Tampou Aliki Cohort II Dissertation B49IR 2009

I

Heriot-Watt University

School of Engineering and Physical Sciences

MSc in Energy

Project / Dissertation 2008-2009

Title:

Environmental advantages from the cogeneration in Greece

Author:

Mrs. Tampou Aliki - 061182660

Supervisor:

Dr. Emilia Kondili (HWU – TEIP)

F L A M E Flexible Learning Advanced Masters in Energy

II

F L A M E MSc in Energy

Declaration of Authorship I, Mrs. Tampou Aliki– 061182660 – Cohort 2 (surname first then name and matriculation number) confirm that the report entitled Environmental advantages of cogeneration in Greece is part of my assessment for module B49IR I declare that the report is my own work. I have not copied other material verbatim

except in explicit quotes, and I have identified the sources of the material clearly. Tampou Aliki (Signature)

Piraeus, 30/08/2009 (Place and Date)

III

Abstract

The aim of this research is to measure at what level the main greenhouse gas (GHG)

emissions, namely CO2 produced by industries, hospitals and hotels can be minimized using

cogeneration systems.

The context of the research has focused on the technical aspect of the technology of CHP in

the industrial and commercial sectors. The research focuses on CO2 emissions although the

two other main GHG pollutants are mentioned; SO2, NOx. This will be done following the

axis of the current Greek emissions problem caused by industry, with estimations based on

the CHP technologies and general characteristics.

Thereafter, a survey on CHP units installed and operating now in Greece, as well as their

environmental impacts will be presented and evaluated. The survey will address the issues of

implementation scenarios and environmental pollution avoidance. To be in a position to

detect accurately the reasons why those units have not been adopted on a greater scale, the

drawbacks of CHP are presented and estimated.

The analysis concerns finding a way to calculate the exact current reduction in GHG

emissions in Greece and to make a prediction on the potential reductions that could be made if

more CHP technology were to penetrate further into the industrial and commercial sectors.

IV

Contents

Figures ...................................................................................................................... VI

Tables ................................................................................................................... VIII

Glossary ...................................................................................................................... IX

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH............................................................................... 1

1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND/OR HYPOTHESIS ............................................................. 5

1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH (INCLUDING AIMS) ......................................... 5

1.4 METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................. 9

1.5 DELIMITATION OF SCOPE ............................................................................................. 10

1.6 OUTLINE OF THE DISSERTATION................................................................................ 10

1.7 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH DEFINITION ...................................................................... 12

2.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 12

2.2 THE PRACTICAL PROBLEM........................................................................................... 12

2.3 THE THEORETICAL PROBLEM...................................................................................... 15

2.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND/OR HYPOTHESIS ........................................................ 21

2.5 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 21

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY..................................................................................... 22

3.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 22

3.2 RESEARCH PROCESS PLAN ........................................................................................... 22

3.3 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................................................... 26

3.4 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 26

CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS AND RESULTS..................................................................... 27

4.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 27

4.2 RESULTS OF ANALYSIS: THE FINDINGS .................................................................... 27

4.2.1 Energy consumption in industry ....................................................................................... 28

4.2.2 Energy consumption in residential and tertiary sector ...................................................... 29

4.2.3 National levels of GHG emissions for the period of 1990-2010....................................... 29

4.2.4 CHP plants currently in operation in Greece .................................................................... 31

4.2.5 Consumption of Greek Industry........................................................................................ 36

4.2.6 Typical consumption of the Greek Tertiary Sector........................................................... 37

4.2.6.1 Health Care Buildings .................................................................................................... 37

V

4.2.6.2 Hotels ...................................................................................................................... 38

4.2.7 Typical emissions of GHG................................................................................................ 39

4.2.7.1 Typical GHG emissions for industrial sector................................................................. 39

4.2.7.2 Typical GHG emissions of tertiary sector...................................................................... 45

4.2.8 Emissions and emission reductions of operating Greek CHP plants ................................ 49

4.3 CHP penetration scenarios in industrial and tertiary sector ................................................. 52

4.4 Reasons that have prevented further CHP implementation in Greece ................................. 57

4.5 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................... 58

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................. 59

5.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 59

5.2 RELIABILITY OF THE DATA AND THE FINDINGS.................................................... 59

5.3 THE MEANING OF THE FINDINGS IN RELATION TO OTHER WORK.................... 61

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS......................................................................................... 64

6.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 64

6.2 CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE RESEARCH PROBLEM................................................. 64

REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 67

APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................... 72

VI

Figures

Figure 1.1: Conventional Energy System versus cogeneration system ...................................... 2

Figure 1.2: Cogeneration as a share of national power production............................................. 3

Figure 3.1: The research process plan....................................................................................... 25

Figure 4.1: Final energy consumption by the economic sector ................................................ 28

Figure 4.2: Final energy consumption in industry by energy carrier ........................................ 28

Figure 4.3: Final energy consumption in the residential and tertiary sectors by energy carrier29

Figure 4.4: CO2 emission levels for the period of 1990-2000 ................................................. 30

Figure 4.5: SO2 and NOx emission levels for the period of 1990-2000 .................................. 31

Figure 4.8a : NOx emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in industries and total

Greek emissions after CHP scenario)......................................................................................... 44

Figure 4.8b : NOx emissions(total Greek industrial emissions before CHP scenario and total

Greek industrial emissions after CHP scenario). ....................................................................... 44

Figure 4.9a : CO2 emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in tertiary and total

Greek emissions after CHP scenario in). ................................................................................... 46

Figure 4.9b : CO2 emissions(total Greek tertiary emissions before CHP scenario and total

Greek tertiary emissions after CHP scenario). ........................................................................... 46

Figure 4.10a : NOx emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in tertiary and total


Figure 4.10b : NOx emissions(total Greek tertiary emissions before CHP scenario and total


Figure 4.11a : SO2 emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in tertiary and total


Figure 4.11b : SO2 emissions(total Greek tertiary emissions before CHP scenario and total


Figure 4.12 : CO2 emissions of operating units prior and before their installation.................. 50

Figure 4.13 : NOx emissions of operating units prior and before their installation.................. 50

Figure 4.14 : SO2 emissions of operating units prior and before their installation. ................. 51

Figure 4.15 : Efficiency % to Heat-to –electricity ration of Greek operating CHP plants. ...... 51

Figure 4.17 : CO2 emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared

with CO2 reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies

between 100-75-50-25%. ........................................................................................................... 53

VII

Figure 4.18 : CO2 emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared

with CO2 reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies

between 100-75-50-25%. ........................................................................................................... 53

Figure 4.19 : CO2 emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with CO2

reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies between

100-25-50-75%. ...................................................................................................................... 54

Figure 4.20 : SO2 emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared

with SO2 reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies

between 100-25-50-75% ............................................................................................................ 54

Figure 4.21 : SO2 emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared

with SO2 reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies

between 100-25-50-75% ............................................................................................................ 55

Figure 4.22 : SO2 emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with SO2


100-25-50-75%. ...................................................................................................................... 55

Figure 4.23 : NOx emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared

with NOx reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies

between 100-25-50-75% ............................................................................................................ 56

Figure 4.24 : NOx emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared

with NOx reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector

varies between 100-25-50-75%.................................................................................................. 56

Figure 4.25 : NOx emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with NOx


100-25-50-75% ...................................................................................................................... 57

VIII

Tables

Table 2.1: Cogeneration sector-fuel-size matrix. ...................................................................... 17

Table 2.2: Possible opportunities for application of cogeneration............................................ 18

Table 2.3: Energy and Carbon Use and Savings for Current Small-scale CHP Technologies, for

1 GWe of Installed Capacity(presents "Today's" results, not for a 100 kW Unit, but scaled up to

1 GW of installed capacity ......................................................................................................... 19

Table 4.1: CHP Units in operation in Greece............................................................................ 32

Table 4.2: Greek industry’s fuel mix for years 1990-2005. ...................................................... 36

Table 4.3: Tertiary sector plants, with an installed CHP unit. .................................................. 37

Table 4.4: Distribution of Greek health care (HC) buildings for different construction

periods. ...................................................................................................................... 38

Table 4.10: Pollutant emissions per fuel (g/kg fuel). ................................................................ 39

Table 5.1: Industrial GHG Emissions ....................................................................................... 60

Table 5.2: Residential-Commercial-Institutional sector GHG Emissions ................................ 60

Table 5.3: Tertiary and GHG Emissions .................................................................................. 61

Table 5.4: Estimated energy needed to cover Greek industry’s needs and saved

CO2 emissions. ...................................................................................................................... 62

Table 5.5: Comparison between literature and estimated SO2 and NOx savings in gr/KWh. . 63

Table 5.6: Fuel displaced and CO2 savings .............................................................................. 63

Table 4.4: Distribution of Greek health care (HC) buildings for different construction

periods. ...................................................................................................................... 72

Table 4.11: Carbon content γ of each fuel (tn C/k tn). .............................................................. 76

Table 4.12: Estimated thermal energy (GWh). ........................................................................ 78

Table 4.13: Sulfur Content % of fuel consumed in Greek industry ......................................... 81

Table 4.14: Pollutant emissions per fuel (g/kg fuel). ................................................................ 85

Table 4.15: Amount of fuel used to cover industry’s needs(extract from table 4.2)................ 85

Table 4.16: Pollutant emissions per fuel (g/kg fuel) and for on-grid electrical energy

(tn/GWh). ...................................................................................................................... 88

Table 4.17 :Fuel in K tn used to meet thermal energy needs of CHP industrial operating

plants. ...................................................................................................................... 91

IX

Glossary

ACEEE American Council for Energy Efficiency Economy

BKB/Peat Briquettes BKB are composition fuels manufactured from brown coal,

produced by briquetting under high pressure. These figures

include peat briquettes, dried lignite fines and dust, and

brown coal breeze.

°C Degree Celsius

CO2 Carbon Dioxide; the main Greenhouse gas

CHP Combined Heat and Power

COGEN Europe European Association for the Promotion of Cogeneration

CRES Greek Centre for Renewable Energy Sources

DHC District Heating and Cooling

EDUCOGEN European Educational Tool of Cogeneration

EEC European Economic Community, the former name of the

European Community

EU European Union

GHG Greenhouse Gas (in the current project the term includes

CO2, SO2 and NOx)

GW gigawatts power

HACHP Hellenic Combined Heat and Power Association

IEA International Energy Agency; an energy policy advisor to

its member countries in order to ensure reliable, affordable

and clean energy for their citizens

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; a scientific

intergovernmental body set up by the World Meteorological

Organization (WMO) and by the United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP)

IPPC Directive 96/61/EC concerning Integrated Pollution

Prevention and Control

kg kilogram

kWh kilowatt-hour (1 kWh = 3,600 kJ = 3.6 MJ)

kWe kilowatts electric power

kWth kilowatts thermal power

micro-CHP CHP plants under 20 kWe

X

MWe megawatts electric power

MWth megawatts thermal power

NCV Net Calorific Value

NTUA National Technical University of Athens

OPET Organisation for the Promotion of Energy Technologies

PP Power Plant

POCs Persistent Organic Pollutants

PGC The Greek Public Gas Corporation

PPC The Greek Public Power Corporation

RES Renewable Energy Sources

SCF Support Community Framework

TCG Technical Chamber of Greece

TOE tonne of oil equivalent

USA United States of America

VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds

WRI World Resources Institute

ZREU Zentrum für rationelle Energieanwendung und Umwelt –

Germany (Center for rational application of energy and

environment)

6EAP Sixth Environmental Action Programme (European

Council,2002)

XI

Acknowledgements I would like to thank for her support and advice Dr. Emilia Kondili under whose supervision

this research was conducted. Deep appreciation is also expressed to Dr. John K. Kaldellis for

his kind advice and encouragement throughout the work and to Dr. Phil Skittides for his

helpful assistance and proofreading of the text.

1

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH

Greece, along with Europe and the rest of the world is called to tackle a body of energy

problems that will challenge governments, industries and the public in the 21st century. In the

year 2000, the world’s emissions reached the amount of 9,000 million tons of carbon

equivalent and will have reached 15,000 millions by 2025 according to an estimate from the

World Resources Institute (WRI). Looking back we can see that during the last 50 years the

global emissions of CO2 from fossil fuels have risen from 5 billion tons to 24 billion tons

(WRI).

Most energy consumption is derived from fossil fuels, depleting natural resources and

contributing to global climate change, through increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

When the EU signed the Kyoto protocol, it promised to reduce these emissions by 2012 by

8% in comparison to 1990 levels, an equivalent reduction of 300 million tonnes. To meet this

commitment, significant changes of behaviour are required now, both in terms of energy

supply and demand management.

Today all thermal power stations in Greece-with the exception of two, using as fuel natural

gas, use either national lignite or mazut-diesel for their operation. Electricity generation is

found to be responsible for almost 55% of the CO2 production, reaching the amount of 55,000

Ktn in the year 2002. (Kaldellis J. et al., 2004).

Literature often provides as definition of CHP the following: “Cogeneration is the

thermodynamically sequential production of two more useful forms of energy from a single

primary energy source”. Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems can generate electricity

(and/or mechanical energy) and thermal energy in a single, integrated system (see Figure 1).

As shown in the following figure, to produce, via separate heat and power plants, 35 units of

electricity and 50 units of heat, 180 units of primary input is required which is considerably

greater than the 100 units of primary input used in a CHP plant. CHP is not a specific

technology but rather a combination of technologies to meet end-user needs for heating and/or

cooling, and mechanical and/or electrical power.

2

Figure 1.1: Conventional Energy System versus cogeneration system (source: Kaarsberg,

1998)

The EU recognised that CHP is one of the primary means to achieve its energy policy

objective of improving energy efficiency and its environmental policy objective of reducing

GHG emissions.

The EU issued in 2004, directive 2004/8/EC named “On the promotion of cogeneration based

on a useful heat demand in the internal energy market and amending directive 92/42/EEC”.

As implied within the aforementioned directive “the increased use of cogeneration geared

towards making primary energy savings could constitute an important part of the package of

measures needed to comply with the Kyoto protocol and the United Nations Framework

convention on climate change”.

The OPET (Organisation for the Promotion of Energy Technologies) CHP Consortium

consisting of thirty one European countries and China, coordinated by the Danish

Technological Institute outlined eight reasons to promote CHP:

1. conformity with EU energy policy

2. reliability

3. high thermal efficiency

4. lower environmental impact

5. fuel flexibility

6. high availability

3

7. supply security and market benefits

8. economic benefits

The following figure shows the percentage of electricity produced through cogeneration in the

EU in 1999.

Figure 1.2: Cogeneration as a share of national power production (source: COGEN Europe-

EDUCOGEN , 2001)

As CHP constitutes an important element, an increased share of funding for CHP by EU

programmes has been foreseen. Some of these programmes are:

• Joule/Thermie

• Save/Altener

• Phare, Tacis, Synergie and Meda

The commission examines ways in which to integrate the energy and environmental benefits

of CHP in its taxation policy. Financial instruments such as Third Party Financing are

encouraged for CHP investments in the industrial sector.

4

In Greece, the implementation of law 2244/94 has ended a 45 year monopoly on electricity

production by the Greek Public Power Corporation (PPC). This law allows the private sector

to produce energy from renewable energy sources (RES) and natural gas.

Some of the main CHP applications currently operating are at:

• Hellenic Petroleum S.A.

• Aluminium of Greece

• Motor oil

CHP plants operating in Greece are presented in Chapter 4.2.

CHP can boost market competitiveness by increasing the efficiency and productivity of our

use of fuels, capital, and human resources. Money saved on energy would become available

to spend on other goods and services, promoting economic growth. Past research in the USA

by ACEEE (American Council for Energy Efficiency Economy-1995) has shown that savings

are retained in the local economy and generate greater economic benefit than money spent on

energy. Recovery and productive use of waste heat from power generation is a critical first

step in a productivity-oriented environmental strategy. Specifically, CHP can be an engine for

economic development, offering clean, low-cost energy solutions to many sectors of the

economy (Shipley A.et al., 2001).

A large amount of the energy consumed is wasted due to the fact that the rule of the thumb to

make rational use of energy seems extraordinary, nonsense or even lyxury .Nowadays that

finite resources seem to become extinct or be very expensive CHP should be seen as a

technology that encourages further the energy conservation and the rational energy use.

Rational use of energy does not mean restriction or sacrifice of comfortable living conditions,

but the effort for reduction of losses of energy in the biggest possible scale and maximize the

exploitation of each energy unit so that total final consumption of energy is decreased. Using

energy rationally is interpreted as the most optimal management of energy resources. Basic

beginning of rational energy use is that the final consumer should each time use precisely the

amount of energy that it needs in order to it covers his needs. Moreover, the energy profits are

maximized when suitable tools, such as products and applications, are used that offer us

technological improvement in terms of energy efficiency.

5

Some of the energy saving measures and therefore measure towards rational energy use in a

industrial and tertiary sector are the often maintenance and where necessary replacement of

boilers, insulation of piping system, installation of BIM system or CHP plant that provides

higher efficiency by producing two more useful forms of energy from a single primary energy

source than producing those forms of energy separately.

1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND/OR HYPOTHESIS

This investigation addresses the environmental gains that can be achieved from using the

method of combined heat and power generation in smaller and individual energy generation

applications such as industry, hospitals and hotels.

Some of the topics that will help outline the environmental significance of Combined Heat

and Power generation systems are the demand for air pollution control, the near extinction of

fossil fuels reserves and the amount of reduction that can be achieved using cogeneration.

The first step would be to outline the drawbacks that have so far prevented those units from

being used in the Greek energy supply system and secondly to present what needs to be done

to integrate such units of Combined Heat and Power in the industrial and tertiary sector.

Additionally, it would be useful to refer to the current state of the Greek pollution problem.

1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH (INCLUDING AIMS)

European leaders are set to agree to cut greenhouse gases by a fifth, hoping that the tough and

binding target will set an example for a global post-Kyoto settlement. But behind this current

agreement, European leaders are bitterly divided over how to share the burden of reducing

harmful emissions.

Conventional and nuclear energy that possess the lion’s share in the energy generation sector

are to be replaced without question since they are not compatible with the global sustainable

6

policy. The problem is that no one has been able to find the ultimate solution in order to

replace energy sources that cause irreversible environmental problems. Renewable energy

sources have the potential to help, though they are not yet in a position, for various reasons, to

replace completely conventional energy sources.

To this end, CHP aims to give a permanent or temporary solution to the need for a more

efficient and a cleaner form of energy. Last year, serious attempts from associations and

organisations were made to outline the significance of CHP in the effort towards

environmental assurance.

Among them is COGEN Europe, a registered charity which was created in 1993 under the

guidance of the European Commission. A considerable part of the thematic work of COGEN

Europe is done through five working groups:

• Working Group 'Cogeneration from renewable energy sources'

• Working Group 'Industrial CHP Users'

• Working Group 'Emissions Trading & CHP'

• Working Group 'Micro-Cogeneration'

• Working Group 'Small and Medium-scale Cogeneration'

COGEN Europe and the working group involved in the emissions trading, highlight some

valuable publications such as Position Statement-EU Emissions Trading and Combined Heat

and Power and EDUCOGEN-The European Educational Tool of Cogeneration. The first

publication indicates the necessary complementary mechanisms to prevent negative

consequences of cogeneration, while the second as indicated in the handbook “aims to

develop the integration of cogeneration within technical universities and engineering

colleges”. This report presents a variety of technologies in use, applications, economic

analysis, impacts, optimal design, current status and prospects that all together compose the

role, significance and potential of cogeneration.

On November 16th, 2006 the annual British conference of CHP Association took place and

various speakers from Great Britain expressed their concerns relative to CHP. The director of

CHP Association P. Piddington referred to cogeneration as highly competitive and supported

it by citing that cogeneration uses 20-30% less fuel, produces up to 1MT carbon savings per

GW power and finally estimated that the cost benefit rises up to £1.5 billion per GW power.

7

Snoek and Spurr in their paper “The Role of District Heating & Cooling(DHC) and Combined

Heat and Power Systems in Reducing Fossil Fuels Use and Combating Harmful Emissions”,

draw our attention to an application not yet totally applied, but which promises to give more

than just a satisfactory solution. “The fundamental idea of DHC is simple but powerful;

connect multiple thermal energy users through a piping network to environmentally optimum

energy sources, such as CHP, industrial waste heat and renewable energy sources such as

biomass, geothermal and natural sources of heating and cooling. The ability to assemble and

connect thermal loads enables these environmentally optimum sources to be used in a cost-

effective way. Not only do DHC systems allow for the optimum use of energy, but they also

provide input energy flexibility (oil, natural gas, biomass, coal, etc.).”

Furthermore, the Hellenic CHP Association (HACHP) was established in 1995 and aims to

support and outline the necessity of CHP plants in Greece. To this end various publications

have been made.

The director of the association, in a conference of the Technical Chamber of Greece on the

subject of lignite, natural gas and its role in the electricity generation sector referred to the

CHP capacity and identified potentials, perspectives and made a comparison between CO2

emissions per kg CO2 of MWth generated through a coal-fired steam turbine and coal, gas and

biofuel CHP plants.

Additionally, other Greek attempts have been made to survey CHP potentials and

technologies and present them in order that Greek industries and other individual electricity

generators become familiar with the cogeneration technology and adopt it. The Greek Centre

of Renewable Energy Sources (CRES) and the relevant German organisation (ZREU), under

the financing of the European Commission, published a handbook called Training Guide on

CHP Systems containing subjects such as CHP principles and other technological issues,

operation, maintenance as well as financial opportunities and assessments and legal status for

the EU in general and for Greece and Germany in particular.

During the past years, the EU has begun highlighting the significance of CHP plants through

the issue of Directive 2004/8/EC. In this directive, the European Union sees CHP as “a

measure to save energy” and it is only a matter of time, technology and governments’

initiative before CHP units are integrated in the electricity generation market.

8

Fossil fuels and finite energy cannot be totally replaced by RES all at once. CHP has the

privilege of using finite or RES energy products and by actually producing both power and

thermal energy, it can reduce significantly the use of the energy product itself.

The aim of this work is to investigate whether and to what degree the use of CHP plants in

Greece can actually have a positive environmental impact and furthermore to quantify it. The

major environmental benefits are mainly due to the fact that since CHP plants have greater

efficiency than conventional ones, we need a lower amount of primary energy and thus fewer

GHG emissions are released.

The research work will be carried out in the following order: initially the pollution avoided

with the use of cogeneration plants will be estimated based on the existing plants. A survey on

CHP units installed and operating now in Greece, their environmental impacts will be

presented and evaluated as well.

Secondly, the scenario of CHP plant installations in percentage of penetration will be

examined. Specifically.

Reduction savings will be estimated in comparison with the tertiary and industrial

sector GHG emissions

Reduction savings will be estimated in comparison with the national GHG emissions

levels

In addition, the drawbacks of CHP plants will be presented and an estimation of the

drawbacks that prevented the integration of CHP units instead of conventional power units

will be made so as to be in a position to detect accurately the reasons why those units have not

been adopted on a greater scale.

9

1.4 METHODOLOGY

The present research aims to answer the question of to what extent and in what way the

technology of combined heat and power generation can give a solution to the problem of

harmful emissions in Greece. This research uses as input, cogeneration technologies, the

urgent environmental need for pollution control and the cogeneration potential of Greece. The

empirical research method is a class of research method in which empirical observations or

data are collected in order to answer particular research questions. In this investigation

relevant literature will also be reviewed. Therefore, since all of the aforementioned methods

constitute the key ideas of empirical research, the approach method to be used is the

empirical.

The environmental advantages of cogeneration arise from data, observation and assumption of

what is likely to happen if cogeneration systems are to be used in Greek power plants. This

investigation is going to predict a causal relation to the cogeneration theory, based on the

higher efficiency and on the decreased use of fossil fuels that the plants might achieve using

this specific technology.

Thus, based on the cogeneration theories of higher efficiency and the decreased use of fossil

fuels, the research is going to follow the structure of predicting a casual relation to the

aforementioned theories. As a result, it seem obvious that this is a deductive research. During

recent years there has been an active response from competent authorities and private energy

sectors towards cogeneration and thus some serious attempts have been made to promote

CHP technologies. Therefore, there is data-though limited- available that can be used to

confirm CHP theories relative to the environmental advantages that arise and consequently,

the research can be characterised as inductive as well.

Byman (1989) states that “survey research entails the collection of data on a number of units

[…], with a view to collecting systematically a body of quantifiable data in respect of a

number of variables which are then examined to discern patterns of association”. The type of

design to be used is survey, as the investigation relative to the environmental advantages

emerges basically from data and information that are qualitative, such as CHP technology.

Furthermore, the research is going to be neither experimental nor a case study, but the output

10

of an array of CHP plants. The main aim the research has to fulfil is to what extent

environmental benefits arise.

The category of activity is not longitudinal mainly because CHP is a technology that is not yet

common in Greece and thus the investigation cannot be conducted over a definite period of

time. Cohen, et al. (2000) state that “where different respondents are studied at different

points in time the study is called ‘cross-sectional’ ”. Instead of longitudinal, we will follow

the cross-sectional method that allows us to face CHP as a group of various technologies and

applications to be applied in Greek power stations in order to reduce the harmful emissions.

Finally, the data collection technique will be a collection of secondary data. This data will

include the amount of Greek emission levels, the CHP applications that have so far been used

in Greece and finally the GHG emissions and the potential amount of fuel saved by using

CHP. Public records and/or company records presenting the electricity and heat consumption,

before and after the implementation of a CHP unit, are to be used in the research providing an

extensive presentation of the environmental advantages.

1.5 DELIMITATION OF SCOPE

This research study is about calculating the reduction in GHG emissions and reduction in fuel

consumption based on the CHP data of the companies so far operating and/or designed.

It attempts to calculate the aforementioned environmental gain from the current designed

units and proceed to an evaluation of those units.

The analysis has focused on data analysis and has not extended to an economic evaluation of

cogeneration plants due to the need for a more focused research.

1.6 OUTLINE OF THE DISSERTATION

In the first chapter, an introduction of the present CHP study is made. This chapter provides

an identification of the research problem and its importance. Aims of the current research are

outlined while relative extensive justification is carried out. Moreover, an insightful review of

the chosen methodology is presented and a detailed validation of the specific choices is

presented.

11

The theoretical and practical problems are presented in the second chapter. The theoretical

problem is defined by means of pollution control and CHP technology, while the practical

problem introduces the environment and context of the problem, aiming to facilitate on a

greater scale CHP units in Greece. The research problem and questions are presented in detail

helping to define the problem.

The sequence of steps adopted during the research is presented via the research process plan.

The Research process plan presented in the third chapter provides extensive information on

the methods that will be followed using flow diagrams leading from the aims to the final

output of the research.

The fourth chapter includes the analysis and results. Findings, by means of primary research,

the data collected and their analysis are presented. The analysis which follows is a series of

calculations and determines on what scale CHP technology provides environmental gains in

Greece.

Ultimately, in the final chapter conclusions of the current research work are presented.

Conclusions stem directly from the analysis and results and relate fully to the research

problem.

1.7 SUMMARY

This chapter introduced the environmental prospects in the era of CHP technology. As GHG

emissions are gradually rising, Greece along with the rest of the world is trying to tackle

serious and adverse environmental problems. Environmental issues are outlined and the

research problem is defined. The methodology followed and closed the introductory chapter

of the current research.

12

CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH DEFINITION

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The current chapter defines the theoretical and practical problems. Within the theoretical

problem, issues such as pollution control, CHP technology and lack of knowledge of the use

and performance of cogeneration units are investigated.

The practical problem section includes the demand for pollution control and national policies

on pollution control. The research questions provide assistance by presenting the quality of

the findings that are going to be presented hereafter within the fourth chapter.

2.2 THE PRACTICAL PROBLEM

The problem environment: The demand for pollution control

Climate change is one of the four key environmental priorities of the EU sixth environmental

action programme (6EAP) (European Council, 2002). In the EU strategy for sustainable

development (European Commission, 2001a), climate change is mentioned as one of the main

threats to sustainable development, and energy use is explicitly linked to this by proposing the

limitation of climate change and increase in the use of clean energy as a combined priority

objective. Climate change has to be analysed in an integrated way together with other

environmental issues such as air pollution, water pollution, deforestation and loss of

biodiversity, due to the interactive relations all those issues have. Pollution of all kinds has

caused irreversible impacts for the world presented in the report of European Environment

Agency titled “Climate change and a European low-carbon energy system” in 2005, include:

• a temperature increase in the past 100 years of 0.70 C globally and of 10C in Europe,

while the warmest European years recorded were in the last 14 years

• precipitation in northern Europe increased by about 10-40 % in the past 100 years and

decreased by up 20% in southern Europe

• the frequency of draughts, heat waves and extreme precipitation events in Europe has

increased while the frequency of cold extremes has decreased

• glaciers in the Alps lost approximately one third of their size and one half of their

mass. The extent and duration of snow cover across Europe has decreased.

• reductions in the sea ice will shrink the habitats of polar bears and seals

13

• several costal zones will experience increasing problems due to sea level rise and the

melting thawing ground will disrupt transportation, buildings and other infrastructure

• river discharge is projected to increase in northern and north-western Europe and to

decrease in parts of Mediterranean Europe

• the cultivated area can be expanded in northern Europe while at the same time due to

increase water stress in southern Europe, agriculture might be threatened

• during the summer of 2003 more than 20,000 deaths occurred in Europe attributable to

a combination of heat and pollution.

• the “abrupt” climate theory (IPCC, 2001a;Hadley Centre,2005a) describes various

non-linear, abrupt changes with global and regional consequences such as 13m

increase in global sea level or general decrease in temperature

All of the above forms of impacts are the apparent proof that the demand for pollution control

is far beyond urgent, and that we are at a point where it has become a necessity for the planet

earth. Europe, having realised how important environment assurance is, has established

various models monitoring the environment and in particular IMAGE, Euromove and FAIR

models which are related to GHG emissions and climate change.

The problem context: National policies on pollution control

In Europe, the first step was taken by the European Parliament with the issuance of Directive

96/61/EC which as described in its body “…establishes the general framework for integrated

pollution prevention and control; it lays down the measures necessary to implement integrated

pollution prevention and control…”. As a result, all of the member states have to take all the

necessary steps which include the issuing of relevant national laws.

Within the Directive is implied that in order to receive a permit, an industrial or agricultural

installation must comply with certain basic obligations. In particular, it must:

• use all appropriate pollution-prevention measures, namely the best available

techniques (which produce the least waste, use less hazardous substances, enable the

recovery and recycling of substances generated, etc.);

• prevent all large-scale pollution;

• prevent, recycle or dispose of waste in the least polluting way possible;

• use energy efficiently;

• ensure accident prevention and damage limitation;

14

• restore sites to their original state when the activity is over.

In addition to regulations and laws, treaties and protocols are intergovernmental methods

aimed at confronting pollution. The most widely known is the Kyoto Protocol presented for

signature in 1997 in Japan and enforced almost seven years later. In this Protocol, countries

commit to reduce their emissions of six greenhouse gases by 5.2 % compared to their level in

1990. As of January 2009, 183 parties have ratified the protocol and which entered into force

on 16 February 2005. The objective is the stabilization of GHG concentrations in the

atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the

climate system.

Other Protocols established mainly to record, control and prevent air pollution are still in

force and their objective is to extend the implementation and progress of national policies and

strategies. Some examples of these are Sulphur Protocol in 1985, Protocol on Nitrogen

Oxides in 1988, Protocol on Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in 1991, Protocol on

Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions in 1994, Protocol on Heavy Metals in 1998, Protocol

on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in 1998, Protocol to Abate Acidification and

Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone in 1999.

The problem of interest: What needs to be done to integrate more CHP units in the industrial

and hospital sector in Greece?

In the report of GOGEN Europe titled “The future of CHP in the EU market-The European

cogeneration study’’ in 2001 refers among others “… Cogeneration in supplied about 2.5% of

the electricity produced within Greece. The majority of this is in the industrial sector.

Fuelling is increasingly dominated by gas, which has been replacing coal during the last

decade. During the next 20 years, cogeneration capacity in the EU is predicted to almost

triple from approximately 70 GWe to 190 GWe. This majority of growth will be shared

between the industrial and domestic micro-CHP. Cogeneration in Germany contributes to

10% of the electrical capacity, and 16% of electricity in Italy is dominated by large scale

cogeneration industrial plants. Cogeneration in Finland, supplies 32 % and 75% of electricity

and heat respectively, mainly in space heating and the industrial sector. In other European

Countries, like Sweden and the UK, cogeneration contributes at a percentage of 5-6 % to

electricity production…” .

The potential of CHP in Greece is estimated to be 400-500MWe in the industrial sector and

300MWe in the commercial sector (Theofylaktos G., 2005). A plan has to be followed in

order to integrate CHP plants in the industrial and commercial sectors (hospitals and hotels).

15

This plan should provide a solution to major issues that CHP plants are facing, in order to

facilitate their establishment in the Greek electricity generation scheme. Owners of industrial

and commercial units should be economically assisted and the initial capital cost should be

reduced while other economic motivations, such as reduced taxation should be adopted.

Another great problem that CHP units face is that although some plants manage to receive the

production licence from the Greek Ministry of Development and be funded, only some of

them actually obtain the operational licence that is the last prerequisite to operate their CHP

unit. Usually those situations occur when mistaken designs in the CHP unit have taken place

and thus remarkable efforts should be made so that those situations are no longer an obstacle

for CHP establishment in Greece.

2.3 THE THEORETICAL PROBLEM

The subject: Pollution Control

“Global demand for energy is increasing. World energy demand – and CO2 emissions – is

expected to rise by some 60% by 2030. Global oil consumption has increased by 20% since

1994, and global oil demand is projected to grow by 1.6% per year”. This is one of the

energy strategy points stated within the Green Paper -A European Strategy for Sustainable,

Competitive and Secure Energy of 2006.

A report issued in May 2007 by the World Wildlife Fund called “Thirty Dirty” sets out the 30

‘dirtiest’ European power plants and has in its two first places PP Ag.Dimitriou and PP

Kardia, both of which are in Greece. Not surprisingly the dirtiest power plants use, as a

majority coal as fuel. This happens mostly due to the plants’ low efficiency and the low

calorific value of coal. Here, Greece highlights the urgent need for pollution control and for

the adaptation of an effective solution.

According to the Stern Review, as a result of climate change, a 30 C temperature rise will be

one reason among many, why 3 million people will not have access to water, up to 200

million people will be suffering from malaria and malnutrition and 25 % of species will face

extinction (both fauna and flora). This review also notes that “the latest science suggests that

the Earth’s average temperature will rise by even more than 5 or 6°C if emissions continue to

grow and positive feedbacks amplify the warming effect of greenhouse gases (e.g. release of

carbon dioxide from soils or methane from permafrost). This level of global temperature rise

would be equivalent to the amount of warming that occurred between the last age (refers to

2006 when this report was issued) and today – and is likely to lead to major disruption and

16

large-scale movement of population. Such “socially contingent” effects could be catastrophic,

but are currently very hard to capture with current models as temperatures would be so far

outside human experience.”

Electricity production is responsible for 50% of Greek CO2 emissions, while combustion of

fossil fuel accounts for 91% of total emissions, according to the National Observatory of

Athens.

The Area: CHP Technology

Cogeneration uses a single process to generate both electricity and usable heat or cooling. The

proportions of heat and power needed (heat:power ratio) vary from site to site, so the type of

plant must be selected carefully and an appropriate operating regime must be established to

match demands as closely as possible. The plant may therefore be set up to supply part or all

of the site’s heat and electricity loads, or a surplus may even be exported if a suitable

customer is available.

A Cogeneration plant consists of four basic elements:

• a prime mover (engine);

• an electricity generator;

• a heat recovery system;

• a control system.

Cogeneration units are generally classified by the type of prime mover (i.e. drive system),

generator and fuel used. In table 1, a cogeneration sector-fuel-size matrix is presented.

Depending on site requirements, the prime mover may be a steam turbine, reciprocating

engine, gas turbine and combined cycle. In the future, new technology options will include

micro-turbines, Stirling engines and fuel cells. The prime mover drives the electricity

generator and usable heat is recovered. The basic elements are all well established items of

equipment, of proven performance and reliability.

17

Table 2.1: Cogeneration sector-fuel-size matrix (source: ESD, COGEN Europe et. al, 2001).

Sector Plant Size

(MWe)

Natural Gas

Coal & products

Heavy Fuel Oil

Light Oil

Solid Biomass

Solid Wastes Biogas

Domestic <0.015 * * * * Commerce 0.015-

0.1 * * * * *

0.1-1 * * * * * 1-5 * * * * * * * Industry 1-5 * * * * * * * 5-50 * * * * * * * >50 * * * * *

Cogeneration plants are available which can provide outputs from 1 kWe to 500 MWe. For

larger scale applications (greater than 1 MWe) there is no "standard" cogeneration kit:

equipment is specified to maximise cost-effectiveness for each individual site. For small-scale

cogeneration applications, equipment is normally available in pre-packaged units, helping to

simplify installations.

Plants for industrial applications typically fall into the range 1-50 MWe. In general, it can be

said that from 1 MWe to 10 MWe it will be medium, and above 10 MWe will be large. Non

industrial applications also cover a full range of sizes, from 1 kWe for a domestic dwelling to

about 10 MWe for a large district heating cogeneration scheme. Everything under 1 MWe

can be considered small-scale. “Mini” is under 500 kWe and “micro” under 20 kWe.

Cogeneration has a long history of use in many types of industry, particularly in the paper and

bulk chemicals industries, which have large concurrent heat and power demands. In recent

years, the greater availability and wider choice of suitable technology has meant that

cogeneration has become an attractive and practical proposal for a wide range of applications.

These include the process industries, commercial and public sector buildings and district

heating schemes, all of which have considerable heat demand. These applications are

summarised in the table below. In the table, lists of renewable fuels that can enhance the value

of cogeneration are also presented, though fossil fuels, particularly natural gas, are more

widely used.

18

Table 2.2: Possible opportunities for application of cogeneration (Source: COGEN Europe,

2001).

Industrial Buildings Renewable Energy Energy from waste

Pharmaceuticals

& fine chemicals

District

heating

Sewage treatment

works

Gasified Municipal

Solid Waste

Paper and board

manufacture

Hotels Poultry and other

farm sites

Municipal

incinerators

Brewing,

distilling &

malting

Hospitals Short rotation

coppice woodland

Landfill sites

Ceramics Leisure

centres &

swimming

pools

Energy crops Hospital waste

incinerators

Brick

College

campuses &

schools

Agro-wastes (ex:

bio gas)

Cement Airports

Food processing

Prisons,

police

stations

Textile

processing

Supermarkets

and large

stores

Minerals

processing

Office

buildings

Oil Refineries Individual

Houses

Iron and Steel

Motor industry

Horticulture and

glasshouses

Timber

processing

19

Apart from industrial cogeneration schemes, other applications include district heating and

Residential and Commercial Cogeneration. In District Heating (DH) applications, the heat

provided by cogeneration is ideal for providing space heating and hot water for domestic,

commercial or industrial use. DH systems are sometimes based on the incineration of

municipal waste, and with adequate emission controls are a better environmental solution than

disposing of waste in landfills. DH systems are also able to use biomass while natural gas as a

fuel gives added flexibility to district heating systems. The cogeneration systems used in

residential and commercial applications tend to be smaller systems, often based on 'packaged'

units. Packaged units comprise a reciprocating engine, a small generator, and a heat recovery

system, housed in a container. The only connections to the unit are for fuel, normally natural

gas, and the connections for the heat and electricity output of the unit. These systems are

commonly used in hotels, leisure centres, offices, smaller hospitals, and multi-residential

accommodation.

Kaarsberg et.al in 1998 presented a case of a hotel or hospital using CHP. Assuming CHP

heat displaces natural gas burnt at 80% efficiency for space heat and 65% efficiency for hot

water, the most interesting results are the two central columns: "Energy Saved" and "Carbon

Avoided." The CHP engine uses 37% less fuel and generates 41% less carbon than the current

grid for electricity and gas space and water heating.

Table 2.3: Energy and Carbon Use and Savings for Current Small-scale CHP Technologies,

for 1 GWe of Installed Capacity(presents "Today's" results, not for a 100 kW Unit, but scaled up to 1 GW

of installed capacity )(Source: Kaarsberg et.al. 1998).

Primary Energy in TBtu, for 1 GWe Running 4,928

Hours/year

Carbon in MtC per Installed GWe CHP

Technology CHP Fuel

SHP Electric

SHP Heat

Savings(SHP-CHP)

Energy Savings

%

CarbonAvoided

% CHP Fuel

SHP Electric

SHP Heat

Savings(SHP-CHP)

Today's Engine-

new Bldg. 48 56 20 28 37% 41% 0.7 0.89 0.29 0.48

20

The gap in knowledge: The lack of knowledge concerning the use and performance of CHP

plants in Greece

In Greece, CHP has been under development during recent years and serious attempts for

CHP applications have been made after the issue of Directive 2004/8/EC of February 11th,

2004. Thus, a few plants have been installed and are now operating, some of which have now

exceeded their “pilot phase”. However, district heating applications have been constructed in

the cities of Ptolemaida, Kozani, Megalopoli and Amynteo where the distance between the

station and the recipients is usually around 10 km. In other towns, the designs of such district

heating systems have not been made yet.

Concerning smaller scale CHP plants, apart from their existence for only a small period of

time, there are other factors that prevent their development. These include, the wide variety of

technologies used, the fuel used and the pollutant preventing technologies. Diversity along

with the short period of time that CHP technology has been used is a great obstacle towards

achieving the knowledge of the use and performance of such units.

Due to the fact that CHP is practically new and not yet widely used in Greece technology,

many users such as industries, hotels and hospitals are rather sceptical towards using such a

plant. In order to promote this technology, specific aspects of CHP plants relevant to their

performance are to be highlighted.

Guidelines are presented, giving instructions to matters such as which applications are likely

to have more benefits, how the efficiency can contribute to the overall performance of the

plant. Other matters include the electricity to heat ratio EHR and how this contributes to the

reduction of fuel used and GHG emissions.

In particular all those information are going to be estimated in the axis of Greece, using real

data from currently operating CHP plants.

21

2.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND/OR HYPOTHESIS

The research questions help determine what evidence needs to be collected to answer the

research problem, whilst also setting the boundaries for the practical and theoretical problems

by stating what is part of the research problem and what is not. A correct definition of the

research questions will define the problem and a clearer picture of it will emerge as the

researcher will be fine-tuning and investigating the data collected.

1. What are the current GHG emission levels in Greece?

2. To what extent have CHP units been used?

3. What are the drawbacks that have so far prevented the utilization of CHP plants?

4. What is the amount of reduction in emissions that can be achieved using cogeneration?

2.5 SUMMARY

In the second chapter, research definition is achieved via presenting and analysing the

theoretical and the practical problems. In the context of the theoretical problem, the status of

CO2 emissions in Greece is presented, whereas the practical problem defines the amount of

GHG reduction which is achieved with the use of CHP plants. The research questions led the

research towards the discovery of an answer for the research problem.

22

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the research process plan has been worked out. Steps followed are set in order,

providing the reader with the logical algorithm that the writer has chosen in order to cover the

subject and come to the desirable output. The computational algorithm is analytically

presented so that it allows for an extended description of what steps will be followed and what

needs to be done in a logical order to reach a final conclusion about the aim of the research

problem. Each block in the flow diagram specifies the calculations that will be needed for

finding the reduction of GHG emissions and fuel consumption from the use of CHP units. The

calculations include plants that have been installed already and predictions are made upon

other plants in the industrial and tertiary sectors.

3.2 RESEARCH PROCESS PLAN

The research process plan presents the integration of CHP techniques in the industrial sector

and in a part of the non residential building sector. Furthermore the calculation steps towards

finding the new environmental performance is given throughout, aiming towards reduced

GHG emissions as well as a reduction in the amount of primary energy used. The reduction in

GHG emissions constitutes the main research problem and thus the computational algorithm

has as scope to develop an analytical representation of that. The plan is formed starting from

the present setting, finding and using appropriate data, for theory verification, checking the

application of CHP technology performance, calculating the environmental performance of

current Greek plants and estimating the potential reductions from further use in other plants.

This works ultimate purpose is to find a quantifiable answer to the main research question,

which is “What is the amount of reduction in emissions that can be achieved using

cogeneration?”.

The algorithm of the research process plan includes inputs, outputs and constant

parameters/considerations. The inputs are data retrieved from literature review, public records

as well as technical/performance characteristics of both CHP plants and conventional power

plants. Outputs include results of estimations/calculations.

23

Inputs include:

• the GHG emission levels at national level,

• the number of CHP plants currently in operation,

• fuel consumption of conventional plants for the industrial and tertiary sectors,

• GHG emissions of conventional plants for the industrial and tertiary sectors,

• energy performance of CHP plants,

• fuel consumption of conventional plants,

• recording of possible CHP applications in the industrial and commercial sectors

Outputs include:

• GHG emissions i.e. the GHG emissions of a CHP unit in the industrial sector,

• estimated GHG emissions i.e. the GHG emissions of a future CHP unit in industrial

sector,

• potential saving in GHG emissions i.e. the GHG emissions of a future CHP unit at a

national level,

• fuel consumption in an existing plant

• estimated fuel saving for an existing plant

• estimated potential fuel savings due to future CHP units at a national level

• contribution to the reduction of the national GHG emission level

Constant parameters/considerations include:

• the net calorific value of lignite is an average value of values of PPC’s power plants of

Ptolemais, Aminteo, Megalopolis, Florina, Drama and Elassona,

• we assume average prices of Mazut No1 (1500) High/Low Sulphur and Mazut No3

(3500) of both High/Low Sulphur, where it is not stated which of the two is used

• Emission is measured in 1999 and forecasted up to 2010. Fuel mix is taken for year

2005(Eurostat provides in 2008 data up to 2005), while Greece’s fuel mix is based on

2008 date. Due to difficulty in finding all the aforementioned data for the same year we

assume that no dramatically changes have been done during year 1999 and 2008.

• We assume that the fuel used after the installation of a CHP plant is natural gas.

24

• In tertiary sector assumptions are made that 60% of the thermal energy is produced using

diesel oil as fuel and 40% natural gas, while we also consider 80% efficiency of diesel oil

boilers and 85% efficiency of natural gas boilers.

The steps followed in the research process plan are presented with the following order:

1. the number of CHP applications in operation - general data

2. their energy performance (electricity-heat load –efficiency)

3. shorting of the applications

4. find typical values of consumption for particular sectors in industry-tertiary

5. estimate the energy needs prior to installation of the CHP

6. amount of fuel use prior is estimated

7. amount of GHG emissions prior is estimated

8. amount of GHG emissions after is estimated

9. comparison is carried out between steps 7 and 8

10. combining the current national potential and step 9-due to current operating CHP

units

11. combining the current national potential and step 9-due to future scenarios CHP

units

The aforementioned steps of the research process plan are presented in Figure 3.1 hereafter.

25

Figure 3.1: The research process plan. (Source: The author).

Start

Find/calculate useful data

GHG national emission levels

CHP applications in operation

Consumption of Greek industry

CO2, SO2 and NOx emissions before and after CHP installation

Consumption of Greek tertiary sector (hotels-

health care blds)

Contribution to reduction of national GHG emissions level due to CHP plants in

operation

Potential GHG emission reduction-

penetration scenarios of 25%, 50% and 75 %

amount of fuel used

Electrical and thermal energy used operation

Contribution to reduction of national GHG

emissions level for 100% CHP implementation in

industry

Contribution to reduction of national GHG

emissions level for 100% CHP implementation in

tertiary sector

Electrical and thermal energy used operation

CO2, SO2 and NOx emissions factors

26

3.3 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The present research is not conducted in a laboratory or institutional premises and has not

received any means of funding or any other kind of provision from a public or private sector.

The author has made use of technical and non-technical literature available to the public and

has used public data that have been published in Greece throughout the National Gazette.

Data related to specific companies that have currently adopted the CHP technology to meet

their energy needs could have been included but such was avoided in order to protect the

personal data of those companies. Instead an estimation of energy consumption was conducted

based on national designs from the Hellenic Ministry of Development

Reliable papers, publications and designs are the main input of this work, making the work

trustworthy and the conclusions extracted of adequate gravity. The conclusions of this work

have the potential to be a great motivation for other companies from the industrial and tertiary

sectors to adopt the CHP technology. Additionally, the work can provide information on how

much environmental help can be given to the major phenomenon of global warming and on the

savings that can be achieved in order to slow the depletion of natural resources at a national

level. It does not contain data or issues that can affect negatively personally or legally any

person and thus it does not involve ethical issues.

3.4 SUMMARY

In the third chapter the steps and a schematic approach of the research process plan was

presented. The analysis answers the research questions of the work, which is by how much

GHG emissions and fuel can be reduced at a national level, through the adoption of CHP

technology. Estimations were made comparing conventional means of meeting the energy

needs in the industrial and commercial sectors. The Research problem’s inputs, outputs,

constant parameters/considerations as well as the steps followed in the research process plan

were presented.

27

CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The fourth chapter contains the analysis of the findings gathered. A review of CHP units

operating now is presented together with some characteristics of the plants. The GHG emission

problem is addressed via presenting the levels of GHG emissions for the period of 1990-2000

and estimates are given for the years 2000-2010. The current situation of energy consumption

in industry and in the tertiary sector in general is presented in order to define the necessity for

energy saving in those sectors. The energy consumption of each plant currently operating is

calculated, along with the GHG emission estimates for before and after the installation of a

CHP plant. Energy and emission reductions so far gained from currently operating plants are

presented and then penetration scenarios of 25%, 50% and 75% are estimated for further

penetration into separately industrial tertiary sector. Cumulative cases for industrial and

tertiary sector in comparison to Greek GHG emissions are presented in the end of the chapter.

4.2 RESULTS OF ANALYSIS: THE FINDINGS

Final energy demand in Greece in 2000 totalled 18.9 Mtoe, of which 24% was used in

industry, 39% for transportation and 37% by the residential and tertiary sector. The mean

annual increase rate for the time period 1990–2000 is estimated at 2.5%. The per capita final

energy consumption increased by 20% over the time period 1990–2000 (1.45 and 1.74 toe/cap,

respectively), while the respective figure at EU-level is estimated at 9% (from 2.54 toe/cap in

1990 to 2.78 toe/cap in 2000).

All three sectors increased their energy use over the time period 1990–2000, with the

residential and tertiary sector showing the most significant increase (by 44%), followed by

transportation (by 24%) and industry (by 16%) (Figure 4.1). This resulted in a total increase of

28% between 1990 and 2000.

28

Figure 4.1: Final energy consumption by the economic sector (source: Ministry for the

Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works, 2002) 4.2.1 Energy consumption in industry In 2000, the total energy consumption of the industrial sector totalled 4.6 Mtoe (Figure 4.2),

which equals 24% of the total energy demand in Greece. The main structural changes

regarding energy consumption in industry refer to the gradual replacement of petroleum

products by coal products (a trend almost solely attributed to the increased use of steam coal

by the cement industry) during the time period 1980–1995 and to the penetration of natural gas

for thermal uses and for use as feedstock in the chemical industry.

In 2000, oil products accounted for approximately 44% of the total energy needs of the sector,

compared to 46% in 1995 and 69% in 1980. Electricity consumption has steadily increased

since 1993. In 2000, it reached a total of approximately 1.2 Mtoe or 25% of the total energy

use of the sector.

Figure 4.2: Final energy consumption in industry by energy carrier (source: Ministry for the

Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works, 2002)

29

4.2.2 Energy consumption in residential and tertiary sector In 2000, the energy use in the residential and tertiary sectors totalled 7 Mtoe or 37% of the

total energy demand in Greece, compared to 4.8 Mtoe in 1990 (Figure 4.3). This energy was

primarily used for space heating and cooling, and domestic hot water production in residential,

public and commercial premises. Other energy uses were in the form of electricity for

appliances/equipment and for the operation of building services systems in residential, public

and commercial premises. The figure also includes energy use in agriculture. The changes in

the energy consumption of the sector reflect both the improving living standards of Greek

society and an increase in the number of housing units. These two factors have resulted in

improved levels of heating and, recently, of cooling, and a rise in the ownership of home

electrical appliances. The floor area of commercial premises has also increased substantially,

thus contributing to an increase in demand for electricity for ventilation, lighting and other

office equipment.

Figure 4.3: Final energy consumption in the residential and tertiary sectors by energy carrier

(source: Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works, 2002)

4.2.3 National levels of GHG emissions for the period of 1990-2010 Figures 4.4 and 4.5 present summary results for the emission estimates for CO2, SO2 and NOx

for the years 1990-2010. For the period 1990-2000 data are real, while for years 2001-2010

data presented are an estimation and have been calculated using the function “forecast” of

Microsoft-Excel. From 1990 until 2000 the amount of carbon dioxide emitted steadily

increased with an average increase rate of 3% (except for years 1995 and 1999) and the

30

amount of emissions is expected to reach almost 130,000 Kt in 2010. Industry contributes at a

rate of 9% to the total CO2 emissions, mainly due to the industrial processes(mainly the

production of cement, lime, aluminium and ammonia).

CO2 Emission for the period of 1990-2010

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

year

Kt

CO2

Figure 4.4: CO2 emission levels for the period of 1990-2000 (source: Ministry for the

Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works, National Observatory of Athens,2002) and

for the period of 2001-2010 forecast by author.

The industrial sector is responsible for 3% of total SO2 emissions and these derive from the

production of sulphuric acid, cement and aluminium. In 1999, total SO2 emissions were

approximately 11% higher than 1990 levels. The decrease of emissions in 1994 was mainly

due to decrease of sulphur content in heavy fuel oil used in industry at the two largest urban

areas; Athens and Thessaloniki. In 2002, total SO2 emissions were lower by 2.1 % compared

to 1990 levels. This was mainly due to the decrease of emission in electricity generation sector

(-12%), especially from the unit of Megalopolis, as a result of the operation of the new

desulphurization there(MIN.ENV., NOA, 2002).

31

SO2 and NOx emissions for the period of 1990-2010

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010year

Kt SO2

NOx

Figure 4.5: SO2 and NOx emission levels for the period of 1990-2000 (source: Ministry for

the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works, National Observatory of Athens, 2002)

and for the period of 2001-2010 forecast by author.

Oxides of nitrogen, NO and NO2 are created by fossil fuel combustion lighting, biomass fires

and, in the stratosphere, from nitrous oxide. NOx emissions appear to be steadily increasing

with an average increase rate approximately at 0.8 %.

4.2.4 CHP plants currently in operation in Greece Table 4.1 present the current situation of the CHP units operating in Greece and contains

information on estimated thermal and electricity power, efficiency, location of the plants and

fuel used.

In the following Table 4.1, fifty three companies appear to have installed a CHP plant and

among them are heavy industrial units such as refineries and iron and steel production

companies.

If we group the companies per type of industry the greatest installed power is the iron and steel

production with the amount of 363.5 MW and refineries follow with the amount of 139.3 MW,

while Food, Drink and Milk Industries 63.9MW installed.

32

Table 4.1: CHP Units in operation in Greece (source: Hellenic Ministry of Development, 2008)

S/N COMPANY POWER (MW)

ESTIMATED THERMAL

POWER (MWH/year)

ESTIMATED ELECTRICAL

POWER (MWH/year)

OVERALL EFFICIENCY

% LOCATION FUEL TYPE OF INDUSTRY

1 Hellenic

Petroleum S.A. 50 Aspropirgos-Attica Byproducts Refineries

2

Ceramic Manufacturing

Kothali 1.131 Chrisoupoli-Kavala N.G. Ceramic Manufacturing

3 ELFIKO 1.2 11,765 10,161 85 Schimatari-Biotia N.G. Textile processing

4

Hellenic Sugar Industry S.A.

(EBZ) 6 Seres Μazut

3500/N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries

5

Phosphoric Fertilizers

Industry (BFL) 11.42 Thessaloniki Steam

Large Volume Inorganic Chemicals-Ammonia, acids and fertilizers

6


(EBZ) 16 Xanthi Μazut

3500/N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries

7


(EBZ) 10 Orestiada Μazut 3500 Food, Drink and Milk Industries

8


Industry (BFL) 18.868 Kavala Steam


9 Μaillis 2.1 Inofita-Biotia N.G. Polymers

10 Αmilim Hellas 4.5 Thessaloniki N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries

11 Thermi Seron 16.5 147,931 105,130 80.17 Thermi-Seres N.G. Energy Companies

33


ESTIMATED THERMAL

POWER (MWH/year)


POWER (MWH/year)

OVERALL EFFICIENCY


12


(EBZ) 12 Larissa Μazut /N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries

13


(EBZ) 12 Plati-Imathia N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries

14 Corinth

Pipeworks S.A. 15 Thisvi-Biotia Diesel Iron and Steel Production

15 Alluminium of

Greece S.A. 125 1,350,000 920,000 76 Biotia N.G. Iron and Steel Production

16 Alluminium of

Greece S.A. 125 1,350,000 920,000 76 Biotia N.G. Iron and Steel Production

17 Alluminium of

Greece S.A. 84 Biotia N.G. Iron and Steel Production

18

Athens Water Supply and Sewerage Company

(EYDAP SA) 14 154,400 112,000 79.2 Psitaleia N.G.

Common Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment management systems

19 EXALCO 2.72 Larissa N.G. Iron and Steel Production

20


Industry (BFL) 2.35 16,468 80 Kavala Steam


21 COCA COLA 1.4 6,160 5,610 77.2 Schimatari-Biotia N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries

22 Motoroil 17 232,140 145,942 93.5 Agioi Theodoroi-

Korinthia Byproducts Refineries

23 Chalibas S.A. 11.5 169,000 77,000 76.9 Ionia-Thessaloniki N.G. Iron and Steel Production

34


ESTIMATED THERMAL

POWER (MWH/year)


POWER (MWH/year)

OVERALL EFFICIENCY


24 Paper Mills of

Thace 9.9 54,780 82,170 65 Magana-Xanthi N.G. Paper 25 Athinaion 0.408 4,351 3,266 83.6 Athens N.G. Hotels

26 Motoroil 32.1 Agioi Theodoroi-

Korinthia Byproducts Refineries

27 ΕΤΕΜ 0.225 690 1,051 91.2 Magoula-Attica N.G. Iron and Steel Production

28 Phisis S.A. 9.5 68,760 Xanthi N.G. -

Biomass

Common Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment management systems

29 ΒΕΑΚ S.A. 1.055 Komotini N.G. Ceramic Manufacturing

30 Hellenic

Petroleum S.A. 5.5 341,600 46,358 75.3 Thessaloniki Steam Refineries

31 Thermi Dramas 18 206,206 115,278 65 Drama N.G./Diesel Energy Companies

32 Delta S.A. 2 14,970 12,040 86.1 Attica N.G. Food, Drink and Milk Industries

33 ΡΑΡ HOTELS 0.065 701 415 88.5 Thessaloniki N.G. Hotels 34 Motoroil 17 Korithia LPG Refineries

35 Giotas S.A. 0.37 7,460 2,150 Grevena Byproducts Wood Processing Industries

36 Genesis 0.725 3,743 3,049 71.7 Thessaloniki N.G. Hospitals

37 University of

Athens 2,716 5,993 5,258 85.6 Athens N.G. University

38 Architech

Energy 4.965 23,735 17,282 84.9 Imathia N.G. Plant Industries

39 Greenhouse of

Drama 4.8 23,735 17,282 84.9 Drama N.G. Plant Industries 40 Asti S.A. 0.3 Athens N.G. Hotels

35


ESTIMATED THERMAL

POWER (MWH/year)


POWER (MWH/year)

OVERALL EFFICIENCY


41 Alfa Wood 0.75 Larissa Biomass Wood Processing Industries

42

DEPA S.A. (Public Gas

Corporation) 15.5 77,000 82,500 84 Revithoussa-Attica N.G. Energy Companies 43 Kavala Oil 17.67 Kavala N.G. Refineries

44 Academy of

Athens 1.49 Athens N.G. University 45 Mitera Hospital 0.56 4,500 3,570 87.8 Attica N.G. Hospitals

46

251 General Hospital of the

Hellenic Air Force 1.4 8,600 6,500 85.6 Athens N.G. Hospitals

47 Bright S.A 0.125 714 427 89.3 Athens Propane Electrical Appliances

48 Genimatas

Hospital 1.3 5,264 7,902 61.65 Athens N.G. Hospitals

49 Evagelismos

Hospital 1.5 15,195 10,839 60.05 Athens N.G. Hospitals

50 Sismanoglio

Hospital 1.2 4,916 6,875 60.03 Athens N.G. Hospitals 51 ΚΑΤ Hospital 1.2 5,486 7,817 61.27 Athens N.G. Hospitals 52 Attikon Hospital 1.65 10,685 10,706 75.93 Athens N.G. Hospitals

53 Hospital of the Hellenic Navy 0.5 Attica N.G. Hospitals

36

4.2.5 Consumption of Greek Industry The consumption of Greek industry is shown in table 4.14 and concerns years from 1990 to 2005 as

provided by Eurostat-New Cronos Database-Theme 8:Energy. For the purposes of this project, the

year 2005 will be taken as the year in which all energy savings are going be estimated. Using the

information provided in this table, fuel used to cover Greek industrial activity will help to illustrate

the energy savings using CHP technology. Energy savings will include both less fuel resources and

less GHG emissions due to fuel combustion.

Table 4.2: Greek industry’s fuel mix for years 1990-2005(source: Eurostat, 2008).

time

Thousands of tons

Har

d C

oal &

D

eriv

ativ

es

Lig

nite

&

Der

ivat

ives

Cok

e

Bro

wn

Coa

l B

riqu

ette

s

Ref

iner

y G

as

LPG

Gas

/ D

iese

l O

il

Res

idua

l Fue

l O

il

Oth

er

Petr

oleu

m

Prod

ucts

Ker

osen

es -

Jet F

uels

Nat

ural

Gas

(t

oe)

Ele

ctri

cal

Ene

rgy

(Mto

e)

1990 1,420.0 615.0 41.0 100.0 28.0 101.0 354.0 1,152.0 102.0 0 0 1,041.0 1991 1,501.0 507.0 25.0 75.0 22.0 125.0 192.0 1,107.0 96.0 0 0 1,023.0 1992 1,403.0 392.0 19.0 13.0 25.0 148.0 290.0 1,096.0 117.0 0 0 1,010.0 1993 1,369.0 569.0 16.0 17.0 24.0 158.0 296.0 910.0 171.0 0 0 976.0 1994 1,383.0 475.0 17.0 69.0 27.0 186.0 320.0 841.0 198.0 0 0 1,002.0 1995 1,375.0 465.0 11.0 57.0 22.0 222.0 457.0 957.0 262.0 0 0 1,037.0 1996 1,322.0 554.0 13.0 51.0 25.0 256.0 490.0 1,067.0 279.0 0 3.0 1,043.0 1997 1,223.0 418.0 20.0 0 34.0 289.0 500.0 1,045.0 305.0 1.0 33.0 1,070.0 1998 1,259.0 362.0 3.0 0 34.0 328.0 525.0 928.0 322.0 1.0 129.0 1,110.0 1999 1,028.0 235.0 1.0 0 7.0 315.0 560.0 769.0 343.0 1.0 190.0 1,109.0 2000 1,115.0 460.0 0.0 79.0 11.0 305.0 504.0 882.0 312.0 1.0 244.0 1,165.0 2001 1,230.0 252.0 4.0 80.0 5.0 310.0 500.0 830.0 357.0 1.0 294.0 1,183.0 2002 955.0 367.0 3.0 105.0 0.0 298.0 500.0 847.0 430.0 2.0 309.0 1,215.0 2003 795.0 302.0 4.0 107.0 0.0 304.0 550.0 778.0 430.0 4.0 328.0 1,217.0 2004 776.0 292.0 4.0 97.0 0.0 273.0 227.0 801.0 547.0 4.0 373.0 1,203.0 2005 564.0 337.0 4.0 113.0 0.00 254.0 439.0 667.0 564.0 4.0 426.0 1,240.0

37

4.2.6 Typical consumption of the Greek Tertiary Sector In table 4.1 the current plants that have a CHP plant are shown. However, using the literature for the

relevant sector the overall consumption of both health care buildings and hotels will be examined.

In this way an overall estimation will be achieved and energy and emission reductions can be

quantified.

Table 4.3: Tertiary sector plants, with an installed CHP unit. (source: the author)

4.2.6.1 Health Care Buildings Health care buildings, including hospitals, clinics and health centers represent the lowest

percentage, 0.05% of the total Hellenic non residential building stock, while they have the highest

energy consumption per unit floor area when compared to other non residential buildings. The high

energy consumption is due to the high use of ventilation loads and continuous 24 hour operation for

the majority of the facilities. Year of construction has an impact on the energy consumption of the

building and thus it is taken into account and an average value is assumed in the final stage of

calculations.

In table 4.4 the distribution of Greek health care buildings for different construction periods and

climatic zones is presented. The average electrical and thermal energy consumption for one health

care building to cover its annual energy needs is approximately 0.26 GWh and 0.4 GWh

respectively.

Tertiary Sector Number of CHP units

Hospitals 9 Hotels 3

38

Table 4.4: Distribution of Greek health care (HC) buildings for different construction periods

(source: Gaglia A., Balaras C., et.al.,2006).

Distribution of the Hellenic health care (HC) buildings for different construction periods

and climatic zones

Average annual electrical and thermal energy consumption (kWh/m2)in Hellenic Health Care buildings for the different climatic zones at different construction periods

year of construction

Number of buildings

Floor area (m2)

Electrical energy

consumption (kWh/m2)

Thermal energy


Electrical energy

consumption (MWh)

Thermal energy

consumption (MWh)

Pre-1980 1,566 3,394,400 90 145 305,496 492,188 (1981–2001) 117 1,004,400 99 134 99,436 134,590 (2002–2010) 59 580,041 107 129 62,064 74,825 Average - - 99 136 155,665 233,868 Total 1,742 4,978,841 - - 467.00 701.60

4.2.6.2 Hotels

Hotels represent about 0.26 % of the total Greek building stock, which is a quite small percentage

compared to other categories of non residential buildings. On the other hand, hotels exhibit very

high energy consumption that is mainly due to space AC, cooking and high sanitary hot water

needs. The hotels are initially classified in two categories according to their operation period,

namely: summer hotels with operating periods from April to October and annual hotels which

operate throughout the year. Similarly to health care buildings, year of construction has an impact

on the energy consumption of the building and thus it is taken into account and an average value is

assumed in the final stage of calculations. Another factor that is taken into account is the seasonal

use of a large number of hotels in Greece. This is interpreted as a use of seven instead of twelve

months per year. Calculations in appendix I (section 4.2.6.2) come to the conclusion that the total

electrical energy of the Greek hotels reach the amount of 2.22 GWh per year and the relevant

thermal energy is of the amount of 1.78 GWh per year. The average electrical and thermal energy

consumption for one Greek hotel irreverently its seasonal use and its year of construction is

0.741GWh electrical energy and 0.594 GWh thermal energy.

39

4.2.7 Typical emissions of GHG In order to estimate the reduction of the GHG emissions, we firstly have to estimate, based on the

typical consumptions as calculated in section 4.2.5, the emitted CO2, SO2 and NOx that are being

produced on an annual basis due to the combustion of fossil fuels. Table 4.22 provides the amount

of extracted pollutant in g per kg of combusted fuel and is an extract given by the Hellenic Ministry

of Development in an annex in the “Energy investment guide” of the Operational Program

Competitiveness at 2002. However, some fuels are not mentioned in the Energy Investment Guide

and GHG emissions are calculated by the method implied by IEA in “CO2 Emissions from fuel

combustion-Beyond 2020 Documentation (2008 Edition).

Table 4.10: Pollutant emissions per fuel (g/kg fuel). (source: Hellenic Ministry of Development,

2002).

Pollutant emissions (g/kg fuel) Fuel

CO2 SO2 NOx

Mazut Νο 1 (1500) Low Sulphur 3,175 14 5.363

Mazut Νο 1 (1500) High Sulphur 3,109 64 5.251



Diesel 3,142 0.7 2.384

LPG 3,030 0.0 2.102

Natural Gas 2,715 0.0 2.102

4.2.7.1 Typical GHG emissions for industrial sector 4.2.7.1.2 CO2 emission estimations before and after CHP installation

We estimate the CO2 before CHP installation using table 4.2 Greek industry’s fuel mix for year

2005 , CO2 emission factors, national electricity share to estimate the mass of CO2 produced due to

40

industrial consumption of electrical energy which reaches the amount of

22 647,783,121. COtnM COe = at annual basis. The mass of CO2 due to direct fuel consumption of

fuels used in industry as shown in the table 4.2 is estimated summing up the mass CO2 of when

consuming solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.

Those amounts are 22 CO tn 901,625,432.=solidCO

d M for solid fuel consisting of hard coal, lignite,

coal and briquettes, 22 CO tn 155,244,586.=liquidCO

d M for liquid fuels consisting of gas/diesel oil,

residual fuel oil, petroleum products and kerosene-jet fuel and

22 CO tn 911,925,341.=gasCO

d M consisting of refinery gas, lpg and natural gas. Those amounts are

summed up in 22 CO tn 968,795,360.=COd M which is the overall mass of CO2 due to fuel

consumption in Greek industry. And the total CO2 produced due to industrial activity in Greece

without using a CHP plant is the sum of the mass of CO2 due to electricity consumption and due to

fuel consumption and reaches the amount of 2CO2 .6016,578,482M COtn= annually.

On the other hand to estimate the CO2 emissions after the installation we estimate the new mass of

CO2 when covering the same energy needs using natural gas instead of other fuel. Therefore the

amount of thermal energy is estimated as GWh 33,026.367=beforeQ and electrical is

Wh14,421.20G=beforeE from which two amounts we estimate the mass of natural gas required

k tn 4,229.73'.. =gnM and the extracted CO2emissions from this amount of natural gas is

2CO2' CO tn .84411,217,127M = per annum when installing CHP plants.

The gain in CO2 is the difference between the prior CHP emissions CO2M and the CO2'M emissions

after which is 2CO2gained CO tn 755,361,354.M = or reduction of 32.34%.

41

CO2 (in Ktn)

98,000

100,000

102,000

104,000

106,000

108,000

110,000

112,000

114,000

116,000

118,000

CO2 115,971.25 104,754.12

Total Greek emissions Total Greek emissions-after CHP scenario in industries

Figure 4.6a: CO2 emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in industries and total

Greek emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).

CO2 (in Ktn)

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

CO2 16,578.43 11,217.13

Total Greek industrial emissions Total Greek industrial emissions-after CHP scenario in industries

Figure 4.6b: CO2 emissions(total Greek industrial emissions before CHP scenario and total Greek

industrial emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).

42

4.2.7.1.2 SO2 emission estimations before and after CHP installation Relatively to the method that CO2 emission were estimated the mass of SO2 produced due to

electricity production is 22 54.499,361 SOtnM SOe = and the direct mass of SO2 produced due

combustion is the sum of SO tn 82.690,2 22 =solidSO

d M , 22 SO tn 04.629,6=liquidSO

d M and

22 SO tn 84.0051=gasSO

d M which is 22 SO tn 10,325.700=SOd M .

The total SO2 produced due to industrial activity in Greece without using a CHP plant is

2SO2 224146,825.24M SOtn= .

After the CHP installation and due to the fact that the CHP plant will be fired using natural gas that

produces no sulfur emissions the amount of 2SO2 224146,825.24M SOtn= is considered as the

SO2 emissions saved amount.

SO2(in Ktn)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

SO2 513.50 366.67


Figure 4.7a: SO2 emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in industries and total


43

SO2(in Ktn)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

SO2 146.83 0.00


Figure 4.7b: SO2 emissions(total Greek industrial emissions before CHP scenario and total Greek


4.2.7.1.3 NOx emission estimations before and after CHP installation

Estimations for on mass of NOx emissions prior to CHP plant due to electricity consumption is

NOx tn 31,518.369NOx =Me and NOx emissions due to fuel consumption is

NOx tn 000,8=NOxd M .Thus the overall mass of NOx emission resulting from Greek industrial

activity is NOxtn 37.518,39NOx =M .

After the installation of CHP unit we have that the new mass of natural gas required to cover

electrical and thermal needs is given as referred in SO2 and CO2 estimation paragraphs is

k tn 4,229.73'.. =gnM of natural gas and the extracted emissions from this amount of natural gas is

8,890.89'.. =gnNOXM tn of NOx emission .

Therefore the gain in NOX is the difference between the prior CHP emissions which is

NOx tn 30,627.48M CO2gained = or less emissions per 77.5%.

44

NOx(in Ktn)

300

305

310

315

320

325

330

335

340

345

350

NOx 346.97 316.34


Figure 4.8a : NOx emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in industries and total


NOx(in Ktn)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

NOx 39.52 8.89


Figure 4.8b : NOx emissions(total Greek industrial emissions before CHP scenario and total Greek


45

4.2.7.2 Typical GHG emissions of tertiary sector

The overall amount of electrical energy on annual basis of tertriary sector is 2,691.15 GWh due to

467GWh from health care buildings and 2,224.15 GWh due to hotels. The emissions CO2, SO2 and

NOx due to annual electrical energy of tertiary are

22 tnCO092,287,474.=COeM , SOn 41,712.76t2 =SO

eM and XNO 3,229.38tn=NOxeM .

In the estimations, assumptions are made that 60% of the thermal energy is produced using diesel

oil as fuel and 40% natural gas, while we also consider 80% efficiency of diesel oil boilers and 85%

efficiency of natural gas boilers.

The estimated mass of natural gas and diesel oil that are used in order to produce thermal energy of

2,485.48 GWh is gas natural tn 88,627.67.. =gnM and oil diesel tn 154,698.11=dieselM

These amounts of fuel produce GHG emissions which are 22 COKtn 288.67726.69108,=COd M

22 SO kg 108,288.67=SOd M and NOxKtn 0.56=NOx

d M .

Consequently, the overall amount of emissions deriving from direct fuel consumptions and

electrical energy of tertiary sector are 22 COK tn 653,014,159.=COM , 22 SOKtn 41.82=SOM

and NOxM NOx K tn 3.78= .

The estimated emissions after the installation of CHP plants are

2'

2 COK tn 1,252.9=COM , 2'

2 SOKtn 0=SOM and NOxM NOx Ktn 0.97' = due to the use of natural

gas 461,472.23 tn as fuel.

Estimated GHG emissions prior and after the installation of a CHP plant in tertiary sector is

presented in figure 4.9, 4.10 and 4.11.

46

CO2(Ktn)

113,000

113,500

114,000

114,500

115,000

115,500

116,000

CO2 115,971.25 114,209.98

Total Greek emissions Total Greek emissions-after CHP scenario in tertriary

Figure 4.9a : CO2 emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in tertiary and total Greek

emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).

CO2(Ktn)

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

CO2 3,014.16 1,252.90

Total Greek tertriary emissions Total Greek tertriary emissions-after CHP scenario in tertriary

Figure 4.9b : CO2 emissions(total Greek tertiary emissions before CHP scenario and total Greek

tertiary emissions after CHP scenario in Ktn).

47

NOx(Ktn)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

NOx 346.97 344.15


Figure 4.10a : NOx emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in tertiary and total


NOx(Ktn)

0

1

2

3

4

5

NOx 3.78 0.97


Figure 4.10b : NOx emissions(total Greek tertiary emissions before CHP scenario and total Greek


48

SO2(Ktn)

0

100

200

300

400

500

SO2 513.50 471.68


Figure 4.11a : SO2 emissions(total Greek emissions before CHP scenario in tertiary and total


SO2(Ktn)

0

10

20

30

40

50

SO2 41.82 0.00


Figure 4.11b : SO2 emissions(total Greek tertiary emissions before CHP scenario and total Greek


49

4.2.8 Emissions and emission reductions of operating Greek CHP plants Summing the electrical energy of CHP plants currently operating in both industrial and tertiary

sector we have the amount of Eel=2,736,428MWh and Eth=4,234,260 MWh.

The estimated emissions prior to the use of those CHP plants in the particular industries, hotels and

hospitals are 22 CO tn 2,325,964=COeM , 22 SO tn 42,415=SO

eM and XNO tn 3,284=NOxeM .

The overall electrical energy that is been consumed due to industrial production which amount is

14.421 TWh while the relevant amount only for industries as given in table 4.1-CHP Units in

operation is 2.68 GWh. Therefore units consume 0.019 % of the energy of the overall electrical

energy of the industrial sector. This percentage will help us make the assumptions that the amount

of fuel used by those industrial units is of the percentage of 0.019% of the overall quantities of fuel .

Thus the estimated amounts of GHG emissions due to direct fuel combustion is

22 CO tn 115,474.93=COd M , 22 SO tn 141.301=SO

d M and NOx tn 501=NOxd M .

The overall amount as a sum of direct and electrical of GHG emission if those CHP plants weren’t installed in Greece is MCO2= 2CO tn 932,441,438. ,MSO2= 2SO tn 42,545.14 and MNOx= XNO tn 3,434.00 .

While the GHG emissions of CHP plants currently in operation are for the amount of natural gas

equal to tnM gn 621,404.21'.. = are 2

'2 CO tn 421,687,112.=COM , 2

'2 SOKtn 0=SOM

and NOxM NOx tn 1,306.19' = .

50

CO2(in tn)

0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

3,000,000

CO2 2,441,438.93 1,687,112.42

Total Greek before CHP installation of operating units

Total Greek GHG savings from operating CHP plants

Figure 4.12 : CO2 emissions of operating units prior and before their installation.

NOx(in tn)

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

NOx 3,434.00 1,306.19



Figure 4.13 : NOx emissions of operating units prior and before their installation.

51

SO2(in tn)

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

45,000

SO2 42,545.14 0.00



Figure 4.14 : SO2 emissions of operating units prior and before their installation.

Efficiency% -Heat to electricity ratio

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00

Heat to electricity ratio

Figure 4.15 : Efficiency % to Heat-to –electricity ration of Greek operating CHP plants.

52

The ratio of heat to electricity required by one consumer may vary according to seasonal and/or

daily changes. It is the ratio that shows the thermal energy to electricity required to meet the energy

needs of one site. Additionally many CHP plants utilize exhaust gases to improve the heat to

electricity ration which also means even greater environmental benefits. The greater the needs in

heat are the greater the heat to electricity ratio is which practically means that is indeed essential

that the facility should use CHP technology to benefit.

It is interesting to investigate the factor heat to electricity ratio and the overall efficiency of the CHP

plant. Such an attempt is been presented in figure 4.15 using data from table 4.1 which contains

Greek operating CHP plants according to Ministry of Development-2008. in this figure it is

presented that the average of heat to electricity ratio mainly varies around the value of 1.25 with

corresponding efficiency value around 80-85%.

4.3 CHP penetration scenarios in industrial and tertiary sector

Paragraph 4.2 presents savings in industrial and tertiary sector at it whole entity. It is rather

interesting to calculate penetration scenarios of 25%, 50% and 75% and see how these percentages

have the potential to contribute to the overall effort of Greece towards GHG emissions reduction.

Those are illustrated in the figures 4.17-4.25 presented hereafter. In those figures saving percentage

is presented in tertiary, industrial and combined in comparison to national GHG levels.

53

CO2 emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared with CO2 reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector

varies between 100-25-50-75%

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

(Ktn)

CO2(Ktn) 3,014.16 1,252.90 1,693.22 1,820.31 2,573.85Percentage of reduction 58.43% 43.82% 39.61% 14.61%

Prior After-100% After-75% After-50% After25%

Figure 4.17 : CO2 emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared with CO2 reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies between 100-75-50-25%.

CO2 emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared with CO2 reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector


0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

(Ktn)



Figure 4.18 : CO2 emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared with CO2 reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies between 100-75-50-25%.

54

CO2 emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with CO2 reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies

between 100-25-50-75%

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

(Ktn)



Figure 4.19 : CO2 emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with CO2 reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies between 100-25-50-75%.

SO2 emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared with SO2 reduced emissions in industrial tertiary when CHP installation in the same sector


0

10

20

30

40

50

(Ktn)

SO2(Ktn) 41.82 0.00 10.46 20.91 31.37Percentage of reduction 100.00% 75.00% 50.00% 25.00%


Figure 4.20 : SO2 emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared with SO2 reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies between 100-25-50-75%

55

SO2 emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared with SO2 reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector


0

50

100

150

(Ktn)

SO2(Ktn) 146.83 0.00 36.71 73.41 110.12Percentage of reduction 100.00% 75.00% 50.00% 25.00%


Figure 4.21 : SO2 emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared with SO2 reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies between 100-25-50-75%

SO2 emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with SO2 reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies

between 100-25-50-75%

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

(Ktn)

SO2(Ktn) 513.50 0 47.16 94.32 141.48Percentage of reduction 36.74% 27.55% 18.37% 9.18%


Figure 4.22 : SO2 emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with SO2 reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies between 100-25-50-75%.

56

NOx emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared with NOx reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector


0

1

2

3

4

(Ktn)

NOx(Ktn) 3.78 0.97 1.67 2.38 3.08Percentage of reduction 74.34% 55.75% 37.17% 18.58%


Figure 4.23 : NOx emissions of Greek tertiary sector before CHP plant installation compared with NOx reduced emissions in tertiary sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies between 100-25-50-75%

NOx emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared with NOx reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

(Ktn)



Figure 4.24 : NOx emissions of Greek industrial sector before CHP plant installation compared with NOx reduced emissions in industrial sector when CHP installation in the same sector varies between 100-25-50-75% .

57

NOx emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with NOx reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies

between 100-25-50-75%

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

(Ktn)



Figure 4.25 : NOx emissions of Greece before CHP plant installation compared with NOx reduced emissions when CHP installation in both tertiary and industrial sector varies between 100-25-50-75%

4.4 Reasons that have prevented further CHP implementation in Greece

Even if many new plants have been constructed, taking into account the subsidy from existing

funding programmes, lately many of the CHP plants have been out of use. The main reason is due

to the relative high purchase price of natural gas and the low selling price, which are both key

factors for the sustainability of CHP units.

The Ministry of development in 2008 outlined that “…the field of cogeneration in Greece until

now, notwithstanding the steps made (eg. L 2773/99, L 3346806, subsidies in CHP plants via

Second Support Community Framework (II SCF) and Operational Programme Competitiveness of

III SCF) remains unpredictable and faces a long development process due to a number of

obstacles:

• rise in the price of oil and consequently the rise of the price of natural gas is the major

obstacle in the way of CHP technology

58

• difficulties in defining the principal “dimensions” for economical and technical analysis in

the energy field

• lack of competitive pricing policy for CHP in the tertiary sector

• lack of competitive pricing policy for CHP in the industrial sector. The current prices of

natural gas for CHP and the way of estimating it was announced by Public Gas

Corporation SA in October 1999, but due to uncertainty and delays, the major CHP plants

that were to be subsidized were left without funding from II SCF.

• Difficulties in further development of the natural gas network.

• Weakness from PGC’s in following the time schedule for the gas connection of bulk

industries

• Lack of experience in energy management and assessment of alternative solutions.

As a consequence of the aforementioned, the contribution of cogeneration to the production of

electricity in Greece is at a rate of 2% whilst the installed capacity is also at a rate of 2%. This is in

contradiction to the rest of the European Countries; 11 countries produce more than 20% of their

electricity from CHP plants, 4 countries produce more than 50% while the European average is

10%..”

4.5 SUMMARY

The fourth chapter begins with the development of a database by using all of the collected data.

Firstly the GHG emission problem is addressed by presenting real data for CO2, SO2 and NOx

emissions for the years 1990 to 2000. Using the forecast method, estimates are presented for the

specific emissions for the years 2000 to 2010.

Current plants operating in Greece are presented and categorised according to either industrial or

tertiary type. The amount of fuel required to cover the energy needs and the GHG emissions derived

from those fuels in the industrial sector is presented using typical fuel consumption for the

industries. For the tertiary sector ,the available data on the number of the hotels and hospitals and

their typical consumption is the input used to estimate the energy consumption and GHG emissions.

GHG emissions are estimated prior to and after the installation of a CHP plant so as to estimate the

GHG ‘profit’. Scenarios are developed to illustrate the wideness of the potential environmental

advantages that can be achieved in both the tertiary-non residential and the industrial sectors in

comparison to national GHG levels.

59

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION 5.1 INTRODUCTION

The fifth chapter deals with the discussion of the findings of the fourth chapter. The discussion

contains an evaluation of the reliability of the data, which were used in the analysis concerning the

environmental gain of using CHP plants in the industrial and tertiary sectors, how accurate is the

analysis and how valid are the findings and presents a comparison between the findings of previous

similar reports and this investigation. Finally, the benefits of this research are discussed.

5.2 INTERNAL DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

The calculation algorithm that was developed in this paper was used in order to relate current Greek

GHG emissions and the industrial and tertiary activity. The comparison was performed in the axis

of CHP plants and their characteristics and the performance that an industry, a hotel or a hospital

had had prior to the CHP plant installation. In the industrial sector I used as input the amount and

type of fuel used to fire the Greek industrial production and all of the necessary calculations were

made in order to come to the conclusion of how those fuels are transformed into GHG emissions.

The source that provides the data of the amount and type of fuel consumed in the industrial sector

was Eurostat and the program New Cronos Database-Theme 8:Energy.

On the other hand the data which was used as input to estimate the GHG emissions in the tertiary

sector came from the paper “Empirical Assessment of the Hellenic Non-residential Building Stock,

Energy Consumption, Emissions and Potential Energy Savings’’ that contains the number of hotels

and hospitals, the year they were constructed and their thermal and electrical energy consumption.

In order to estimate the GHG emissions, due to the fact that the type and amount of fuel were not

available as they were for the industrial sector, assumptions were made. It was assumed for example

that to cover the thermal needs of hospitals and hotels , 60 % is covered by diesel oil and 40% is

covered by natural gas. Therefore in the case of an industrial unit and a tertiary unit , the same

calculation method is not used.

60

Table 5.1: Industrial GHG Emissions (source: NOA, 2002)

tn CO2 NOx SO2 1990 7,685,710.00 1,680.00 10,170.001991 7,589,870.00 1,570.00 11,580.001992 7,510,960.00 1,500.00 8,880.00 1993 7,481,600.00 1,410.00 8,540.00 1994 7,259,730.00 1,360.00 8,560.00 1995 7,709,060.00 1,360.00 9,240.00 1996 7,946,970.00 1,500.00 9,390.00 1997 7,991,290.00 1,360.00 9,590.00 1998 7,973,330.00 1,390.00 9,760.00 1999 7,866,560.00 1,420.00 10,340.002000 7,876,980.00 1,430.00 10,590.002001 7,998,742.18 1,336.00 9,842.36 2002 8,093,522.07 1,347.27 10,008.502003 8,183,039.79 1,355.41 10,586.182004 8,258,986.03 1,362.11 10,821.482005 8,318,950.54 1,357.85 10,968.902006 8,305,875.46 1,342.85 11,050.222007 8,336,475.42 1,322.50 11,190.442008 8,401,882.33 1,328.78 11,318.362009 8,480,303.46 1,313.94 11,441.872010 8,560,600.33 1,302.50 11,556.21

Table 5.2: Residential-Commercial-Institutional sector GHG Emissions (source: NOA, 2002)

Ktn CO2 NOx SO2 1990 5,206.58 6.47 18.69 1991 5,376.36 6.64 19.65 1992 5,246.10 6.56 19.27 1993 5,196.51 5.84 18.23 1994 5,236.84 6.05 11.01 1995 5,510.67 6.16 10.96 1996 7,360.69 8.62 14.64 1997 7,612.90 8.78 15.11 1998 7,968.71 8.99 15.69 1999 7,755.17 8.84 15.00 2000 8,367.64 9.23 16.24 2001 8,645.92 9.72 15.54 2002 9,156.64 10.26 15.60 2003 9,705.61 10.86 15.87 2004 10,217.21 11.47 16.47 2005 10,659.88 11.94 17.81 2006 10,999.20 12.31 18.01 2007 11,230.82 12.50 17.69 2008 11,684.58 13.01 18.01 2009 12,151.86 13.54 18.37 2010 12,651.06 14.08 18.80

61

In order to compare if the GHG emission performance of the industrial and of the tertiary sector has

been calculated properly and if it is in accordance with the national levels, Table 5.1 and Table 5.2

were created. Both tables contain data estimated by NOA and the Ministry for Environment. Tables

5.1 and 5.2 were compared with Table 5.3 which presents the emissions estimated in this paper of

CO2, SO2 and NOx from the industry and tertiary sectors. Tables 5.1 and 5.2 present the emissions

of industry and tertiary but only include the pollution caused when covering the thermal needs and

not the electrical needs of these sectors. Additionally, Table 5.2 includes not only the tertiary sector

GHG emissions but includes residential, commercial and institutional. Therefore when comparing

the emissions of direct industrial activity with the emissions shown in Table 5.1, we see that, for

instance, NOA estimates the values for CO2 as 8,318,950.54 tn, whilst this current study estimates

the value to be 8,795,360.96 tn.

Table 5.3: Tertiary and GHG Emissions (source: NOA, 2002)

tn

CO2

SO2

NOx

INDUSTRY

ELECTRICAL DIRECT ELECTRICAL DIRECT ELECTRICAL DIRECT 2005 7,783,121.64 8,795,360.96 136,499.54 10,325.70 31,518.37 8,000.00

TERTIARY ELECTRICAL DIRECT ELECTRICAL DIRECT ELECTRICAL DIRECT

2005 3,064,687.52 939,250.00 55,885.48 139.97 4,326.62 720.00

5.3 EXTERNAL DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

In 2001, COGEN Europe under the funded SAVE Programme published the Educogen as the

European guide for cogeneration. According to this report, in the chapter regarding CO2 savings , it

is stated that “…savings in carbon dioxide can vary from 100 kg per MWh to more than 1,000 kg/

MWh…”. In the current paper, as shown in Table 5.4 the overall energy of industry is estimated as

33,026,367 GWh and the overall saved amount of CO2 as 5,361,354.75 tn, from which we can

extract an amount of 162 kg/MWh. In the case of the tertiary sector this amount reaches 498

kg/MWh due to overall energy of 6,818.02 GWh and 3,396,145 tn of emitted CO2.

62

Table 5.4: Estimated energy needed to cover Greek industry’s needs and saved CO2 emissions.

overall energy CO2 saved

industry 33,026,367.00 GWh 5,361,354.75 tn

tertiary 6,818.02 GWh 3,760.00 tn

Both 162 kg/MWh and 498 kg/MWh are within the range of the 100-1000kg/MWh as given by the

Educogen while, and are also in agreement with the further point made in the guide; “if it is

assumed that cogeneration displaces electricity from a mix of fuels and heat from a boiler with a

mixed type of fuels, the savings per kWh will be 615g”.

By looking at section 4.3 of this paper, reagrding CHP penetration scenarios in the industrial and

tertiary sectors, and in particular in Figure 4.22 that presents CO2 emissions and CHP penetration

scenarios in the Greek industrial sector vs. overall Greek CO2 emissions for various penetration

scenarios, we can remark that the percentage of reduction is shown to vary from 6.14 % to 1.54 %

for the optimistic to the pessimistic scenario respectively.

Moreover, Mr. K. Theofylaktos, in a conference of the Technical Chamber of Greece in 2005 on the

subject of lignite, natural gas and its role in the electricity generation sector, referred to the CHP

capacity and identified potentials, perspectives and made a comparison between CO2 emissions per

kg CO2 of MWth generated through a coal-fired steam turbine and coal, gas and biofuel CHP

plants. According to the presentation of Theofilaktos K. (2005). Combined Heat and Power in the

New Energy Scene-Lignite, Natural Gas and Greek Electricity Generation, steam turbines emit

1000 kg CO2/MWh, coal CHP 500 kg CO2/MWh and gas CHP 250 kg CO2/MWh.

The above percentages were anticipated to be due to paper of SNOEK C. and SPURR M. that

suggests that “…avoided carbon dioxide emissions from the use of district heating (DH)1 and CHP

is significant and amounts to about one-half of the magnitude of carbon dioxide reduction

presumed in the Kyoto protocol. Globally, DH and CHP (including industrial CHP) reduce the

total existing carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion by 3-4%. This corresponds to an

annual (1998) reduction of 670-890 Mton compared to global emissions of 22700 Mton. The

highest carbon dioxide reductions from DH/CHP occur in Russia (15%), in the former USSR

outside Russia (8%) and in the EU (5%)’’.

63

As estimated in the current paper , there is reduction of up to 146,825,24 tn SO2 in the industrial

sector and of 41.82 Ktn SO2 in the tertiary sector while the level of NOx reaches up to 30.63 Ktn in

the industrial sector and 2.81 Ktn in the tertiary sector. Considering energy of 33,026,367 GWh and

6,818,020 MWh for the industrial and tertiary sectors respectively, we can estimate the saved GHG

per MWh and compare it with relevant data from literature and in particular from Educogen. This

comparison is summarised in Table 5.5.

Table 5.5: Comparison between literature and estimated SO2 and NOx savings in gr/KWh.

Estimations overall energy SO2 saved NOx saved industry 33,026,367.00 GWh 146,825.24 tn 30,627.48 tn tertiary 6,818.02 GWh 41,820.00 tn 28,100.00 tn

Literature 23.2 gr/KWh 2.9 gr/KWh Estimations industry 6.13 gr/KWh 0.41 gr/KWh tertiary 4.5 gr/KWh 1 gr/KWh

The Educogen explains that “… the current share of electricity produced from cogeneration in the

EU is about 10%. The EU target is to reach 18% by 2010. The following table illustrates what this

target could achieve in terms of CO2 emissions reduction. The results are different depending on

the fuel being displaced…”. The optimistic scenario within Greece as presented in this paper

estimates gaining 8.757, 499.75 tn of CO2.

Table 5.6: Fuel displaced and CO2 savings (COGEN, 2001)

Fuel displaced CO2 savings Coal electricity and coal

boilers 342 Million Tonnes

Gas electricity and gas boilers 50 Million Tonnes

Fossil mix electricity and boilers 188 Million Tonnes

64

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS 6.1 INTRODUCTION

The sixth chapter presents the conclusions, which derived from the extensive analysis of the data

presented in chapter four and the discussion in chapter five. Considering the findings obtained, the

conclusions provide answers to the research problem and the research questions.

6.2 CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

By studying GHG at a national level from 1990 until 2000 it is observed that the amount of carbon

dioxide emitted steadily increased, with an average increase rate of 3% except for the years 1995

and 1999. Moreover, using the extrapolation technique it is foreseen that the amount of emissions is

expected to reach almost 130,000 Kt in 2010.

Due to heavy industrial production e.g. aluminium and cement, industry contributes at a rate of 9%

to the total CO2 emissions, 3% of total SO2 emissions. In 1999, total SO2 emissions were

approximately 11% higher than 1990 levels. The decrease of emissions in 1994 was mainly due to

decrease of sulphur content in heavy fuel oil used in industry and in 2002, total SO2 emissions were

lower by 2.1 % compared to 1990 levels.

On the other hand, oxides of nitrogen, NO and NO2 are created by fossil fuel combustion lighting,

biomass fires and, in the stratosphere, from nitrous oxide. NOx emissions appear to be steadily

increasing with an average increase rate of approximately 0.8 %.

The national GHG emissions are shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2 and include the data from NOA and

the emissions extrapolated within this paper until the year 2010.

Fifty three CHP plants are currently operating in Greece with overall estimated thermal energy of

4,234,260 MWh and electrical energy of 2,736,428 MWh annually. The GHG calculations are

estimated based on the amount and type of fuel used in industrial sector and of thermal and

electrical energy needed to cover the needs of hospitals, heath care buildings and hotels.

65

Estimations on GHG savings from the so far operating CHP units are reduced per 754,326.51 tn of

CO2 , 2,127.81tn NOx and 42, 545.14 SO2per annum. This corresponds to a percentage of 0.65%

reduction compared to the national CO2 level, 0.61% reduction compared to the national NOx level

and 8.29% compared to the national SO2 level. However, the main aspect of this paper was to

investigate to what percentage the industrial and tertiary sectors can, individually but also

combined, .contribute to national GHG reduction if CHP technology is applied on a greater scale.

Thus, in the industrial sector, if CHP technology contributes at a percentage of 25%, the reduction

that can be achieved in CO2 emissions is of 8.86 % or 1,340.34 Ktn per annum while for 50% the

reduction that can be achieved is of 16.17 % or 2,680.68 Ktn per annum. For 75 % the reduction

that can be achieved is of 24.25 % or 4,021.02 Ktn per annum while in the more optimistic

scenario, those of 100% penetration of CHP technology, CO2 emissions reduction of 32.34 % or

5,361.35Ktn per annum can be achieved. NOx emissions are reduced by 19.64% for the 25%

penetration CHP scenario up to 78.54 % for the 100% scenario and the emissions vary from 7.66

Ktn NOx to 30.63 Ktn NOx. SO2 emissions vary from 110.12 Ktn SO2 to 0 Ktn SO2.

In the tertiary sector, if CHP technology contributes at a percentage of 25% the reduction that can

be achieved in CO2 emissions is of 14.61 % or 440.32 Ktn per annum while for 50% the reduction

that can be achieved is of 39.61% or 1,193.86 Ktn per annum. For 75 % the reduction that can be

achieved is of 43.82 % or 1,320.95 Ktn per annum while in the more optimistic scenario, those of

100% penetration CO2 emissions reduction of 58.43 % or 1,761.26 Ktn per annum can be achieved.

NOx emissions are reduced by 18.58 % for the 25% penetration CHP scenario up to 74.34 % for the

100% scenario and the emissions vary from 0.70 Ktn NOx to 2.81 Ktn NOx. SO2 emissions vary

from 31.37 Ktn SO2 to 0 Ktn SO2.

Cumulatively in the industrial and tertiary sectors, depending on the penetration scenario, the

reduction that can be achieved in CO2 emissions is 1.54% per annum while for 50% the reduction

that can be achieved is of 3.34% per annum. For 75% the reduction that can be achieved is of

4.61% while in the more optimistic scenario, that of 100% penetration, CO2 emissions can be

reduced by 6.14% annually. NOx emissions can be reduced by 2.41% for the 25% penetration CHP

scenario and by up to 9.64% for the 100% scenario. On the other hand, SO2 emissions can be

reduced at an amount of 9.18% for the 25% penetration CHP scenario and up to an amount of 36.74

% for the 100% scenario.

66

Industry, hotels and hospitals due to the large thermal energy needs are suitable for implementing

CHP technology. CHP technology has the potential to contribute to the reduction of the national

GHG emissions but various factors prevent further penetration, e.g. the fact that natural gas follows

the price of oil makes such an investment rather expensive given that the energy produced by CHP

plants has a relatively low selling point. This study does however support the idea that CHP is a

viable solution towards the decentralization production of energy, especially due to the use of

natural gas, since decentralized energy production is cheaper, more reliable and more

environmentally friendly.

67

REFERENCES

BRYMAN, A. (1989). Research Methods and Organization Studies. Unwin Hyman. London

COGEN Europe (2001).EDUCOGEN-The European Educational Tool of Cogeneration -2nd

Edition. COGEN Europe. Brussels.

COGEN Europe (2001, March) A Guide to Cogeneration COGEN Europe (this guide has been

produced under the auspices of EDUCOGEN and funded in Part by SAVE Programme).

Brussels.

COGEN Europe (2002).Position Statement-EU Emissions Trading and Combined Heat and

Power-Complementary mechanisms are necessary to prevent negative consequences for

cogeneration. COGEN Europe. Brussels.

COGEN Europe (2002).Towards an EU-Wide Coherent Approach to Determining Primary

Energy/GHG savings from CHP. COGEN Europe. Brussels.

COGEN Europe (2004).European Combined Heat and Power: New Trends COGEN Europe.

Brussels.

COHEN, L., MANION, L., MORRISON, K. (2000). Research Methods in Education(5th

edition). RoutledgeFalmer. London .

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES (2006).GREEN PAPER- A European

Strategy for Sustainable, Competitive and Secure Energy {SEC (2006) 317} COMMISSION OF

THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

CO-OPERATIVE FINANCIAL SERVICES SUSTAINABILITY REPORT 2003-Conversion Factors-Energy (Accessed on 31/05/2009 from http://www.cfs.co.uk/sustainability2003/ ecological/conversions.htm)

DIRECTIVE 2004/8/EC of the European Parliament and of the council of 11 February 2004 on

the promotion of cogeneration based on a useful heat demand in the internal energy market and

amending Directive 92/42/EEC

68

DIRECTIVE 1996/61/EC of 24 September 1996 concerning integrated pollution prevention and

control

ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPE (2004). Strategies and Policies for Air Pollution

Abatement. United Nations. Geneva (Accessed on 31/05/2005 from http://unfccc.int)

ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (ESD) LTD, COGEN EUROPE, ETSU –

AEA TECHNOLOGY PLC, KAPE S.A., VTT ENERGY, SIGMA ELEKTROTEKNISK

NORWAY,(2001, May) The Future of CHP in the European Market- The European

Cogeneration Study . Energy for Sustainable Development (ESD) Ltd, COGEN Europe, ETSU

–AEA Technology PLC, KAPE S.A., VTT Energy, SIGMA Elektroteknisk Norway. Norway.

EUROPEAN ENVIRONMENT AGENCY (2005). Climate Change and a European low-

carbon energy system. European Environment Agency. Copenhagen (Accessed on 01/06/2007

from http://eea.eu.int)

EUROPEAN ENVIRONMENT AGENCY (2005). European Environment Outook.. European

Environment Agency. Copenhagen (Accessed on 01/06/2007 from http://eea.eu.int)

EUROPEAN COMMISSION (1999). Training Guide on Combined Heat and Power System.

European Commission. Centre for Renewable Energy Sources (CRES Greece) –Zentrum fűr

Nationelle Energieanwendung und Umwelt (ZREU Germany)

EUROSTAT(2008).New Cronos Database-Theme 8:Energy (Accessed in 27/01/2009 form

http://esdsw1.mc.manchester.ac.uk/wds_eurostat/ReportFolders/ReportFolders.aspx)

FRAGOPOULOS C., KARIDOGIANNIS H., KARALIS J., (1994). Combined Electricity and

Heat (available in Greek language). Hellenic Centre of Productivity-EL.KE.PA and European

Union Programme SAVE. Athens.

GAGLIA A., BALARAS C., MIRASGEDIS S., GEORGOPOULOU E., SARAFIDIS Y.,

LALAS D. (2006). Empirical Assessment of the Hellenic Non-residential Building Stock,

Energy Consumption, Emissions and Potential Energy Savings. Elsevier

69

GALANAKIS D. (2006). Natural Gas and Combined Power Heat and Cool Generation: The

Greek Status. Hellenic Association of Combined Heat and Power. Athens (article available in

Greek language, accessed on 30/01/2007 from http://www.hachp.gr)

HELLENIC ASSOCIATION OF COMBINED HEAT AND POWER, Articles at relevant

home page (accessed on 30/01/2007 from http://www.hachp.gr)

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY. (2008). Electricity Information Edition 2008 Documentation For Beyond 2020 Files. International Energy Agency INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY (2008) Energy Balances of OECD Countries Documentation For Beyond 2020 Files. International Energy Agency

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY. (2008). Oil Information Edition 2008 Documentation For Beyond 2020 Files. International Energy Agency

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY (2008) CO2 Emissions from fuel combustion-Beyond

2020 Documentation (2008 Edition). International Energy Agency

KAARSBERG T. , ELLIOTT R., SPURR M.(1998), An Integrated Assessment of the Energy

Savings and Emissions-Reduction Potential of Combined Heat and Power. Proceedings of the

ACEEE 1999 Industrial Summer Study, American Council for an Energy Efficiency Economy.

Washington D.C.

KAARSBERG T., FISKUM R., ROMM J., ROSENFELD A., KOOMEY J., TEAGAN W.

(1998) Combined Heat and Power(CHP or Cogeneration) for Saving Energy and Carbon in

Commercial Buildings. Proceedings of the ACEEE 1998 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency

in Buildings,vol. 9, American Council for an Energy Efficiency Economy. Washington D.C.

KALDELLIS J.,SPYROPOULOS G.,CHALVATZIS K. (2004). The Impact of Greek

Electricity Generation Sector on the National Air Pollution Problem. KALDELLIS J.,

SPYROPOULOS G., CHALVATZIS K. Athens.

KALDELLIS J., VOUTSINAS M., PALIATSOS A.G., KORONAKIS P.S. (2004). Temporal

Evolution of the Sulphur Oxides Emissions from the Greek Electricity Generation Sector.

Environmental Technology.

70

MINISTRY FOR THE ENVIRONMENT, PHYSICAL PLANNING AND PUBLIC WORKS

(2002) Climate Change-Emissions Inventory (National Inventory for Greenhouse and other

Gases for years 1990-2000). National Observatory of Athens. Athens.

MINISTRY OF DEVELOPMENT (2002). Operational Programme Competitiveness – Energy Investments Guide. Ministry of Development. Athens.

MINISTRY OF DEVELOPMENT, NATIONAL OBSERVATORY OF ATHENS, EPEM,

LDK (2005) Integrated Methodological Frame to Support the Decision-making for the

Evaluation of Impacts from the Implementation of Best Available Techniques in the industry-

Third Work Package-Deliverable Eight : Final Merge of Industrial Units Typology and

Relevant Factors. Ministry of Development. Athens.

ORGANIZATION FOR THE PROMOTION OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

(2005).Combined Heat and Power/District Heating-Results of activities 2003-2005. European

Community. Belgium

PIDDINGTON P. (2006). The UK CHP Market: Barriers and Opportunities. Presented at the

Annual British conference of CHP Association. London.

SHIPLEY A., GREEN N., MCCORMACK K., LI J., ELLIOTT R. (2001). Certification of

Combined Heat and Power Systems: Establishing Emissions Standards. American Council for

an Energy Efficiency Economy. Washington D.C.

SNOEK C., SPURR M. . The Role of District Heating & Cooling and Combined Heat and

Power Systems in Reducing Fossil Fuels Use and Combating Harmful Emissions.

(Accessed on 15/02/2007 from

www.iea-dhc.org/download/dhcchp_integrated_energy_systems-position_paper.pdf )

SKITTIDES, Ph., KOILIARI, P. (2006) Introduction to Research Methodology in Technology. Synchronous Publishing. Athens.

STERN N. (2006) Economics on the Climate Change. Cambridge Press. Cambridge.

THEOFYLAKTOS G. (2005). Combined Heat and Power in the New Energy Scene-Lignite,

Natural Gas and Greek Electricity Generation. Presented at the Symposium of Technical

71

Chamber of Greece (TEE) on the ‘Lignite and Natural Gas in the Electricity Generation of

Greece’. Athens.

WWF Hellas (2007) The Thirty Dirty. WWF Hellas (Accessed on 10/05/2007 from

http://climate.wwf.gr)

UNITED NATIONS (1998). Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change. United Nations (Accessed on 01/06/2007 from http://unfccc.int)

72

APPENDIX This appendix includes all the estimations and calculations that have been used in this paper. § 4.6.1 Table 4.4: Distribution of Greek health care (HC) buildings for different construction periods (source: Gaglia A., Balaras C., et.al.,2006).

Distribution of the Hellenic health care (HC) buildings for different construction periods

and climatic zones

Average annual electrical and thermal energy consumption (kWh/m2)in Hellenic Health Care buildings for the different climatic zones at different construction periods

year of construction

Number of buildings

Floor area (m2)

Electrical energy


Thermal energy


Electrical energy

consumption (MWh)

Thermal energy

consumption (MWh)

Pre-1980 1,566 3,394,400 90 145 305,496 492,188 (1981–2001) 117 1,004,400 99 134 99,436 134,590 (2002–2010) 59 580,041 107 129 62,064 74,825 Average - - 99 136 155,665 233,868 Total 1,742 4,978,841 - - 467.00 701.60

By multyplying the average annual electrical and thermal energy consumption (kWh/m2) in Greek Health Care buildings, we take the total annual

electrical and thermal energy consumption of Greek health care buildings.

73

§ 4.6.2 Table 4.5: Distribution of Greek hotels for different construction periods and different seasonal use (source: Gaglia A., Balaras C., et.al.,2006) In Table 4.5 the distribution of Greek hotels for different construction periods is presented. Due to seasonal use of summer hotels a factor equal to 7/12 or 0.583 is multiplied with cells 1A, 2A, 3A, 4A and cells 6A, 7A, 8A and 9A is produced. Then the extracted overall total is used and been multiplied by collumns G and H to give collumns I and J that the total annual electrical and thermal energy consumption of Greek hotels. The average electrical and thermal energy of one hotel to meet its annual energy needs is 0.741GWh and 0.594 GWh respectively

Distribution of the Hellenic hotels for

different construction periods A B C D E F G H I J

Summer Hotels (April-October)

Annual Hotels (throughout the year)

Overall Total (total 1*factor+ total 2)

Number of

buildings

Floor area (m2)

Number of

buildings

Floor area (m2)

Number of buildings

Floor area (m2)

Electrical energy

consumption

(kWh/m2)

Thermal energy

consumption

(kWh/m2)

Electrical energy

consumption (MWh)

Thermal energy

consumption (MWh)

1 Pre-1980 3,015 6,524,219 1,543 3,141,430 3,302 6,947,224 70 90 486,306 625,250 2 (1981–2001) 2,580 9,380,098 1,171 3,962,617 2,676 9,434,341 110 80 1,037,777 754,747 3 (2002–2010) 1,214 5,430,632 539 2,217,250 1,247 5,385,119 130 75 700,065 403,884 4 sub-total 6,809 - - - - - - - - - 5 Factor due to April-

October use 0.583 - - - - - - - - - 6 Pre-1980-usage factor 1,759 3,805,794.417 - - - - - - - - 7 (1981–2001)-usage

factor 1,505 5,471,723.833 - - - - - - - - 8 (2002–2010)-usage

factor 708 3,167,868.667 - - - - - - - - 9 Total 1 3,972 12,445,387 - - - - - - - - 10 Total 2 - - 3,253 9,321,297 - - - - - - 11 Overall total - - - - 7,225 21,766,684 - - 2,224.15 1,783.88 12 Average - - - - - - 103 82 741.38 594.63

.

74

§ 4.2.7.1.2 CO2 emission estimations before and after CHP installation

To estimate the air pollution due to direct fuel consumption and due to electricity consumption we

use the following equation:

Mi= ie

id MM + equ.1

where gas

idliquid

idsolid

id

id MMMM ++= equ.2

thus to estimate the CO2 emissions the equation equ. 1 gives us equ.3 MCO2= 22 CO

eCO

d MM + equ.3 where the mass of CO2 produced due to electricity production is

EXXXXM rescores

oilcooil

gncogn

coalcocoal

COe ][ 22..2

..22 εεεε +++= equ.4

where the 2coε is CO2 emission factor and X the share of each fuel in the Greek electricity

production (source:IEA Report Greece 2008) is

GWhCOtn

cocoal 2

2 050,1=ε and 51.4%=coalX

GWhCOtn

cooil 2

2 800=ε and %51=oilX

GWhCOtn

cogn 2

2.. 450=ε and %1.42.. =gnX

GWhCOtn

cores 2

2 10=ε and %3.9=resX

therefore replacing all the above amounts in equ.4 we have

2

22..2..

2

647,783,121.20.421,14*]93.045.1081207.539[

Wh14,421.20G*]093.0*10241.0*45015.0*800514.0*050,1[

][

COtntnGWh

tnGWh

tnGWh

tnGWh

tnEXXXXM resco

resoilco

oilgnco

gncoalco

coalc

e

=+++=

=+++=

=+++= εεεε

22 647,783,121. COtnM CO

e = equ.4 where the direct mass of CO2 produced due combustion is given by

gasCO

dliquidCO

dsolidCO

dCO

d MMMM 2222 ++= equ.5 where for solids that consist of coal products we have the theoretical maximum

75

][1244

bcbbcbckckllc-hc-h2 bcbd

ckd

ld

chdsolid

COd MMMMM ηγηγηγηγ +++= −

equ.6 h-c: hard coal and derivatives

l: lignite and derivatives

ck: coke

bcb: brown coal briquettes

where for liquids that consist of oil products we have

][1244

kjfkjfpop-oo-rfo-rfo-rfo-gdo-gd2 kjfd

podd

ogddliquid

COd MMMMM ηγηγηγηγ +++= −−−

equ.7 gd-o: gas/diesel oil

rf-o: residual fuel oil

o-p: other petroleum products

kjf: kerosenes-jet fuels

where for gaseous fuels we have

][1244

n.g.n.gn.g.lpglpgrgrgrg2 MMMM dlpg

ddgasCO

d ηγηγηγ ++= equ.8

rg: refinery gases

lpg: liquefied petroleum gas

n.g.: natural gas

The values for Fraction of Carbon Oxidised(η) are grouped for coal products, oil products and

gaseous products and equal to :

%98bcbcklc-hcoal ===== ηηηηη (solid) %99kjfp-oo-rfo-gdoil ===== ηηηηη (liquid)

%5.99n.g.lpgrggas ==== ηηηη (gas) Therefore equations equ.6, equ.7 and equ.8 are transformed to

][1244

bcbcklc-hcoal2 bcbd

ckd

ld

chdsolid

COd MMMMM γγγγη +++= − =

= ][98.01244

bcbcklc-h bcbd

ckd

ld

chd MMMM γγγγ +++− equ.9

][1244

kjfp-oo-rfo-rfo-gdoil2 kjfd

podd

ogddliquid

COd MMMMM γγγγη +++= −− =

76

][99.01244

kjfp-oo-rfo-rfo-gd kjfd

podd

ogdd MMMM γγγγ +++= −− equ.10

][995.01244][

1244

n.g.n.g.lpgrgrgn.g.n.g.lpgrgrggas2 MMMMMMM dlpg

dddlpg

ddgasCO

d γγγγγγη ++=++=

equ.11 To estimate the carbon content γ of each fuel we multiply the carbon emission factor of that fuel

with its net calorific value. This estimation will be done for all aforementioned fuels.

Table 4.11: Carbon content γ of each fuel (tn C/k tn).

Fuel

Carbon Emission

Factor (tn C/TJ)

Net Calorific Value

(TJ/k tn)

γ

(tn C/k tn) Hard Coal & Derivatives 26.80 23.90 640.52

Lignite & Derivatives 27.60 5.28 145.73 Coke 28.90 29.57 854.57

Brown Coal Briquettes 25.80 13.23 341.28

Refinery Gas 18.20 47.60 866.32 LPG 17.20 47.31 813.73

Gas / Diesel Oil 20.20 43.38 876.28 Residual Fuel Oil 21.10 40.68 858.35 Other Petroleum

Products 20.00 40.19 803.80 Kerosenes - Jet

Fuels 19.50 44.59 869.51 Natural Gas 15.30 47.51 726.90

when replacing the γ from table 4.11 and M from table 4.1 in equ.9 we have

2

bcbcklc-h2

CO tn 901,625,432.C tn 452,346.82*3.59C]tn 38,564.91)3,418.2949,110.34361,253.28[(59.3]113.00ktn)*C/ktn(341.28tn 4.00ktn)*C/ktn(854.57tn

337.00ktn)*C/ktn(145.73tn 564.00ktn)*C/ktn tn 523.59[(640.

][98.01244

===+++==++

++=

=+++= − bcbd

ckd

ld

chdsolid

COd MMMMM γγγγ

22 CO tn 901,625,432.=solidCO

d M equ.12

77

when replacing the γ and M in equ.10 we have

2

kjfp-oo-rfo-rfo-gd2

CO tn 155,244,586.C tn 571,444,789.*630.3C] tn 3,478.02)484,108.27572,518.12384,685.16[(630.3

ktn) 4.00*C/ktn(869.51tn ktn) 564.00*C/ktn tn (803.80ktn) 667.00*C/ktn tn (858.35ktn) 439.00*C/ktn tn (876.28[630.3

][99.01244

===+++=

=++++=

=+++= −− kjfd

podd

ogddliquid

COd MMMMM γγγγ

22 CO tn 155,244,586.=liquidCO

d M equ.13 due to the fact the amount of natural gas used in industry is given in toe we consider net

Hun.g.=47.51MJ/kg and an efficiency ηn.g.=0.85 and thus the 426 Ktoe of natural gas used in industry

are transformed to mass of natural gas as follows :

426*11.63GWh=0.85*GJ/tn 47.51

GJ 3600*11.63*426 =441.66 103 tn= n.g.Md

when replacing the γ and M in equ.11 we have

2

n.g.n.g.lpgrgrg2

CO tn 911,925,341.Ctn 527,731.91*648.3

C] tn )321,043.98206,687.930[(648.3]441.66ktn)*C/ktn tn (726.90254.00ktn)*C/ktn tn (813.730.00ktn)*C/ktn tn .323.648[(866

][995.01244

===

=++==++=

=++= MMMM dlpg

ddgasCO

d γγγ

equ.14

and equ.5 give as the total mass of CO2 by replacing the equ.12, equ.13 and equ.14 to equ.5 we

have that

2222222 CO91tn 1,925,341.CO tn 155,244,586.CO tn 901,625,432. ++=++= gasCO

dliquidCO

dsolidCO

dCO

d MMMM

22 CO tn 968,795,360.=COd M equ.15 Replacing equ.15 and equ.4 to equ.3 we estimate on the total CO2 produced due to industrial

activity in Greece without using a CHP plant.

22 CO tn 911,925,341.=gasCO

d M

78

2CO2

2222CO2

.6016,578,482M

647,783,121. 968,795,360.M

COtn

COtnCOtnMM COe

COd

=

+=+=

equ.3

After the installation of CHP unit we have that the new mass of natural gas required to cover electrical and thermal needs is given by equation equ.16

Where

0....

el

+++++

++++++

++=ΔΕ+++=

−−−−−−

−−

gngnd

lpglpgd

rgrgd

kjfkjfd

popod

orforfd

ogdogdd

bcbbcbd

ckckd

lld

chchd

gasgasd

liquidlliquid

dsolidsolid

dbefore

HuMHuMHuMHuM

HuMHuMHuMHuMHuM

HuMHuMHuMHuMHuMQ

equ.16 All calculations of equ.16 are analytically presented in the following table :

Table 4.12: Estimated thermal energy (GWh).

Fuel

Amount of fuel (103

tonnes)

Net Calorific Value(TJ/103

tonnes) Qbefore(TJ) Qbefore (GWh)

Hard Coal &

Derivatives 564 23.90 13,479.600 3,744.334

Lignite & Derivatives 337 5.28 1,779.360 494.267

Coke 4 29.57 118.280 32.856

Brown Coal

Briquettes 113 13.23 1,494.764 415.212

Gas / Diesel Oil 439 43.38 19,043.820 5,289.950

Residual Fuel Oil 667 40.68 27,133.560 7,537.101

Other Petroleum Products

564 40.19 22,667.160 6,296.434

Kerosenes - Jet Fuels 4 44.59 178.360 49.544

Refinery Gas 0 47.60 0.000 0.000

LPG 254 47.31 12,016.740 3,337.984 Natural

Gas 441.66 47.51 20,983.267 5,828.686

total 118,894.911 33,026.367

79

by replacing all the

GWh 33,026.367=beforeQ equ.16 Electrical energy used in industry is given in toe from the source thus

Wh14,421.20GGWh 630,11*24.124.1 === MtoeEbefore equ.17 Replacing in equation18 the estimated equ.16 and equ.17 as well as the known price for

GJ/tn 51.74.. =gnHu and estimation for efficiency %58CHP =η we have that

tnM gn 40.3840.112170,811,24

0.85* 47.51GJ/tn3600*Wh)14,421.20GGWh 7(33,026.36

η * HuQ E

CHPn.g.

beforebefore'.. =

+=

+=

equ.18

k tn 4,229.73 tn4814,229,728.'.. ==gnM equ.19

Then we can use the equation 20 to calculate the extracted emissions from this amount of natural gas :

][1244' '

n.g.n.gn.g.2 MM gasCO ηγ= equ.20

replacing γnatural gas=726.90 tn C/Ktn and ηn.g.=99.5% in equ.20 we have

] 4,229.73*995.0*/90.726[1244M ..

2CO2' tnktnkCtnM gn

CO ==

2CO2' CO tn .84411,217,127M =

The gain in CO2 is the difference between the prior CHP emissions CO2M and the CO2

'M emissions after.

2CO2gained

22CO2'

CO2CO2gained

CO tn 755,361,354.M

CO tn .84411,217,127CO tn .6016,578,482MMM

=

−=−=

§ 4.2.7.1.2 SO2 emission estimations before and after CHP installation To estimate the SO2 emissions the equation equ. 1 gives us equ.22

80

MSO2= 22 SOe

SOd MM + equ.22

where the mass of SO2 produced due to electricity production is

EXXXXM resSOres

oilSOoil

gnSOgn

coalSOcoal

SOe ][ 22..2

..22 εεεε +++= equ.23

where the 2SOε is SO2 emission factor (source: Kaldellis J., et. al., 2004)

, and X the share of each fuel in the Greek electricity production (source:IEA Report Greece 2008) is

GWhSOtn

SOcoal 2

2 3.14=ε and 51.4%=coalX

GWhSOtn

SOoil 2

2 1.14=ε and %51=oilX

GWhSOtn

SOgn 2

2.. 0=ε and %1.42.. =gnX

GWhSOtn

SOres 2

2 0=ε and %3.9=resX

therefore replacing all the above amounts in equ.22 we have

2

22..2..

2

54.499,36120.421,14*]115.2350.7[

Wh14,421.20G*]15.0*1.14514.0*3.14[

][

SOtntnGWh

tnGWh

tn

EXXXXM resSOres

oilSOoil

gnSOgn

coalSOcoal

Se

=+=

=+=

=+++= εεεε

22 54.499,361 SOtnM SOe = equ.23 where the direct mass of SO2 produced due combustion is given by

gasSO

dliquidSO

dsolidSO

dSO

d MMMM 2222 ++= equ.24 where for solids that consist of coal products we have

]''''''''[3264

bcbbcbckckllc-hc-h2 bcbd

ckd

ld

chdsolid

SOd MMMMM ηγηγηγηγ +++= −

equ.25

h-c: hard coal and derivatives l: lignite and derivatives ck: coke bcb: brown coal briquettes where for liquids that consist of oil products we have

]''''''''[3264

kjfkjfpop-oo-rfo-rfo-rfo-gdo-gd2 kjfd

podd

ogddliquid

SOd MMMMM ηγηγηγηγ +++= −−−

equ.26 gd-o: gas/diesel oil

81

rf-o: residual fuel oil o-p: other petroleum products kjf: kerosenes-jet fuels where for gaseous fuels we have

]''''''[3264

n.g.n.gn.g.lpglpgrgrgrg2 MMMM dlpg

ddgasSO

d ηγηγηγ ++= equ.27

rg: refinery gases lpg: liquefied petroleum gas n.g.: natural gas (natural gas does not contain sulfur) The values for Fraction of Sulfur Oxidized (η) is assumed 99% for all types of fuel.

%99''''' bcbcklc-hcoal ===== ηηηηη %99''''' kjfp-oo-rfo-gdoil ===== ηηηηη

%99'''' n.g.lpgrggas ==== ηηηη Therefore equations equ.25, equ.26 and equ.27 are transformed to

]''''['3264

bcbcklc-hcoal2 bcbd

ckd

ld

chdsolid

SOd MMMMM γγγγη +++= − =

= ]''''[99.03264

bcbcklc-h bcbd

ckd

ld

chd MMMM γγγγ +++−

equ.28

]''''['3264

kjfp-oo-rfo-rfo-gdoil2 kjfd

podd

ogddliquid

SOd MMMMM γγγγη +++= −− =

]''''[99.03264

kjfp-oo-rfo-rfo-gd kjfd

podd

ogdd MMMM γγγγ +++= −−

equ.29

]'''[99.03264]'''['

3264

n.g.n.g.lpgrgrgn.g.n.g.lpgrgrggas2 MMMMMMM dlpg

dddlpg

ddgasSO

d γγγγγγη ++=++=

equ.30 The emissions of sulphur oxides (SOx) are directly related to the sulphur content of the fuel,

which for coal normally varies between 0.3 and 1.2 wt.-% (maf) (up to an extreme value of

4.5 wt.-%) and for fuel oil (including heavy fuel oil) from 0.3 up to 3.0 wt.-%. (CORINAIR, 2006).

Table 4.13: Sulfur Content % of fuel consumed in Greek industry(source:CORINAIR, 2006).

Fuel Sulfur Content %

0

82

Hard Coal & Derivatives 1

Lignite & Derivatives 2 Coke 2

Brown Coal Briquettes 1

Refinery Gas 1 LPG 0.2

Gas / Diesel Oil 2 Residual Fuel Oil 2 Other Petroleum

Products 2 Kerosenes - Jet

Fuels 2 Natural Gas -

SO tn 82.690,2 22 =solidSO

d M equ.31 replacing M in equ.10 we have

2

kjfp-oo-rfo-rfo-gdo-co-c2

SO tn 04.629,6S tn 00.348,3*98.1S] tn )00.800.128,100.334,199.878[(98.1

ktn) 4.00*S/ktn tn (2ktn) 564.00*S/ktn tn (2ktn) 667.00*S/ktn tn (2ktn) 439.00*S/ktn tn (2[98.1

]'''''[99.03264

===+++==++

++=

=++++= −− kjfd

podd

ogdddliquid

SOd MMMMMM γγγγγ

22 SO tn 04.629,6=liquidSO

d M equ.32 when replacing M in equ.11 we have

equ.33

22 SO tn 84.0051,=gasSO

d M

2

bcbcklbc-h2

SO tn 82.690,2S tn 1,359.00*98.1S]tn 00.11300.800.67400.564[98.1

]113.00ktn)*S/ktn(1tn 4.00ktn)*S/ktn(2tn 337.00ktn)*S/ktn(2tn 564.00ktn)*S/ktn tn [(198.1

]'''''[99.03264

===+++=

=++++=

=++++= − bcbd

ckd

ld

bd

chdsolid

SOd MMMMMM γγγγγ

2

lpg2

SO tn 84.005,1S] tn )00.508[(98.1

]254.00ktn)*S/ktn tn [(0.298.1

]'[99.03264

===

==

== lpgdgas

SOd MM γ

83

equ.24 give as the total direct mass of SO2 by replacing the equ.31, equ.32 and equ.33 to equ.24 we

have that

2222222 SO tn 84.0051,SOtn 04.629,6SO tn 82.690,2 ++=++= gasSO

dliquidSO

dsolidSO

dSO

d MMMM

22 SO tn 10,325.700=SOd M equ.34

Replacing equ.34 and equ.23 to equ.22 we estimate on the total SO2 produced due to industrial

activity in Greece without using a CHP plant.

2SO2

2222SO2

224146,825.24M

54.499,36110,325.700M

SOtn

SOtnSOtnMM SOe

SOd

=

+=+= equ.35

Since the CHP plant will be fired using natural gas that produces no sulfur emissions the amount of

2SO2 224146,825.24M SOtn= is considered as the saved amount of SO2 emissions.

§ 4.2.7.1.3 NOx emission estimations before and after CHP installation To estimate the NOx emissions we use the equation

MNOx= NOXe

NOxd MM + equ.36

where NOxd M is the mass of emission pollutant due to direct combustion of fuel and

NOXeM is the mass of emission pollutant due to electricity production

The the mass of emission pollutant due to electricity production is calculated using the following

equation

NOx tn 31,518.36920.421,14*]0.0491.5540.583[

Wh14,421.20G*]241.0*202.015.0*36.0514.0*134.1[

][ NOx..NOx..

NOxNOx

=++=

=++=

=++=

tnGWh

tnGWh

tnGWh

tn

EXXXM oiloil

gngn

coalcoale εεε

equ.37

84

NOx tn 31,518.369NOx =Me

where the NOxε is NOx emission factor(source:

http://www.cfs.co.uk/sustainability2003/ecological/conversions.htm paragraph 1.3 Energy: nitrogen

oxide (NOx) emissions to air.) and X the share of each fuel in the Greek electricity production

(source:IEA Report Greece 2002) is

GWhNOxtn

NOXcoal 134.1=ε and 51.4%=coalX

GWhtnoil NOx36.0NOx =ε and %51=oilX

GWhtngn NOx202.0NOx

.. =ε and %1.42.. =gnX

GWhtnres NOx0NOx =ε and %3.9=resX

According to Ministry of Development and the Operational Programme Competitiveness – Energy

Investments Guide it had issued in 2002 we have the following table-1 to estimate NOx emissions

per combusted fuel.

85

Table 4.14: Pollutant emissions per fuel (g/kg fuel). (source: Hellenic Ministry of Development,

2002)

Ef NOx

Pollutant emissions

(g/kg fuel) Fuel

NOx

Mazut Νο 1 (1500) Low Sulphur 5.363

Mazut Νο 1 (1500) High Sulphur 5.251

Mazut Νο 3 (3500) Low Sulphur 5.363

Mazut Νο 3 (3500) High Sulphur 5.221

Diesel 2.384

LPG 2.102

Natural Gas 2.102

Table 4.15: Amount of fuel used to cover industry’s needs(extract from table 4.2)

Mf (Ktn)

Hard Coal & Derivatives 564.00

Lignite & Derivatives 337.00

Coke 4.00

Brown Coal Briquettes 113.00

LPG 254.00

Gas / Diesel Oil 439.00

Residual Fuel Oil 667.00

Other Petroleum Products 564.00

Kerosenes - Jet Fuels 4.00

Natural Gas 441.66

86

The direct amount of NOx is calculated by multiplying the emission factor as given by

ffNOxNOxd MEM *= equ.38 Calculating for fuels LPG, diesel oil, other petroleum products(using the value of mazut taking as average of No1 –No3 and low-high sulfate the value 5.251 (g/kg fuel)) and natural gas the equ38 becomes

NOx tn 5,498.05928.372,989.201,046.58533.91

)102.2*66.441(

)251.5*564()384.2*439()102.2*254(

)*(

)*()*()*(*

.

=+++=

=+

+++=

=+

+++==

KtntnKtn

KtntnKtn

KtntnKtn

KtntnKtn

ME

MElMEMEMEM

gnffNOx

mazutffNOxdieseffNOxLPGffNOxffNOxNOxd

Due to the fact that we didn’t estimate NOx emissions due to combustion of hard coal, lignite, coke,

briquettes, residual fuel oil and kerosenes and due to lack of data we make an assumption and make

an accession of 5, 498 tn NOx to 8,000 tn NOx.

Thus NOx tn 8,000=NOx

d M is the mass of NOx from direct combustion of fuels

NOx tn 31,518.369NOxtn 000,8NOx +=+= NOXe

NOxd MMM

Thus the overall mass of NOx emission resulting from Greek industrial activity is

NOxtn 37.518,39NOx =M After the installation of CHP unit we have that the new mass of natural gas required to cover electrical and thermal needs is given by equation equ.39

Where

0....

el

+++++

++++++

++=ΔΕ+++=

−−−−−−

−−

gngnd

lpglpgd

rgrgd

kjfkjfd

popod

orforfd

ogdogdd

bcbbcbd

ckckd

lld

chchd

gasgasd

liquidlliquid

dsolidsolid

dbefore

HuMHuMHuMHuM

HuMHuMHuMHuMHuM

HuMHuMHuMHuMHuMQ

equ.39

87

Therefore by replacing we have

GWh 33,026.367=beforeQ equ.40 Electrical energy used in industry is given in toe from the source thus

Wh14,421.20GGWh 630,11*24.124.1 === MtoeEbefore equ.41 Replacing in equation 42 the estimated equ.40 and equ.41as well as the known prices for

GJ/tn 51.74.. =gnHu and estimation for efficiency %58CHP =η we have that

tnM gn 40.3840.112170,811,24

0.85* 47.51GJ/tn3600*Wh)14,421.20GGWh 7(33,026.36

η * HuQ E

CHPn.g.

beforebefore'.. =

+=

+= equ.42

k tn 4,229.73 tn4814,229,728.'.. ==gnM of natural gas equ.43

Then we can use the equation 44 to calculate the extracted emissions from this amount of natural gas :

8,890.892.102*73.229,4*' ...... === ktnMEFM fgn

NOxgngn

NOX tn of NOx emission

equ.44 The gain in NOX is the difference between the prior CHP emissions NOxM and the

NOx'n.g .M emissions after.

NOx tn 30,627.48M

NOx tn 89.890,8NOx tn 37.518,39.MMM

NO2gained

NOx'n.g

NOxNOxgained

=

−=−=

equ.45 § 4.2.7.2 Typical GHG emissions of tertiary sector In order to estimate the reduction of the GHG emissions, we firstly have to estimate, based on the

typical consumptions as calculated in section 4.2.5, the emitted CO2, SO2 and NOx that are being

produced on an annual basis due to the combustion of fossil fuels. Table 4.22 provides the amount

of extracted pollutant in g per kg of combusted fuel and is an extract given by the Hellenic Ministry

of Development in an annex in the “Energy investment guide” of the Operational Program

Competitiveness at 2002. However, some fuels are not mentioned in the Energy Investment Guide

88

and GHG emissions are calculated by the method implied by IEA in “CO2 Emissions from fuel

combustion-Beyond 2020 Documentation (2008 Edition).

Table 4.16: Pollutant emissions per fuel (g/kg fuel) and for on-grid electrical energy(tn/GWh).

(source: Hellenic Ministry of Development, 2002)

Ef Pollutant emissions (g/kg fuel) Fuel

CO2 SO2 NOx





Diesel 3,142 0.7 2.384

LPG 3,030 0.0 2.102

Natural Gas 2,715 0.0 2.102

Electrical energy Ef Pollutant emissions (tn/GWh)

Emission for on-grid electrical energy

production 850 15.5 1.2

The overall amount of electrical energy on annual basis of tertriary sector is 2,691.15 GWh due to

467GWh from health care buildings and 2,224.15 GWh due to hotels. Thus the emissions CO2, SO2

and NOx due to annual electrical energy of tertiary are given by equ 46.

Xel

2el22

2el22

NO tn 3,229.38GWh 2,691.15*2.1E*

SO tn 41,712.76GWh 2,691.15*5.15E*

CO tn 092,287,474.GWh 2,691.15*508E*

===

===

===

GWhtnEfM

GWhtnEfM

GWhtnEfM

NOxel

NOxe

SOel

SOe

COel

COe

equ.46

In the following estimations, assumptions are made that 60% of the thermal energy is produced

using diesel oil as fuel and 40% natural gas, while we also consider 80% efficiency of diesel oil

89

boilers and 85% efficiency of natural gas boilers. Known parameters are the net calorific value of

diesel oil is Hudiesel oil=43.38 GJ/tn and natural gas is Hun.g.=47.51 GJ/tn.

To estimate the mass of natural gas and diesel oil that are used in order to produce thermal energy of 2,485.48 GWh we use the following equation

gas natural tn 88,627.6785.0*51.47

3600*2,485.48*4.0.. ==

tnGJ

JGWhM gn equ.47

oil diesel tn 154,698.118.0*38.43

3600*2,485.48*6.0==

tnGJ

JGWhM diesel equ.48

These amounts of fuel produce emissions according to equation 49,50,51

2

n.g.2..

diesel2..222

COKtn 726.69311,009.86628,240.88)44.552,114*tnkg715,2(

tn)154,698.11*tnkg3,142(M*M*

=+=+

+=+=+=

tn

EfEfMMM COgn

COdieselgn

COddiesel

COd

COd

equ.49

2

n.g.2..

diesel2..222

SO kg 108,288.67

0 tn)154,698.11*tnkg7.0(M*M*

=

=+=+=+= SOgn

SOdieselgn

SOddiesel

SOd

SOd EfEfMMM

equ.50

NOxKtn 0.560.23240,789,224.10476,679,26)44.552,114*tnkg102.2(

tn)154,698.11*tnkg384.2(M*M* n.g.

..diesel

..

=+=+

+=+=+=

tn

EfEfMMM NOxgn

NOxdieselgn

NOxddiesel

NOxd

NOxd

equ.51

Consequently, to estimate the overall amount of emissions deriving from direct fuel consumptions

and electrical energy of tertiary sector we use the equation 52, 53 and 54

2.

222 COK tn 653,014,159. tn 092,287,474.Ktn25.68.726 =+=+= COe

COd

CO MMM equ.52

90

2.

222 SOKtn 41.82tn41,712.76 tn 108.28 =+=+= SOe

SOd

SO MMM equ.53

NOxMMM NOxe

NOxd

NOx K tn 3.78Ktn3.2Ktn 56.0. =+=+= equ.54

To estimate the emissions after the installation of CHP plants in tertiary we use the equation as

well as the known prices for GJ/tn 51.74.. =gnHu and %58CHP =η

Thus, we have that

tnM gn 461,472.230.85* 47.51GJ/tn

3600*GWh)2,485.48GWh (2,691.15η * HuQ E

CHPn.g.

beforebefore'.. =

+=

+= equ.55

And respectively those 461,472.23 tn of natural gas produce the emissions

equ.56

equ.57

equ.58

§ 4.2.8 Emissions and emission reductions of operating Greek CHP plants Summing the electrical energy of CHP plants currently operating in both industrial and tertiary

sector we have the amount of Eel=2,736.

Thus the estimated emissions prior and after the use those plants are estimated hereafter:

2n.g.2'

2 COK tn 1,252.9 tn)461,472.23*tnkg715,2(M'* === CO

lCO EfM

2n.g.2'

2 SOKtn 0 tn)461,472.23*tnkg0(M'* === SO

lSO EfM

NOxEfM NOxl

NOx Ktn 0.97 tn)461,472.23*tnkg102.2(M'* n.g.

' ===

91

Xel

2el22

2el22

NO tn 3,284GWh 2,736.43*2.1E*

SO tn 42,415GWh 2,736.43*5.15E*

CO tn 2,325,964GWh 2,736.43*508E*

===

===

===

GWhtnEfM

GWhtnEfM

GWhtnEfM

NOxel

NOxe

SOel

SOe

COel

COe

equ.59

The overall electrical energy that is been consumed due to industrial production which amount is

14.421 TWh while the relevant amount only for industries as given in table 4.1-CHP Units in

operation is 2.68 GWh. Therefore units consume 0.019 % of the energy of the overall electrical

energy of the industrial sector. This percentage will help us make the assumptions that the amount

of fuel used by those industrial units is of the percentage of 0.019% of the overall quantities of fuel

presented in table 4.17.

Table 4.17 :Fuel in K tn used to meet thermal energy needs of CHP industrial operating plants.

Fuel Ktn

Hard Coal & Derivatives 10.46

Lignite & Derivatives 6.25

Coke 0.07

Brown Coal Briquettes 2.10

LPG 4.71

Gas / Diesel Oil 8.14

Residual Fuel Oil 12.37

Other Petroleum Products 10.46

Kerosenes - Jet Fuels 0.07

Natural Gas 8.19

Using the methodology described analytically in section 4.2.7.1.1 we estimate CO2 emissions of

operating CHP plants in Greek industry.

92

2

n.g.n.gn.g.lpglpg

kjfkjfpop-oo-rfo-rfo-rfo-gdo-gd

bcbbcbckckllc-hc-h2222

CO tn 115,474.9317,569.8068,275.7829,629.35

8.19ktn)]*C/ktn tn (726.904.71ktn)*C/ktn tn (813.733.648[

ktn) 0.07*C/ktn(869.51tn ktn) 10.46*C/ktn tn (803.80ktn) 12.37*C/ktn tn (858.35ktn) 8.14*C/ktn tn (876.28[630.3

2.1ktn)]*C/ktn(341.28tn 0.07ktn)*C/ktn(854.57tn

6.25ktn)*C/ktn(145.73tn 10.46ktn)*C/ktn tn 523.59[(640.

][1244

][1244

][1244

=++=

=+++

++++++

+++

++=

=++

+++++

++++=++=

−−−

−

MM

MMMM

MMMMMMMM

dlpg

d

kjfd

podd

ogdd

bcbd

ckd

ld

chdgas

COdliquid

COdsolid

COd

COd

ηγηγ

ηγηγηγηγ

ηγηγηγηγ

22 CO tn 115,474.93=CO

d M equ.60

Using the methodology described analytically in section 4.2.7.1.2 we estimate SO2 emissions of


[ ]

2

lpglpg

kjfkjfpop-oo-rfo-rfo-rfo-gdo-gd

bcbbcbckckllc-hc-h

2222

SO tn 130.1411.87tn90.74tn tn37.54)]4.71.00ktn*S/ktn tn [(0.298.1ktn) 0.07*S/ktn tn (2ktn) 10.56*S/ktn tn (2

ktn) 12.37*S/ktn tn (2ktn) 8.14*S/ktn tn (2[98.12.10ktn)]*S/ktn(1tn 0.07ktn)*S/ktn(2tn

6.25ktn)*S/ktn(2tn 10.46ktn)*S/ktn tn [(198.1

''3264

]''''''''[3264

]''''''''[3264

=++=++++

++++++

++=

=+

+++++

++++=

=++=

−−−

−

lpgd

kjfd

podd

ogdd

bcbd

ckd

ld

chd

gasSO

dliquidSO

dsolidSO

dSO

d

M

MMMM

MMMM

MMMM

ηγ

ηγηγηγηγ

ηγηγηγηγ

22 SO tn 141.301=SOd M equ.61

Using the methodology described analytically in section 4.2.7.1.3 we estimate NOx emissions of


93

The direct amount of NOx is calculated by multiplying the emission factor as given by ffNOxNOx

d MEM *= equ.62 Calculating for fuels LPG, diesel oil, other petroleum products(using the value of mazut taking as

average of No1 –No3 and low-high sulfate the value 5.251 (g/kg fuel)) and natural gas the equ62

becomes

NOx tn 02122.7146.5542.9191.9

)102.2*19.8(

)251.5*46.10()384.2*141.8()102.2*71.4(

)*(

)*()*()*(*

.

=+++=

=+

+++=

=+

+++==

KtntnKtn

KtntnKtn

KtntnKtn

KtntnKtn

ME

MEMEMEMEM

gnffNOx

mazutffNOxdieselffNOxLPGffNOxffNOxNOxd

Due to the fact that we didn’t estimate NOx emissions from combustion of hard coal, lignite, coke,

briquettes, residual fuel oil and kerosenes due to lack of data for those specific fuels, we make an

accession and we assume that 102tn NOx are 150 tn NOx.

Thus NOx tn 501=NOxd M is the mass of NOx from direct combustion of fuels

The overall amount of GHG emission as estimated for the specific CHP operating in Greece is

given by the equation :

MCO2= 22222 CO tn 932,441,438.CO tn 2,325,964CO tn 115,474.93 =+=+ COe

COd MM equ.64

MSO2= 22222 SO tn 42,545.14SO tn 42,415SO tn 141.301 =+=+ SOe

SOd MM equ.65

MNOx= XXX NO tn 3,434.00NO tn 3,284NO tn 150 =+=+ NOxe

NOnd MM equ.66

To estimate the GHG emissions of CHP plants currently in operation we know that:

94

tnM gn 21.404,2160.85* 47.51GJ/tn

3600*GWh)234,4GWh (2,736η * HuQ E

CHPn.g.

beforebefore'.. =

+=

+= equ.68

And respectively those 621,404.21 tn of natural gas produce the emissions

equ.69

equ.70

equ.71

2n.g.2'

2 CO tn 421,687,112. tn)621,404.21*tnkg3,142(M'* === CO

lCO EfM

2n.g.2'

2 SOKtn 0 tn)621,404.21*tnkg.0(M'* === SO

lSO EfM

NOxEfM NOxl

NOx tn 1,306.19 tn)621,404.21*tnkg102.2(M'* n.g.

' ===

Documents

Tampou Aliki Cohort II Dissertation B49IR 2009