXXXM oiloil
gngn
coalcoale εεε
equ.37
84
NOx tn 31,518.369NOx =Me
where the NOxε is NOx emission factor(source:
http://www.cfs.co.uk/sustainability2003/ecological/conversions.htm paragraph 1.3 Energy: nitrogen
oxide (NOx) emissions to air.) and X the share of each fuel in the Greek electricity production
(source:IEA Report Greece 2002) is
GWhNOxtn
NOXcoal 134.1=ε and 51.4%=coalX
GWhtnoil NOx36.0NOx =ε and %51=oilX
GWhtngn NOx202.0NOx
.. =ε and %1.42.. =gnX
GWhtnres NOx0NOx =ε and %3.9=resX
According to Ministry of Development and the Operational Programme Competitiveness – Energy
Investments Guide it had issued in 2002 we have the following table-1 to estimate NOx emissions
per combusted fuel.
85
Table 4.14: Pollutant emissions per fuel (g/kg fuel). (source: Hellenic Ministry of Development,
2002)
Ef NOx
Pollutant emissions
(g/kg fuel) Fuel
NOx
Mazut Νο 1 (1500) Low Sulphur 5.363
Mazut Νο 1 (1500) High Sulphur 5.251
Mazut Νο 3 (3500) Low Sulphur 5.363
Mazut Νο 3 (3500) High Sulphur 5.221
Diesel 2.384
LPG 2.102
Natural Gas 2.102
Table 4.15: Amount of fuel used to cover industry’s needs(extract from table 4.2)
Mf (Ktn)
Hard Coal & Derivatives 564.00
Lignite & Derivatives 337.00
Coke 4.00
Brown Coal Briquettes 113.00
LPG 254.00
Gas / Diesel Oil 439.00
Residual Fuel Oil 667.00
Other Petroleum Products 564.00
Kerosenes - Jet Fuels 4.00
Natural Gas 441.66
86
The direct amount of NOx is calculated by multiplying the emission factor as given by
ffNOxNOxd MEM *= equ.38 Calculating for fuels LPG, diesel oil, other petroleum products(using the value of mazut taking as average of No1 –No3 and low-high sulfate the value 5.251 (g/kg fuel)) and natural gas the equ38 becomes
NOx tn 5,498.05928.372,989.201,046.58533.91
)102.2*66.441(
)251.5*564()384.2*439()102.2*254(
)*(
)*()*()*(*
.
=+++=
=+
+++=
=+
+++==
KtntnKtn
KtntnKtn
KtntnKtn
KtntnKtn
ME
MElMEMEMEM
gnffNOx
mazutffNOxdieseffNOxLPGffNOxffNOxNOxd
Due to the fact that we didn’t estimate NOx emissions due to combustion of hard coal, lignite, coke,
briquettes, residual fuel oil and kerosenes and due to lack of data we make an assumption and make
an accession of 5, 498 tn NOx to 8,000 tn NOx.
Thus NOx tn 8,000=NOx
d M is the mass of NOx from direct combustion of fuels
NOx tn 31,518.369NOxtn 000,8NOx +=+= NOXe
NOxd MMM
Thus the overall mass of NOx emission resulting from Greek industrial activity is
NOxtn 37.518,39NOx =M After the installation of CHP unit we have that the new mass of natural gas required to cover electrical and thermal needs is given by equation equ.39
Where
0....
el
+++++
++++++
++=ΔΕ+++=
−−−−−−
−−
gngnd
lpglpgd
rgrgd
kjfkjfd
popod
orforfd
ogdogdd
bcbbcbd
ckckd
lld
chchd
gasgasd
liquidlliquid
dsolidsolid
dbefore
HuMHuMHuMHuM
HuMHuMHuMHuMHuM
HuMHuMHuMHuMHuMQ
equ.39
87
Therefore by replacing we have
GWh 33,026.367=beforeQ equ.40 Electrical energy used in industry is given in toe from the source thus
Wh14,421.20GGWh 630,11*24.124.1 === MtoeEbefore equ.41 Replacing in equation 42 the estimated equ.40 and equ.41as well as the known prices for
GJ/tn 51.74.. =gnHu and estimation for efficiency %58CHP =η we have that
tnM gn 40.3840.112170,811,24
0.85* 47.51GJ/tn3600*Wh)14,421.20GGWh 7(33,026.36
η * HuQ E
CHPn.g.
beforebefore'.. =
+=
+= equ.42
k tn 4,229.73 tn4814,229,728.'.. ==gnM of natural gas equ.43
Then we can use the equation 44 to calculate the extracted emissions from this amount of natural gas :
8,890.892.102*73.229,4*' ...... === ktnMEFM fgn
NOxgngn
NOX tn of NOx emission
equ.44 The gain in NOX is the difference between the prior CHP emissions NOxM and the
NOx'n.g .M emissions after.
NOx tn 30,627.48M
NOx tn 89.890,8NOx tn 37.518,39.MMM
NO2gained
NOx'n.g
NOxNOxgained
=
−=−=
equ.45 § 4.2.7.2 Typical GHG emissions of tertiary sector In order to estimate the reduction of the GHG emissions, we firstly have to estimate, based on the
typical consumptions as calculated in section 4.2.5, the emitted CO2, SO2 and NOx that are being
produced on an annual basis due to the combustion of fossil fuels. Table 4.22 provides the amount
of extracted pollutant in g per kg of combusted fuel and is an extract given by the Hellenic Ministry
of Development in an annex in the “Energy investment guide” of the Operational Program
Competitiveness at 2002. However, some fuels are not mentioned in the Energy Investment Guide
88
and GHG emissions are calculated by the method implied by IEA in “CO2 Emissions from fuel
combustion-Beyond 2020 Documentation (2008 Edition).
Table 4.16: Pollutant emissions per fuel (g/kg fuel) and for on-grid electrical energy(tn/GWh).
(source: Hellenic Ministry of Development, 2002)
Ef Pollutant emissions (g/kg fuel) Fuel
CO2 SO2 NOx
Mazut Νο 1 (1500) Low Sulphur 3,175 14 5.363
Mazut Νο 1 (1500) High Sulphur 3,109 64 5.251
Mazut Νο 3 (3500) Low Sulphur 3,175 14 5.363
Mazut Νο 3 (3500) High Sulphur 3,091 64 5.221
Diesel 3,142 0.7 2.384
LPG 3,030 0.0 2.102
Natural Gas 2,715 0.0 2.102
Electrical energy Ef Pollutant emissions (tn/GWh)
Emission for on-grid electrical energy
production 850 15.5 1.2
The overall amount of electrical energy on annual basis of tertriary sector is 2,691.15 GWh due to
467GWh from health care buildings and 2,224.15 GWh due to hotels. Thus the emissions CO2, SO2
and NOx due to annual electrical energy of tertiary are given by equ 46.
Xel
2el22
2el22
NO tn 3,229.38GWh 2,691.15*2.1E*
SO tn 41,712.76GWh 2,691.15*5.15E*
CO tn 092,287,474.GWh 2,691.15*508E*
===
===
===
GWhtnEfM
GWhtnEfM
GWhtnEfM
NOxel
NOxe
SOel
SOe
COel
COe
equ.46
In the following estimations, assumptions are made that 60% of the thermal energy is produced
using diesel oil as fuel and 40% natural gas, while we also consider 80% efficiency of diesel oil
89
boilers and 85% efficiency of natural gas boilers. Known parameters are the net calorific value of
diesel oil is Hudiesel oil=43.38 GJ/tn and natural gas is Hun.g.=47.51 GJ/tn.
To estimate the mass of natural gas and diesel oil that are used in order to produce thermal energy of 2,485.48 GWh we use the following equation
gas natural tn 88,627.6785.0*51.47
3600*2,485.48*4.0.. ==
tnGJ
JGWhM gn equ.47
oil diesel tn 154,698.118.0*38.43
3600*2,485.48*6.0==
tnGJ
JGWhM diesel equ.48
These amounts of fuel produce emissions according to equation 49,50,51
2
n.g.2..
diesel2..222
COKtn 726.69311,009.86628,240.88)44.552,114*tnkg715,2(
tn)154,698.11*tnkg3,142(M*M*
=+=+
+=+=+=
tn
EfEfMMM COgn
COdieselgn
COddiesel
COd
COd
equ.49
2
n.g.2..
diesel2..222
SO kg 108,288.67
0 tn)154,698.11*tnkg7.0(M*M*
=
=+=+=+= SOgn
SOdieselgn
SOddiesel
SOd
SOd EfEfMMM
equ.50
NOxKtn 0.560.23240,789,224.10476,679,26)44.552,114*tnkg102.2(
tn)154,698.11*tnkg384.2(M*M* n.g.
..diesel
..
=+=+
+=+=+=
tn
EfEfMMM NOxgn
NOxdieselgn
NOxddiesel
NOxd
NOxd
equ.51
Consequently, to estimate the overall amount of emissions deriving from direct fuel consumptions
and electrical energy of tertiary sector we use the equation 52, 53 and 54
2.
222 COK tn 653,014,159. tn 092,287,474.Ktn25.68.726 =+=+= COe
COd
CO MMM equ.52
90
2.
222 SOKtn 41.82tn41,712.76 tn 108.28 =+=+= SOe
SOd
SO MMM equ.53
NOxMMM NOxe
NOxd
NOx K tn 3.78Ktn3.2Ktn 56.0. =+=+= equ.54
To estimate the emissions after the installation of CHP plants in tertiary we use the equation as
well as the known prices for GJ/tn 51.74.. =gnHu and %58CHP =η
Thus, we have that
tnM gn 461,472.230.85* 47.51GJ/tn
3600*GWh)2,485.48GWh (2,691.15η * HuQ E
CHPn.g.
beforebefore'.. =
+=
+= equ.55
And respectively those 461,472.23 tn of natural gas produce the emissions
equ.56
equ.57
equ.58
§ 4.2.8 Emissions and emission reductions of operating Greek CHP plants Summing the electrical energy of CHP plants currently operating in both industrial and tertiary
sector we have the amount of Eel=2,736.
Thus the estimated emissions prior and after the use those plants are estimated hereafter:
2n.g.2'
2 COK tn 1,252.9 tn)461,472.23*tnkg715,2(M'* === CO
lCO EfM
2n.g.2'
2 SOKtn 0 tn)461,472.23*tnkg0(M'* === SO
lSO EfM
NOxEfM NOxl
NOx Ktn 0.97 tn)461,472.23*tnkg102.2(M'* n.g.
' ===
91
Xel
2el22
2el22
NO tn 3,284GWh 2,736.43*2.1E*
SO tn 42,415GWh 2,736.43*5.15E*
CO tn 2,325,964GWh 2,736.43*508E*
===
===
===
GWhtnEfM
GWhtnEfM
GWhtnEfM
NOxel
NOxe
SOel
SOe
COel
COe
equ.59
The overall electrical energy that is been consumed due to industrial production which amount is
14.421 TWh while the relevant amount only for industries as given in table 4.1-CHP Units in
operation is 2.68 GWh. Therefore units consume 0.019 % of the energy of the overall electrical
energy of the industrial sector. This percentage will help us make the assumptions that the amount
of fuel used by those industrial units is of the percentage of 0.019% of the overall quantities of fuel
presented in table 4.17.
Table 4.17 :Fuel in K tn used to meet thermal energy needs of CHP industrial operating plants.
Fuel Ktn
Hard Coal & Derivatives 10.46
Lignite & Derivatives 6.25
Coke 0.07
Brown Coal Briquettes 2.10
LPG 4.71
Gas / Diesel Oil 8.14
Residual Fuel Oil 12.37
Other Petroleum Products 10.46
Kerosenes - Jet Fuels 0.07
Natural Gas 8.19
Using the methodology described analytically in section 4.2.7.1.1 we estimate CO2 emissions of
operating CHP plants in Greek industry.
92
2
n.g.n.gn.g.lpglpg
kjfkjfpop-oo-rfo-rfo-rfo-gdo-gd
bcbbcbckckllc-hc-h2222
CO tn 115,474.9317,569.8068,275.7829,629.35
8.19ktn)]*C/ktn tn (726.904.71ktn)*C/ktn tn (813.733.648[
ktn) 0.07*C/ktn(869.51tn ktn) 10.46*C/ktn tn (803.80ktn) 12.37*C/ktn tn (858.35ktn) 8.14*C/ktn tn (876.28[630.3
2.1ktn)]*C/ktn(341.28tn 0.07ktn)*C/ktn(854.57tn
6.25ktn)*C/ktn(145.73tn 10.46ktn)*C/ktn tn 523.59[(640.
][1244
][1244
][1244
=++=
=+++
++++++
+++
++=
=++
+++++
++++=++=
−−−
−
MM
MMMM
MMMMMMMM
dlpg
d
kjfd
podd
ogdd
bcbd
ckd
ld
chdgas
COdliquid
COdsolid
COd
COd
ηγηγ
ηγηγηγηγ
ηγηγηγηγ
22 CO tn 115,474.93=CO
d M equ.60
Using the methodology described analytically in section 4.2.7.1.2 we estimate SO2 emissions of
operating CHP plants in Greek industry.
[ ]
2
lpglpg
kjfkjfpop-oo-rfo-rfo-rfo-gdo-gd
bcbbcbckckllc-hc-h
2222
SO tn 130.1411.87tn90.74tn tn37.54)]4.71.00ktn*S/ktn tn [(0.298.1ktn) 0.07*S/ktn tn (2ktn) 10.56*S/ktn tn (2
ktn) 12.37*S/ktn tn (2ktn) 8.14*S/ktn tn (2[98.12.10ktn)]*S/ktn(1tn 0.07ktn)*S/ktn(2tn
6.25ktn)*S/ktn(2tn 10.46ktn)*S/ktn tn [(198.1
''3264
]''''''''[3264
]''''''''[3264
=++=++++
++++++
++=
=+
+++++
++++=
=++=
−−−
−
lpgd
kjfd
podd
ogdd
bcbd
ckd
ld
chd
gasSO
dliquidSO
dsolidSO
dSO
d
M
MMMM
MMMM
MMMM
ηγ
ηγηγηγηγ
ηγηγηγηγ
22 SO tn 141.301=SOd M equ.61
Using the methodology described analytically in section 4.2.7.1.3 we estimate NOx emissions of
operating CHP plants in Greek industry.
93
The direct amount of NOx is calculated by multiplying the emission factor as given by ffNOxNOx
d MEM *= equ.62 Calculating for fuels LPG, diesel oil, other petroleum products(using the value of mazut taking as
average of No1 –No3 and low-high sulfate the value 5.251 (g/kg fuel)) and natural gas the equ62
becomes
NOx tn 02122.7146.5542.9191.9
)102.2*19.8(
)251.5*46.10()384.2*141.8()102.2*71.4(
)*(
)*()*()*(*
.
=+++=
=+
+++=
=+
+++==
KtntnKtn
KtntnKtn
KtntnKtn
KtntnKtn
ME
MEMEMEMEM
gnffNOx
mazutffNOxdieselffNOxLPGffNOxffNOxNOxd
Due to the fact that we didn’t estimate NOx emissions from combustion of hard coal, lignite, coke,
briquettes, residual fuel oil and kerosenes due to lack of data for those specific fuels, we make an
accession and we assume that 102tn NOx are 150 tn NOx.
Thus NOx tn 501=NOxd M is the mass of NOx from direct combustion of fuels
The overall amount of GHG emission as estimated for the specific CHP operating in Greece is
given by the equation :
MCO2= 22222 CO tn 932,441,438.CO tn 2,325,964CO tn 115,474.93 =+=+ COe
COd MM equ.64
MSO2= 22222 SO tn 42,545.14SO tn 42,415SO tn 141.301 =+=+ SOe
SOd MM equ.65
MNOx= XXX NO tn 3,434.00NO tn 3,284NO tn 150 =+=+ NOxe
NOnd MM equ.66
To estimate the GHG emissions of CHP plants currently in operation we know that:
94
tnM gn 21.404,2160.85* 47.51GJ/tn
3600*GWh)234,4GWh (2,736η * HuQ E
CHPn.g.
beforebefore'.. =
+=
+= equ.68
And respectively those 621,404.21 tn of natural gas produce the emissions
equ.69
equ.70
equ.71
2n.g.2'
2 CO tn 421,687,112. tn)621,404.21*tnkg3,142(M'* === CO
lCO EfM
2n.g.2'
2 SOKtn 0 tn)621,404.21*tnkg.0(M'* === SO
lSO EfM
NOxEfM NOxl
NOx tn 1,306.19 tn)621,404.21*tnkg102.2(M'* n.g.
' ===
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