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S U S T A I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T Y O U T H C O N V E N T I O N
AC A D E M I C B O O K L E T
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All content contained herein, except those from acknowledged sources, was prepared by and is
intellectual property of the Academic Committee of the Organising Team of the 2nd
Sustainable Development Youth Convention, 2011
All steps have been taken in order to ensure the completeness and accuracy of information and
their sources contained within this booklet
Last modified August 14, 2011 12:19 PM
If you are accessing the .pdf version of this document, all included links are workable
Please print responsibly in duplex, and/or using recycled paper where possible
Typeset in Goudy Old Style
Made on a Mac
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F O R E W O R D
Every year, world leaders convene to address the pressing issues brought about by unsustainable
development. During these discussions and debates, decisions are made and resolutions are
crafted and implemented. Today, as participants of the Sustainable Development Youth
Convention 2011, you will be given the opportunity to participate in a similar discussion
setting. We hope this learning journey will allow you to broaden your knowledge and further
your interest in sustainable development.
Sustainable development can be applied to a plethora of fields - from issues in society, to the
environment, and the economy. But at the very heart of sustainable development, lies the
concept of balance and compromise. It is a balance between economic growth and
environmental conservation. It is a compromise between fulfilling each partys agenda and
serving the greater good. During the course of the debates and discussions, it is our hope that
you will learn to understand each others roles and purposes, and ultimately craft a solution
which best aligns the respective parties gains with sustainable development.
This year, SDYC will cover four scenarios of sustainable development carbon emissions,
deforestation, food production and resource depletion. These topics were selected as they span
the three critical aspects of sustainable development - the economy, the environment and the
society.
While this guide will provide you the basic information on each of the four topics, we would
like to emphasise that it is merely a platform on which you should build your knowledge base.
Before attending the 3 day convention, do some research and develop opinions, perspectives
and ideas which you can contribute during the committee sessions. Lastly, we would like to
stress that sustainable development is more than just any one scenario. It is the underlyingprinciple that should steer our decisions as leaders of tomorrow.
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TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S
OV E R E X P L O I T A T I O N Key Question 1O F I N E S
Scenario 1
Key Concepts and Definitions 2
Links to Sustainable Development 3
Some Initiatives Taken 4
Key Issues 5
Stakeholders 8
Food for Thought 27
CA R B O N F U T U R E S Key Question 28
Scenario 28
Key Concepts and Definitions30
Links to Sustainable Development 31
Some Initiatives Taken 31
Stakeholders 32
Food for Thought 49
F O O D Key Question 50U S T A I N A B I L I T Y
Scenario 50
Key Concepts and Definitions 52
Links to Sustainable Development 53
Some Initiatives Taken 54
Key Issues 56
Stakeholders 57
Food for Thought 80
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D E F O R E S T A T I O N Key Question 81
Scenario 81
Key Concepts and Definitions 82
Links to Sustainable Development 82
Some Initiatives Taken 83
Key Issues 84
Some Possible Solutions 87
Stakeholders 89
Food for Thought 98
AP P E N D I C E S Appendix A
References99
Appendix BFurther Reading 106
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OV E R E X P L O I T A T I O N O F
M I N E S
K E Y Q U E S T I O N
How can countries implement its policies so as to achieve a balance between the short-term
benefits of poorly regulated mining and the long-term benefits of safe and sustainable mining?
S C E N A R I O
In South Africa, 100 years of gold mining has resulted in massive environmental consequences
such as acid water seeping and corroding the foundation of buildings. In Humberstone, Chile,
what was a booming town in the 1920s is now deserted after the mine was depleted. This left
the town with polluted and toxic land. Such incidents are not limited to the above-mentioned
countries and have occurred in other parts of the world from Poland to Papau New Guinea.
However, many of the offenders are not local mining companies but companies from the
United Kingdom and the United States of America. The involvement of multinational
corporations in the matter makes this a transnational issue. Under these circumstances, the
United Nations has organised a session where countries and companies are invited to discuss
issues related to poor mining practices. This session focuses on the feasibility of a global set of
regulations to manage mining, how countries should implement policies to regulate domestic
mining and the diversification of developing countries economy from mining profits.
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K E Y C O N C E P T S A N D D E F I N I T I O N S
Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, from
an ore body, vein or coal seam. The nature of mining processes could have potential negative
impacts on the environment both during the mining operations and years after the mine is
closed. This impact has led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to moderate the
negative effects of mining operations.
Sustainable Mining is all about developing procedures, regulations, and enforcing them to
ensure that mining practices do not result in environmental, financial or social harm which
could in turn affect current and future generations. This can only be brought about through
the concerted enforcement of certain regulations mutually agreed upon by mining
corporations, the government and NGOs. While it is clear that some regulation is necessary,
the extent of this regulation is open to discourse.
EITI (Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative) increases transparency over payments by
companies to governments and to government-linked entities, as well as transparency over
revenues by those host country governments. It was announced by Tony Blair, the then-Prime
Minister of the United Kingdom, at the World Summit on Sustainable Development inJohannesburg, South Africa in September 2002. Ghana, Nigeria and Azerbaijan piloted the
EITI approach.
Artisanal mining is mining not done by mining companies, but by independent people,
mining or panning for gold using their own resources. Mining done in such a manner is hard
to regulate.
The International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) is composed of 18 mining
companies and works with local communities and governments to find ethical means to
discover and extract metal ore from the earth.
Land Reclamation is the process of returning the land in a given area to some degree of its
former state, after some process (industrial, natural disasters etc.) has resulted in its damage.
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L I N K S T O S U S T A I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T
Figure 1 Map of mining operations throughout the world.
Mining is an economic activity that happens in many countries all over the world and is a huge
economic contributor to many countries gross domestic product. However, the nature of
mining negatively impacts the environment both during and after the mine is closed. This
impact can be mitigated by strict regulations that force mining companies to clean up the
surrounding area after the mine is depleted. However, the process is not perfect and much of
the environmental damage weathered during the mining process is irreversible.
Problems such as heavy metal runoff and surface mining destroy local ecosystems which might
cause endemic species to go extinct. The environment becomes uninhabitable for not only
wildlife, but also humans. Land improperly reclaimed is unsuitable for agricultural or
residential uses, and might be fit only industrial use. This poses a huge problem when the mine
is depleted and the surrounding area is unable to be used productively.
If measures are not put in place to minimise environmental damages, arable and habitable landwill be lost - a consequence that future generations will have to bear. However, any money
spent on implementing safety measures and technology is profit lost and might be unjustifiable
to shareholders. A balance between the two must be reached in order to develop sustainably.
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S O M E I N I T I A T I V E S T A K E N
T H E IN T E R N A T I O N A L C O U N C I L O N M I N I N G & M E T A L S ( I C M M )
ICMM brings together 20 of the world's leading mining and metals companies as well as 31
national and regional mining associations and global commodity associations to address the
core sustainable development challenges faced by the industry.
Their members include: African Rainbow Minerals, AngloAmerican, AngloGold Ashanti,
AREVA, Barrick, BHP Billiton, Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold, Goldcorp, Gold Fields,
Hydro, JX Nippon Mining & Metals, Lonmin, Minerals and Metals Group, Mitsubishi
Materials, Newmont, Rio Tinto, Sumitomo Metal Mining, Teck, Vale and Xstrata.
They come from countries such as US, Canada, China, Brazil, Japan and South Africa, and
work together on projects called work programs. These work programs aim to tackle issues
related to sustainable mining such as climate change, socio-economic problems, the
environment and materials stewardship.
On the front of climate change, ICMM members have committed towards establishing a
comprehensive and rigorous climate change management program of policy principles. This
allows policy implementations to be f lexible to suit a nation-targeted approach. For example,
member companies have taken steps to comprehend a mining operations water balance, and
then act appropriately on it.
The ICMM understands that there are socio-economic aspects to mining operations. They have
written a paper on responsible mine closure practices. The paper is available online at http://
bit.ly/qcNWWG/.
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T H E C O S T A N D C O M P L E X I T Y O F RE G U L A T I O N
While widely acknowledged that some form of regulation can reduce the environmental, social
and financial consequences of mining operations, both companies and governments are
resistant to forms of regulation which could burden them economically.
From the perspective of companies, compliance to regulation involves spending on technology
and manpower that will reduce profits in the short term. As a result of regulatory measures,
mining corporations are forced to cut into their profit margins which could affect shareholders
and its employees. Forced to choose between profit and environmental consequences,
corporations often forgo the latter, resulting in unsustainable practices.
From the perspective of the government, more manpower and infrastructure is needed to
enforce newly legislated regulations. This means an increase in budget for that department, a
move that the current political party might not wish to spend political capital on. In addition,
countries that have corrupt governments benefit from corporations by promising not to pass
laws that affect the companies business.
As a result, there is inertia on both sides preventing the mining industry from being regulated.
The only motivator, which has had a measure of success, is public pressure. This led to the
formation of the ICMM.
E F F E C T O F RE G U L A T I O N O N T H E D O M E S T I C E C O N O M Y
Many countries depend heavily on mining to supplement their domestic economy. Mining
provides many jobs in developing nations and imposing regulations might scare off potentialinvestors. In addition, the government can use the money saved by reducing mining regulation
to improve the infrastructure and the lives of the citizens. The promise of money in the short
term is perceived to outweigh the loss of useful land in the future. Hence, for many countries
fighting to survive in the present, environmental issues are at the back of their minds.
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C O M P E T I T I O N B E T W E E N M I N I N G C O M P A N I E S
The profit from a mine depends not only on the amount of ore in the mine, but also from the
cost of setting up a mine in that country. Different countries have different regulations that
force companies to protect the environment. These costs cut into a companies profit margin,
and affect the companies ability to decrease prices.
As a result, companies operating in countries with tighter regulations have no choice but to sell
at higher prices and are less competitive than countries operating without any restrictions.
Companies extensive lobbying against regulation has resulted in a stagnation of regulatory
efforts.
S O C I A L AS P E C T S
During the initial setup stages of a mining operation, large amounts of resources and human
capital are directed to the area around the operation. A town is usually founded, funded from
the wages of miners. Businesses and services sprout up to service the miners and their families,
and such towns can last for generations.
However, mines are not an infinite resource, and eventually mines run out of ores. As the
mining operation winds down, the money that used to fund the businesses and services stops
flowing and the towns die out. This is evident in many countries which industrialised in the
1900s. America, for example, is home to many abandoned mining towns.
Nevada, one of the youngest and wildest states in America, is strewn with ruins that seem as
gray and silent and time-worn as if the civilisation to which they belonged had perished
centuries ago. Yet, these ruins are the result of mining efforts made during the 1900s and
contain abandoned houses, furnaces and machinery.
In order to prevent such towns from littering the landscape of a country, governments have a
responsibility to diversify the services of the mining towns in order to prevent their collapse
should resources run out.
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S T A K E H O L D E R S
G E N E R A L L Y F O R
CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
South Africa
South Africa is one of the world's and
Africa's most important mining countries in
terms of the variety and quantity of minerals
produced. It has the world's largest reserves
of chrome, gold, vanadium, manganese and
PGM's. The country's mineral industry can
be broken down into five broad categories:
Gold, PGM, Diamonds, Coal and
Vanadium. It has encouraged much
immigration into the country. The mining
industrys relative contribution to South
Africas GDP has declined.
Countries
USA
The United States produces a wide variety of
commodities from gold to coal. It has a land
area of over 9.6 million square kilometers,
19,924 kilometers of coastline, and a
population of over 298 million people. It
uses 25% of the worlds energy reserves and
spends more on maintaining its military
might than most other country's entire GDP.
It is the world's second largest producer of
copper and gold, exports over US$26 billion
worth of minerals and material produced
from minerals each year and its mining
industry employs over 3 million people
directly and indirectly.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Green Peace
Greenpeace is an independent global
campaigning organisation that acts to changeattitudes and behaviour, to protect and
conserve the environment and to promote
peace. Greenpeace is present in 40 countries
across Europe, the Americas, Asia, Africa
and the Pacific. To maintain its
independence, Greenpeace does not accept
donations from governments or corporations
but relies on contributions from individual
supporters and foundation grants.
on overnmen a
Organisations
ICMM
The International Council on Mining and
Metals (ICMM), which comprises 20 mining
and metals companies as well as 31 national
and regional mining associations and global
commodity associations, has as its aim the
improvement of sustainable development
performance in the mining and metals
industry. ICMM engages with a broad range
of stakeholdersgovernments, international
organizations, communities and indigenous
peoples, civil society and academiain order
to build meaningful relationships.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Corporations
Anglo American
Headquartered in London, UK, Anglo
American plc engages in mining platinum,diamonds, coal, base metals, iron ore,
metallurgical coal, and thermal coal in
Africa, Europe, South and North America,
Australia, and Asia. It mines, processes, and
refines platinum group metals, such as
platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium,
iridium, and osmium; and copper,
manganese, and nickel metals. In addition,
the company produces heavy building
materials, including crushed rock, sand and
gravel, asphalt, ready-mixed concrete, and
concrete products; rolled steel and alloy iron
castings, cast alloy iron and forged steel
grinding media, chain, steel wire rope, and
strand and wire products; phosphate
fertilizers and phosphoric acid; and zinc and
niobium.
Gold Fields
Gold Fields is one of the worlds largest gold
exploration and development companies and
ranks as South Africas #2 gold producer,
after AngloGold Ashanti. Production in the
country represents well more than half of
Gold Fields total sales. The company, having
possession of, and access to, a reservoir of 80
million ounces of gold, produces about 3.5
million ounces of gold a year at mines in
Australia, Ghana, Peru, and South Africa.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
AREVA
This state-controlled French company is
involved in every step of nuclear powerproduction. AREVA mines uranium and
enriches it (under the trade name AREVA
NC), and it builds nuclear reactors and
services them. The company also treats and
recycles used fuel. Subsidiary Canberra
makes radiation detection equipment.
AREVA is also developing a broad portfolio
of clean energy plants (using wind energy,
bioenergy, solar power, hydrogen power and
other renewable sources) to complement its
nuclear energy activities.
Corporations
BHP Billiton
A diversified natural resources company that
has just recently acquired Athabasca Potash
Incorporated and Petrohawk Energy
Corporation, BHP Billiton Limited operates
nine customer sector groups: petroleum,
aluminium, base metals (including uranium),
diamonds and specialty products, stainless
steel materials, iron ore, manganese,
metallurgical coal and energy coal. During
the fiscal year ended June 30, 2010, the
Company realized an annual production
volume of 158.56 million barrels of oil
equivalent; and produced 1.2 million tonnes
of aluminium, 13.9 million tonnes of bauxite
and 3.8 million tonnes of alumina.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Goldcorp
Goldcorp is a leading gold producer engaged
in gold mining and related activitiesincluding exploration, extraction, processing
and reclamation. The Companys operating
assets include the Red Lake, Porcupine and
Musselwhite gold mines in Canada,
Peasquito, Los Filos and El Sauzal mines in
Mexico, the Marlin mine in Guatemala, the
Marigold mine (67% interest) and Wharf
mine in the United States and the
Alumbrera mine (37.5%) in Argentina. Over
64% of Goldcorps reserves are in low
political risk NAFTA countries.
Corporations
Rio Tinto
Rio Tinto is a diversified, British-Australian,
multinational mining and resources group
with headquarters in London and
Melbourne, and is among the world leaders
in the production of many commodities,
including aluminium, iron ore, copper,
uranium, coal, and diamonds. Although
primarily focused on extraction of minerals,
Rio Tinto also has significant operations in
refining, particularly for refining bauxite and
iron ore. The company has operations on six
continents but is mainly concentrated in
Australia and Canada, and owns gross assets
valued at $81 billion through a complex web
of wholly and partly owned subsidiaries.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Corporations Teck
Headquartered in Vancouver, Canada, Teck
Resources Limited operates as a diversifiedmining, mineral processing, and
metallurgical company. The company engages
in a range of activities related to mining,
including exploration, development,
smelting, refining, safety, environmental
protection, product stewardship, recycling,
and research. It produces copper and
metallurgical coal; zinc, lead, and
molybdenum concentrates; specialty metals
comprising cadmium, germanium, and
indium; precious metals consisting of silver
and gold; advanced materials, such as low
alpha lead, high purity copper plating
anodes, and indium powder for
semiconductor and integrated circuit,
thermal interface, solar panel, and next
generation technology applications; and
chemicals and fertilizer products.
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G E N E R A L L Y N E U T R A L
CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Countries Australia
Australias thriving resources sector
(comprising minerals and petroleum) is the
countrys largest single export sector, and
over 80 percent ofof its output in 2006-2007
was exported, accounting for approximately
49 per cent of total goods and services
exports. During that period, the minerals
and petroleum industries produced over
eight per cent of Australias GDP and
accounted for 63 per cent of Australias
merchandise export earnings. Some facts are
especially telling: Australia has the worlds
largest deposits of recoverable brown coal,
lead, rutile, zircon, nickel, tantalum,
uranium and zinc, and ranks second in the
world for bauxite, copper, gold, ilmenite and
silver; her reserves of industrial diamonds are
ranked third largest in the world and reserves
of manganese ore are ranked fourth; and she
is the worlds largest exporter of alumina,
black coal, iron ore, lead and zinc
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Countries Canada
Canadas mining industry is a major driver
of Canadian prosperity, contributing $32billion to GDP in 2009 and employing
306,000 workers in mineral extraction,
processing and manufacturing. Canada
remained the top destination for global
exploration in 2009, attracting 16% of world
spending. The industry accounts for 19% of
Canadian goods exports. The industry places
a high priority on corporate social
responsibility (CSR) issues in Canada and
abroad, as reflected by sector initiatives such
as the Mining Association of Canadas
Towards Sustainable Mining program, by the
fact that the government unveiled a CSR
framework in 2009 and by company actions
in developing countries such as helping to
pay for schools, roads, electrical grids,
hospitals, clinics, community halls, and child
ealth and nutrition programs
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Countries Russia
The mineral industry of Russia is one of the
world's leading mineral industries andaccounts for a large percentage of the
Commonwealth of Independent States'
production of a range of mineral products,
including metals, industrial minerals, and
mineral fuels. In 2005, Russia ranked among
the leading world producers or was a
significant producer of such mineral
commodities as aluminum; arsenic; asbestos;
bauxite; boron; cadmium; cement; coal;
cobalt; copper; diamond; fluorspar; gold;
iron ore; lime; lithium; magnesium
compounds and metals; mica, sheet, and
flake; natural gas; nickel; nitrogen; oil shale;
palladium; peat; petroleum; phosphate;
potash; rhenium; silicon, sulfur; titanium
sponge; tin; tungsten; and vanadium.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
AngloGold Ashanti
AngloGold Ashanti Limited, which has a
strategic alliance with Thani Dubai MiningLimited and as of December 31, 2010 had
proved and probable gold reserves of 71.2
million ounces, primarily engages in the
exploration and production of gold. It also
produces silver, uranium oxide, and sulfuric
acid. The company conducts gold-mining
operations in South Africa; continental
Africa, including Ghana, Guinea, Mali,
Namibia, and Tanzania; Australia; and the
Americas, which include Argentina, Brazil,
and the United States.
Corporations
Freeport-McMoRan
Copper & Gold
Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold Inc.
engages in the exploration, mining, and
production of mineral resources. The
company, which primarily explores for
copper, gold, molybdenum, silver, and cobalt
deposits, holds interests in various properties
located in North and South America;
Grasberg minerals district in Indonesia; and
Tenke Fungurume minerals district in the
Democratic Republic of Congo. As of
December 31, 2009, its consolidated
recoverable proven and probable reserves
luminiu 104.2 billion pounds of copper, 37.2
million ounces of gold, 2.59 billion pounds
of molybdenum, 270.4 million ounces of
silver, and 0.78 billion pounds of cobalt.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
JX Nippon Mining &
Metals
JX Nippon Mining & Metals (formerly
Nippon Mining Holdings) is involved in thedevelopment and mining of non-ferrous
metal resources, and the smelting, refining,
and marketing of non-ferrous metals, such as
copper, gold. And silver. The company also
recycles non-ferrous metals. In 2010 Nippon
Mining merged with Nippon Oil to form JX
Holdings, one of the worlds largest energy
companies; accordingly, JX Nippon Mining
& Metals is currently a subsidiary of JX
Holdings.
Corporations
Lonmin
The worlds third largest primary platinum
producer, Lonmin possesses mines in South
Africa from which ore is mined and
concentrated before being processed through
smelter and refineries to deliver finished
metals to the market. It engaged around
24,000 full time employees for the year
ending 30 September 2010.
Sumitomo Metal
Mining
With a history dating back to 1590,
Sumitomo Metal Mining, a part of the
Sumitomo keiretsu, refines copper along
with gold, nickel, and zinc. Metals-related
refining and processing operations account
for more than half of SMMs sales. The
company has smelting and refining
operations, plus mining resources, in Japan,
the US, Australia, Peru, Philippines, and
Chile.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Minerals and Metal
Group
Members of the Minmetals Resources
Limited group of companies (HKEx: 1208);MMG owns and operates a portfolio of
world-class base metal mining operations,
development projects and exploration fields.
The group is one of the worlds largest
producers of zinc as well as a substantial
producer of copper, lead, gold and silver. The
group currently has mining operations
located in Australia and Asia and a large
portfolio of advanced and early stage
exploration projects through Australia, Asia
and North America.
Corporations
Mitsubishi Materials
With operations in copper, cement, and
luminium, Mitsubishi Materials is steeped in
materialism; the companys Metals segment
smelts copper and makes copper products
(billets, cake, wire, balls), and other divisions
include Cement (cement, concrete, and
other building materials), Aluminum
(beverage cans and other luminium
products), Advanced Materials (sintered auto
parts and cutting tools) and Electronic
Materials (electronic components,
chemicals). Mitsubishi Materials is also
involved in precious metals, recycling-related
products, real estate, fossil fuels, and nuclear
energy-related services. The company is part
of the Mitsubishi keiretsu.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Newmont Mining
Corporation
Newmont Mining Corporation is one of the
worlds largest producers of gold, with activemines in Nevada, Indonesia, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, Bolivia, Mexico,
Ghana, and Peru. As of December 31, 2006,
Newmont produced approximately 5.9
million equity ounces of gold annually and
held reserves of about 94 million of those
equity ounces. Production in
the Americas accounts for about 70% of the
companys equity ounces, but even so,
Newmont, employing 15,000 people
worldwide, is the largest gold mining
company in Australia.
Corporations
Xstrata
Headquartered in Zug, Switzerland, Xstrata
plc operates as a diversified metals and
mining company in Switzerland and
internationally. It primarily explores for
copper, coal, ferrochrome, nickel, vanadium,
and zinc metals; platinum group metals; and
gold, cobalt, iron, lead, and silver deposits.
The companys operations and projects span
various countries, including Canada, the
United States, Chile, Peru, Colombia,
Argentina, the Dominican Republic, Spain,
Norway, Germany, the United Kingdom,
Ireland, South Africa, Tanzania, Mauritania,
the Republic of Congo, Australia, the
Philippines, New Caledonia, and Papua New
Guinea.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Norsk Hydro Asa
Also holding investments in the solar and
hydroelectric power industry, Norsk HydroASA, headquartered in Oslo, Norway,
supplies luminium and luminium products,
as well as produces energy in Europe and
internationally. It operates in five segments:
Primary Metal, Metal Markets, Rolled
Products, Extruded Products, and Energy.
Corporations
Vale
Vale Limited (formerly Vale Inco), whose
mining operations are located in Indonesia
and Canada, turns nickel into gold. No
surprise there, given that the world's #2
producer of nickel (after Russia's Norilsk
Nickel), which is used to manufacture
stainless steel and batteries. It makes nickel
battery materials and nickel foams, flakes,
and powders for use in catalysts, electronics,
and paints, the byproducts of such
manufacturing processes being sulphuric acid
and sulphur dioxide.
Mines Springvale Colliery
The Springvale Colliery is located just off the
Castlereagh Highway in eastern New South
Wales, a distance of about 120km west-
northwest from Sydney. At about 921m
above sea level, the Springvale Colliery is one
of the higher mines in New South Wales.
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G E N E R A L L Y A G A I N S T
CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Brazil
Brazil is trying to attract new investment and
to diversify its mining industry. Having
consolidated its position among the world
largest producers of iron ore, bauxite,
alumina and aluminum, niobium, nickel,
zinc and soon also copper, Brazil is willing to
stimulate new external investment to develop
extensive geological resources. The challenge
it has to face is the small number of areas
available to exploration with quality
geological data. They are usually controlled
by a few large companies and data on
extensive areas of the country are scarce.
Jamaica
Jamaica is recognised for its tourism and
bauxite industries. Jamaica is the worlds
fourth largest bauxite producer, after
Australia,Brazil and Guinea.There is
considerable potential in parts of the
industrial mineral sector. Jamaica's calcium
carbonate resources include 152,000 Mt of
recoverable limestone, 350 Mt of recoverable
marble, and about 350 Mt of high purity,
high brightness ground calcium carbonate
(GCC) or whiting appropriate for filler-grade
material. GCC is now the second most
important mineral exported from Jamaica
after bauxite.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
China
China, which has latterly held the China
Mining Congress & Expo 2011, has seen aburgeoning mining industry, as it surpasses
the US as the top energy user. Mining
accidents are not an infrequent occurrence
and it remains to be seen how companies can
embrace CSR and solid safety measures.
Democratic Republic of
Congo
DR Congo is estimated to have $24 trillion
(equivalent to the combined Gross Domestic
Product of Europe and the United States)
worth of untapped deposits of raw mineral
ores, including the worlds largest reserves of
cobalt and significant quantities of the
worlds diamonds, gold and copper. The
major ores extracted throughout the DRC
are cobalt, diamonds, gold and copper.Much
of the resource extraction is done in small
operations, known as "Artisanal and Small-
Scale Mining" (ASM), which are unregulated
in the DRC. Recently, more money is being
invested into the extraction and refining of
some of the ores found in the DRC,
primarily copper and cobalt, which may help
regulate the extraction and reduce
environmental impacts.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Botswana
The mineral industry of Botswana has
dominated the national economy since theearly 1990s. Diamond has been the leading
component of the mineral sector since large-
scale diamond production began 25 years
ago. Most of Botswanas diamond
production was of gem quality, which
resulted in the countrys position as the
worlds leading producer of diamond by
value. Copper, gold, nickel, and soda ash
production also has held traditionally
significant, though smaller, roles in the
national economy.
Zambia
The mining industry has been the economic
and social backbone on Zambia since the
first major phase of exploitation of the
Copperbelt's Cu-CO deposits commenced in
the early 1930's. Since that time a wide
spectrum of other metalliferous and non-
metalliferous resources have been discovered
in Zambia and although exploitation of these
has been limited, they clearly demonstrate
the considerable opportunities for further
exploration and mining.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
INTEX Resources
Intex Resources ASA is a diversified mineral
exploration company, based in Oslo, Norway.The company discovers and develops mineral
deposits for commercial exploitation by
mining companies. Its largest resource is the
world class Mindoro Nickel project, located
on the island of Mindoro in the Philippines.
TVI Pacific Inc.
TVI Pacific Inc. is a publicly-traded resource
company focused on the production,
development, exploration and acquisition of
resource projects in the Philippines. TVI
produces copper concentrate from its
Canatuan mine, is developing the Balabag
gold property for anticipated production in
late 2012, and is initiating an exploration
program at its high-impact Tamarok property.
TVI also has oil interests in various stages of
discovery, drilling and exploration in Alaska,
Niger and off-shore Philippines.
Barrick
Barrick Gold Corporation, which made a
couple of significant acquisitions last year, is
principally engaged in the production and
sale of gold and related activities, such as
exploration and mine development. The
company also produces copper, and holds
interests in oil and gas properties located in
Canada through its oil and gas subsidiary,
Barrick Energy. Its producing mines are
concentrated in three regional business units
in the Americas, as well as Australia Pacific.
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F O O D F O R T H O U G H T
1. To what extent should regulation be implemented, taking into account both
corporations and governments grievances against regulation?
2. How can regulations be enforced under an international framework so as to make
mining a sustainable activity?
3. How can existing organisations such as the ICMM and EITI be roped in to regulate
the mining industries?
4. Can mining industries set up a timeline for action in order to spread out the cost
of sustainability measures?
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CA R B O N F U T U R E S
K E Y Q U E S T I O N
What feasible methods and conditions must be implemented in order to ensure the efficient
reduction of carbon emissions for the future?
S C E N A R I O
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions mainly released from the burning of fossil fuels, but also
from the destruction of carbon sinks are a significant factor in global climate change. It is
imperative for carbon emissions to be reduced in order to mitigate the extent of climate change
and prevent further degradation of the environment.
One critical aspect of sustainable carbon management is the maintenance of carbon sinks,
which include natural sinks like forests. Environmentalists have tried to replenish carbon sinks
through forest carbon projects, as well as artificial sinks like underground carbon reservoirs. In
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considering carbon sinks, not only must governance and management be taking into account,
but so must the potential impact of carbon leakage and the cost-benefit ratio of investing in
creating new sinks.
Another tool to secure carbon futures involves green taxes imposed by the state to curb current
emissions and to fund mitigatory measures. However, these could backfire because they create
large new costs and hence major inflationary consequences that somehow have to be
absorbed (Giddens 2008, p.13).
Government regulation is essential to ensuring efficient reduction of carbon emissions and the
adoption of effective mitigatory action, yet it may become financially and politically costly in its
deterrence of foreign investment and corporations. Furthermore, enforcement of regulation
and government involvement in research and development require resources too. The legal
aspect of government management, technology and energy commitments must figure in
evaluating the role of government in regulating carbon.
Critically, climate change mitigation is carried out primarily by governments while technology
research and development is spearheaded by corporations. The role of the latter is
compounded by the fact that corporations have little incentive to develop such technology, and
given their protectiveness of industry secrets even less motivation to share the benefits of
such technology or to allow competitors to create alternatives. The United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change UNFCCC also cautions that technological mitigation can
only be used in conjunction with other existing measures that take into account the socio-
economic situation on the ground.
Additionally, it has been argued that the standard market-based environmental policy tools of
cap-and-trade and emissions taxes cannot provide credible incentives [] because there is a
problem of dynamic inconsistency between what governments will announce as a future policy
and what governments will be subsequently be motivated to adopt (Montgomery and Smith
2005, p.1).
Creation of a sustainable carbon future therefore necessitates international cooperation
between governments, and also collaboration with industries heavily reliant on carbon.
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K E Y C O N C E P T S A N D D E F I N I T I O N S
Carbon Colonialism refers to the profitable exploitation of third-world country carbon
emission reductions by Economically More Developed Countries (EMDCs) through carbon
credits. EMDCs invest in non-polluting development infrastructure in lesser-developed nations
to earn carbon credits from these countries. This allows for more developed countries to simply
fill their quota of carbon credits to offset their own emissions, without any reduction in the
volume of their actual emissions.
Carbon Credits are tradable permits or entitlements for a nation or organisation to emit one
ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in greenhouse pollutants. In other words, one carbon
credit represents the reduction or removal of one ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent from
the environment.
Carbon Leakage occurs when one countrys carbon emissions increase as a result of another
countrys increase in stringency on climate policies. When a countrys climate policies cause
local prices to rise, due to more stringent rules and checks on production with lowered
emissions, another country with a more relaxed policy may increase their production of the
same commodities due to their comparatively cheaper prices. As a result, the reduction ofemissions would be negated.
Carbon Sinks are a reservoir where carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide or any other form, is
stored for an indefinite amount of time. Types of sinks include natural sinks, which include
photosynthetic terrestrial plants, the ocean and mineral sequestration. There are also artificial
sinks, which include man-made landfills. However, as emissions worldwide increase due to
human activity, the efficiency of natural sinks has declined, necessitating more artificial sinks
today to keep up with the increased carbon output.
Forest Carbon Projects aim to sequester carbon through planting trees, hence creating a
natural carbon sink. These projects take place largely in the economically less developed
nations, in order to create opportunities for agricultural careers for the impoverished people of
these nations, therefore also benefitting the country on an economic level.
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L I N K S T O S U S T A I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T
Aspects of planning for sustainable carbon management and use in the future must include
consideration of technological developments and the role of governments and corporations.
Long-term carbon sequestration and maintenance of current natural carbon sinks not only
afford a means of storage but prevent the environmental damage caused by carbon leakage.
S O M E I N I T I A T I V E S T A K E N
The voluntary nature of international accords makes them difficult to be applied. With the
imminent expiry of the Kyoto Protocol an international agreement that was not signed by the
United States of America, a leading carbon emitter, and an agreement that took eight years to
become legally enforceable a successor is urgently needed.
The Copenhagen Accord which was marked by international disputes was not a legally binding
instrument. Although it was designed to work toward a more conclusive agreement at Cancun,
the Cancun Agreements were inconclusive. Voluntary agreements cannot stand alone because
of the difficulty in enacting and enforcement.
The different standing of countries relative to one another is also a concern. This is manifested
in debates over carbon colonialism where wealthier nations or corporations may use their
economic and environmental power to complicate their involvement in economically less
wealthy countries (e.g. debt-for-nature swaps).
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S T A K E H O L D E R S
For the purposes of this convention, the stakeholders have been classified into three
generalised blocs with reference to their stances:
1. Generally FOR
2. Generally NEUTRAL
3. Generally AGAINST
G E N E R A L L Y F O R
Stakeholders who fall in this bloc have taken concrete steps towards preserving carbon sinks,
mitigating carbon emissions or seeking alternative energy sources. They have invested in
ecologically-friendly technologies and facilities, implemented policies which are beneficial for
the environment or expressed views and honoured international agreements to such effect.
Countries represented in the proactive towards carbon futures bloc are relatively open to
adopting green initiatives. These include many in the European Union and numerous
developed countries.
Germany has been drastically cutting carbon emissions since 1990 due to reduced dependence
on lignite (brown coal). However, it will likely face an uphill challenge in maintaining its track
record while encouraging economic growth.
France has been investing heavily in alternative forms of energy after the energy shortage
triggered by the 1973 oil embargo by the Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries.
As for Costa Rica, besides its long-standing claim of sustainable development and carbon
neutrality, it has recently legislated an all-out ban on open-pit metal mining which would
protect carbon sinks in the form of forests.
Nongovernmental and intergovernmental organisations which are proactive towards carbon
futures advocate carbon sink projects, facilitate intergovernmental cooperation on carbon
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issues, advise member or non-member states to take specific action, or contribute guidelines for
the furthering of cooperation on research.
The Plan Vivo Foundation focuses on using the Plan Vivo System to make sustainable
development possible. Such nongovernmental initiatives may be viewed as having too narrow a
scope and hence may not be able to singlehandedly make a significant impact on carbon
problems.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, having evolved from being a
vestige of the Marshall Plan for a Europe recovering from World War II, has become more
forward-looking and instead aids some of the most developed countries in streamlining their
efforts against climate change.
The World Bank, on the other hand, is devoted to enabling developing countries to benefit
from the investments of developed countries in alternative energy sources which pave the way
towards sustainable development.
Corporations like Royal Dutch Shell are keen on rebranding to distance themselves from
negative perceptions of them as a profit-hungry oil company. While Shell has previously
expressed enthusiasm for developing renewable energy, it has tipped its priorities towards shale
gas, which it controversially labels as an alternative green fuel in response to improvements in
the extraction efficiency of shale gas.
CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Corporations Royal Dutch Shell
Supports a shift from dependency on oil
to shale gas as energy source, which could
allow carbon capture and storage
effectively. (N.B.: the long-term
sustainability of shale gas is
controversial.)
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Federal Republic of
Germany
In the last decade the annual CO2-
emissions in Germany have been reducedconsiderably (more than 15% since 1990)
mainly due to the breakdown of eastern
lignite energy supply. The annual rate of
CO2 reduction has, however,
continuously decreased and in the last
years stabilised close to zero. German
politicians have pledged to halve
emissions by 2030.
CountriesRepublic of Costa
Rica
Imposed 3.5% carbon tax on fossil fuels
in 1997; has Payment for Environmental
Services (PSA) programme; strives to
achieve carbon neutrality before 2030;
currently produces 90% of electricity
through renewable resources. A site for
forest carbon projects.
French Republic
France is committed to reducing
dependence on oil following an energy
crisis in 1973. It invests in building
efficiency and public transport. With
regard to private vehicles, the government
extends financial incentives for the
technological development of bio-fuels
and also taxes high-horsepower cars. 80%
of the country's electricity is produced via
nuclear power.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Canada
Canada has implemented regulations
pertaining to the use of biofuel as areplacement for petrol in transport
vehicles. The government invests heavily
in green infrastructure, with $10 billion
spent since 2006, and provides financial
support for economically less wealthy
countries more vulnerable to the effects
of climate change.
Countries
United Kingdom of
Great Britain
and Northern Ireland
The UK government has committed to
creating legislation like the 2008 Climate
Change Act with curbs on carbon
emissions in the country. Industry cap-
and-trade taxation is also in the works,
with auctioning of carbon credits
allowed.
Republic of India
Since 1 July 2010, a nation-wide carbon
tax on coal has been in place, to finance a
National Clean Energy Fund; voluntarily
targets to reduce amount of carbon
dioxide released per unit of gross
domestic product by 25% from 2005
levels by 2020. India is both an economic
power with a huge demand for natural
resources, as well as home to significant
forest land area.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Kingdom of Sweden
Sweden is very dedicated to reducing
carbon emissions, not only purchasingcarbon credits in accordance with the
Kyoto Protocol, but also creating a
national wind power network and
investing in bio-gas and solar cell
technology not yet available on the
market.
CountriesJapan
Japan is committed to curbing industry
emissions through heavy financial
penalties enforceable by law. Japan is also
a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol and a
leader in low-emission transport
technologies by manufacturers.
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a heavy investor in
carbon credit purchases in eastern
Europe under Dutch law. The
Netherlands gains carbon credits from its
use of renewable energy such as
hydroelectric generation instead of
traditional fossil fuels.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Countries
Republic of South
Africa
South Africa supports independence
from international donor organisations,preferring instead to make use of the
country's existing natural and research
resources to create an adaptation strategy
under the National Climate Change
Response Strategy and Framework for
Sustainable Development. It favours an
overhaul of current climate forestry
measures which would involve countries
tying their estimates of climate change
progress to current carbon levels in order
to prevent gaming the system in the
global carbon credits trade.
United Mexican
States
Mexico seeks to develop a model for
delivering technical assistance from the
project coalition, and income from
investors seeking potential GHG
reduction benefits, to farmers increasing
carbon sequestration. It also is developing
protocols for the administration,
monitoring, and evaluation of larger-scale
land use sequestration programmes for
low-productivity lands in southern
Mexico, through its strong research and
monitoring components. Also was the
site of Cancun summit.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Nongovernmental
OrganisationsPlan Vivo Foundation
The Plan Vivo System is a framework for
developing and managing community-based land-use projects where
communities generate long-term carbon,
livelihood and ecosystem benefits. Project
participants are smallholders, also known
as small farm owners, and forest-
dependent communities in developing
countries. Plan Vivo encourages
government and NGO collaboration to
protect carbon sinks.
Intergovernmental
Organisations
Organisation for
Economic Co-
operation and
Development
The OECD works closely with member
governments, chief of which are
economically more developed countries,
to assist them to identify and implement
least-cost policies to reduce GHG
emissions in order to limit climate
change, as well as to integrate adaptation
to climate change into all relevant sectors
and policy areas. As OECD countries are
the major international donors, OECD
has a critical role in tracking climate
finance, and in examining how public
finance can be scaled-up and best targeted
to help leverage private financial flows.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
African Union
The 53-member AU has called for
carbon-emitting nations to cut pollutionregardless of whether or not they are
parties to the Kyoto Protocol. African
countries are concerned about the impact
of climate change on poverty and social
issues and call for member nations to
integrate their governments' economic
policies with environmental planning.
Intergovernmental
Organisations
Association of
Southeast Asian
Nations
ASEAN favours regional collaboration
that would foster scientific development
and protect against forest degradation;
has called on less wealthy nations to
implement Nationally Appropriate
Mitigation Actions with the support of
financial aid from wealthier countries.
World Bank
Created the Clean Energy Investment
Framework to support the development
of appropriate technology to support
economically less wealthy countries while
offsetting costs, increasing information
access and research, and facilitating
market-based instruments while tapping
on the resources of the private sector.
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G E N E R A L L Y N E U T R A L
Stakeholders labelled as such cover mostly nongovernmental organisations that do not have
enforcement rights over countries and regions, but rather play advisory roles. Thus, they may
not have to explicitly state their stands; or even if they do, it may not play a large role in
influencing the decisions of countries.
Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth, environmental advocacy groups, are supportive of fair
solutions to the carbon crisis. Yet, they take a cautious approach, choosing not to jump on
every bandwagon of projects claiming to help the environment. Instead, they examine such
projects holistically, examining factors such as equality among wealthier investing countries and
less wealthy recipient countries as well as actual impact on locals, before pledging their support.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change aims to be an objective and neutral advisory
authority on scientific research conducted on climate change which is inextricably linked to
carbon futures. It bases its stand solely on sound scientific research and part of its work is to
analyse data and conclusions of scientists to determine their credibility.
Corporations such as the Edinburgh Centre for Carbon Management may profit from
increased awareness about carbon issues since they serve to measure the carbon emissions of
corporations, which may be used to determine the amount of carbon credits required to
achieve so-called carbon neutrality or simply for the sake of assessing carbon footprint.
CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Nongovernmental
Organisations
World Agroforestry
Centre
Works towards mitigating tropical
deforestation, land depletion and rural
poverty through improved agro-forestry
systems; aims to initiate and assist in
generation and dissemination of
appropriate agro-forestry technologies to
resource-poor farmers and other land
users.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Friends of the Earth
Argues that economically wealthier
nations owe an 'ecological debt' thatmust be paid off as reparations to
economically less wealthy nations for
climate justice.
Nongovernmental
Council on
Hemispheric Affairs
COHA promotes inter-American
collaboration between the USA and
Latin America on transnational issues,
but is opposed to what it perceives as
excessive USA intervention in Latin
American affairs.
Organisations
Greenpeace
A proponent of the 'Energy Revolution'
switch to 80% renewable energy and an
80% cut in energy industry emissions by
2050, Greenpeace is against both coal
and oil sands petroleum extraction.
Katoomba Group
The Katoomba Group addresses key
challenges to developing markets and
payments for ecosystem services, from
enabling legislation throughestablishment of new market institutions,
strategies of pricing and marketing, and
performance monitoring.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
European Renewable
Energy Council
EREC is composed of several renewable
energy associations lobbying forrenewable energies and providing
relevant information and consultancy to
decision-makers.
Organisations
World Resources
Institute
WRI is an international think-tank that
involves itself chief ly in transnational
negotiations at environmental
conferences and seeks to achieve a
balance between environmentalism and
governance.
Intergovernmental
Organisations
Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate
Change
Intergovernmental body which reviews
and assesses scientific research conducted
on climate change and publishes special
reports relevant to the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change.
CorporationsEdinburgh Centre for
Carbon Management
Commercial provider of emission
assessments for corporate activities,
product supply chains and terrestrial
ecosystems; founded by University of
Edinburgh scientists.
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G E N E R A L L Y A G A I N S T
Stakeholders deemed as passive towards carbon futures display inertia and unwillingness to
change unsustainable current practices. They usually have vested commercial interests
safeguarded by the continuity of these ventures. They have been revealed to hinder the uptake
of policies geared towards reduction of dependence on carbon, development of green
technologies and even refuse to take their share of the responsibility for carbon dilemmas.
Examples of countries in this bloc are the United States of America and China, world powers
driven by capitalism and oil. The United States, being a highly influential global player, has
drawn flak for refusing to ratify the Kyoto Protocol while China is expected to emit ever more
greenhouse gases should its growth and development continue unabated.
As for nongovernmental organisations, the American Farm Bureau represents the interests of
farmers and ranchers, functioning as an agricultural trade union. For the sake of maintaining
the status quo of their livelihoods and current farming practices, it opposes emission
restrictions.
The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries and the League of Arab States are
intergovernmental organisations with the agenda of retaining demand for oil so that oil prices
remain high. They do not favour the rise of alternative energy sources and may use their
economic clout to prolong the dominance of oil. The Group of 77 or G-77, composed of
developing countries, cries foul that they should bear the brunt of the already developed
countries past mistakes. They believe in their right to develop their economies without undue
restrictions which were not present before and they think they have no obligation to contribute
to costly, low-yield research for technological solutions.
Corporations who stand to lose customers as the world inches away from carbon may take a
hard line against any such threat, thus appearing backward and stubborn. Exxon Mobil
Corporation is in denial of the adverse effects of climate change and continues to advocate the
use of oil, in line with its commercial interests, and to prevent legislations unfriendly to its
business. It contributes less to research for alternative energy than other leading oil companies.
In juxtaposition, Shell was reported to yearly set aside 80 times Exxon Mobils annual
investment with regard to renewable energy.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Peoples Republic of
China
Highest carbon dioxide output
worldwide; contributes to 22.30% oftotal global carbon dioxide emissions
(from burning of fossil fuels and
cement manufacture, not from land use
such as deforestation), with increased
emissions expected and defended, as
countrys affluence increases. Rising
economic superpower, with much
influence over international markets.
Countries
United States of
America
Second highest output of carbon
dioxide worldwide, contributing to
19.91% of total global carbon dioxide
emissions (from burning of fossil fuels
and cement manufacture, not from
land use such as deforestation).
Economic superpower, with much
influence over international markets.
The current political climate is hostile
to USA intervention in global climate
issues due to a resurgence of American
exceptionalism, despite the pro-
intervention Democratic government.
Republic of Indonesia
Carbon tax has been drafted but not
yet implemented; infamous for forest
fires due to 'slash and burn' agriculture
practice.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Italian Republic
One of the biggest carbon emitters in
the EU, Italy has faced major spendingproblems of late, and argues that it
cannot be held to post-Kyoto reduction
standards because its industries cannot
absorb the costs associated with
regulation, taxes, and emissions targets.
Countries
Democratic Republic
of the Congo
The DRC is very protective of its
logging industry and recently signed a
deal with McKinsey & Co. where it
would be paid to retain forests based on
economic value if they were cleared at a
higher rate by logging companies. It
insists that this is a cost-effective and
sustainable method of reducing
emissions as this grants it eligibility for
foreign development aid. Deforestation
is a major environmental issue in the
DRC, as its rapidly-depleting forests are
important carbon sinks.
Russian Federation
Russia has had traditionally low carbon
emissions since the fall of the Soviet
Union, and hence hoards carbon
credits. Scepticism on the reality of
climate change is high. Politicians in
fact welcome a slight temperature
increase as being favourable to living
conditions and agricultural yields.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Countries
Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia
Saudi Arabia produces 1.1% of the
world's global emissions with 0.4% ofworld population; opposes caps on
both carbon and methane emissions.
The kingdom worries about the
economic impact of moving away from
oil as an energy source, and will not
reduce its dependency without foreign
provisions for the development of solar-
energy technologies. 'Other Saudi
demands from the U.N. talks include a
re-vamping of fossil fuel taxes in
industrialized countries to focus on
carbon rather than energy, which may
benefit oil because it emits less of the
greenhouse gas compared to coal.'
Republic of the
Philippines
The Philippines is opposed to the
Copenhagen Accord and concerned
that climate change strategies are
economic burdens for less wealthy
countries like it.
Islamic Republic of
Iran
Most vehicles run on leaded gas and
Tehran is amongst the world's most
polluted cities. Iran is pursuing a
nuclear programme purportedly for
energy reasons, but is opposed
significantly by global superpowers like
the USA.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Countries
Commonwealth of
Australia
The government of Australia has
delayed the Garnaut Climate ChangeReport and Carbon Pollution
Reduction Scheme due to economic
concerns and is hesitant about its
commitment to implementation of
carbon tax schemes.
Peoples Republic of
Bangladesh
Highly vulnerable to the deleterious
effects of climate change, Bangladesh
constantly calls for greater action by
economically wealthier countries while
unable to curb emissions itself.
Nongovernmental
Organisations
American Farm
Bureau
Strongly opposed to cap-and-trade on
the USA agriculture industry, which is
a key carbon emitter, despite potential
carbon offset revenues, for fear of
negative impact on its members in
terms of fuel, fertiliser, and operations
costs.
Intergovernmental
Organisations
Organisation of
Petroleum Exporting
Countries
OPEC denies that oil is to blame for
climate change, opposes reduction of
oil consumption, and prefers mitigatory
and adaptive approaches to dealing
with climate change. It favours the sole
involvement of oil consumers, rather
than suppliers, in tackling climate
change.
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CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N
Intergovernmental
Organisations
Group of 77
A group of economically less wealthy
countries at the UN, the Group of 77and China reiterates that the UN
Framework Convention on Climate
Change is, and should remain, the
primary comprehensive framework for
addressing climate change. They
request that , ins tead of G-77
governments channelling their own
resources toward climate change
mitigation, the UN provide them with
the necessary technology for clean and
affordable energy.
League of Arab States
Many Arab countries have built their
wealth on oil exports and are loath to
see the world's dependence on oil
reduced, due to the economic and
political cost for them.
CorporationsExxon Mobil
Corporation
Has funded climate change denialist
lobbies in order to reduce pressure for
it to curb greenhouse emissions from its
role in the petrochemical industry.
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F O O D F O R T H O U G H T
1. Taking into consideration the fact that developed countries did not face emission
restrictions previously and that the blame for current carbon problems can be
mostly attributed to them while developing countries have yet to enjoy the fruits of
unconfined development, what is a just method of capping carbon emissions?
2. What sort of technologies and methods should governments favour in their
crafting of carbon future policy, and how can they best come to this decision? What
sort of technologies and methods should governments favour in their crafting ofcarbon future policy, and how can they best come to this decision?
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F O O D S E C U R I T Y
K E Y Q U E S T I O N
With resource constraints on expanding food production, significant wastage in many parts of
the world, and a growing global population set to consume even more, how can we ensure that
there remains sufficient food for everybody?
S C E N A R I O
Droughts throughout Chinas Yellow and Yangtze River basins, as well as the Mekong region,
have compelled China to ban all grain exports and northern ASEAN states to halve their rice
exports. China will see an estimated 13-million-metric-ton drop in wheat production (-11% of
total), a 19-million-metric ton drop in rice production (-10%),and at least 15 million metric
tons of lost corn production (-10%). China will have to import additional corn and livestock
feed to maintain its current meat production levels, which are also under threat from the
drought. ASEAN states including Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Thailand have reported losses
of almost 8 million metric tons of rice (-10%).
The droughts are the result of unusual heat and low rainfall attributed to climate change, and
overuse of water in the heavily populated and industrialised cities of the North China Plain.
Thai, Lao and Vietnamese officials have accused Chinese dams in Yunnan of withholding
water to pre-empt drought in Chinas southwest, prompting the Mekong to dry up drastically.
These weather conditions, coupled with the historical phenomenon of droughts occurring
annually within Chinese territories, pose a serious threat to food security in East Asia.
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As rural poverty and unemployment worsens, millions of jobless peasants in China, Thailand,
Cambodia and Vietnam are migrating to over-crowded urban areas to find jobs to secure
incomes for their households. Lack of proper, affordable housing and jobs with decent pay
mean that these rural migrants mainly live under unacceptable conditions. These cities arefacing burgeoning slum populations and crime levels. The resulting spike in urban food
demand might also rob rural markets of food supplies as these get diverted to large cities.
Inflation rates flare up across Asia as food markets see sharp swings in grain commodities
prices. Asian states and regions highly dependent on grain imports from these sources, like
Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka are
hard hit by the food supply shortages.
As national stockpiles run out in grain-importing nations, governments have further subsidised
food prices to mollify citizens, who have begun rioting in major cities like Manila and Jakarta.
Prices of white rice, noodles and bread have risen substantially, pushing up poverty levels,
malnutrition and popular discontent. Beijing, fearing destabilising riots due to its failure to
curb the yuans longstanding inflation and seriously high food prices, has pledged RMB 100
billion to alleviate the condition of Chinese farmers and consumers.
The shortage of East Asian grain has compelled Asian states to buy more from other sources.
China has inked deals for more Kazakh and Russian wheat, and will buy corn from the US,
with which it has a substantial trade surplus. Heavy importers like South Korea and Japan will
likely follow suit. This has led to fears that the hole in Asian food supplies might travel abroad
and hit the Mideast and Africa, both of which are big consumers of US wheat. This market
competition for grain might in turn drive up grain prices in the Mideast and Africa.
The world still cannot feed everyone even with decades of growth in yields (amounts of crops
raised per unit area of land) and productivity; the UN FAO estimated 925 million victims of
hunger in 2010. Hunger and malnutrition will intensify as the global population marches
towards 9 billion by 2050. Growth in staple crop yields is now 1% compared with 3% in the
1960s food production has to go up by 70% from current levels to feed the world in 2050,
according to FAO estimates.
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Urban demand for meat is expected to increase more than that for grains and cereals. By 2050,
the FAO estimates that meat demand would double to 470 million metric tonnes from current
levels as the percentage of meat, dairy and oils in diets moves to 29% from 20% in 2000.
Demand for soybeans to feed livestock is expected to reach 515 million metric tonnes.
This burgeoning demand for meat will mean more land, water, and food crops, among other
resources, have to be poured into raising livestock for slaughter. Livestock-raising causes serious
problems such as water scarcity and greenhouse gas emissions. It would seem reasonable to
divert resources to crop cultivation from livestock-raising, which would supplement the grain
deficiency, reduce livestock-raisings environmental impact, and free up food crops to feed
humans directly instead of feeding livestock.
Biofuel issues will become significantly more pertinent in light of this crisis. Biofuels industries
in Brazil and the US consume much sugarcane and corn respectively, directly competing with
hungry consumers needs and thus pushing up food crop prices. Criticism has been levelled at
the amount of money, time and resources required to grow enough crops to supply limited
amounts of biofuels. Brazil has cut down much forest to grow sugarcane. The US heavily
subsidises its farmers, a practice long defended by the Republican Party, to cover the actual cost
of growing corn for biofuels.
These events call for a global conference on how to tackle our underlying food problems: the
misguided use and overuse of resources in food production, the inefficiency of food
distribution by global food markets, and worldwide hunger and malnutrition.
The hope is that a Kyoto Protocol for food might emerge from these discussions to move the
world towards better food security.
K E Y C O N C E P T S A N D D E F I N I T I O N S
Livestockrefers to any or all of the following:
Poultry such as chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys, and
Beasts such as cattle, goats, pigs and sheep.
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The types ofmeat/egg/dairy products in discussion include:
(Un)processed foodstuffs derived from the f lesh, bone or organs of livestock,
Eggs from hens and ducks, and
Milk from cattle or goats or sheep, as well as processed foodstuffs derived frommilk, such as various types of butter and cheeses and condensed milks and creams
These livestock and meat/egg/dairy products are all produced and traded for profit by
commercial enterprises of sufficiently large scale (production and processing of these goods are
not home-based or conducted by an individual household).
L I N K S T O S U S T A I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T
The motion for the debate is to scale down livestock to conserve potable water and feed where
these are deficient (e.g. sub-Saharan Africa, China), while preventing further woodland from
being razed to make way for cattle herds, and preserve natural biodiversity, and hence mitigate
the environmental destruction caused by excessive livestock production.
The idea behind these measures is to Progress towards the elimination of under-nutrition and food insecurity of the
significant part of the population of developing countries
Safeguard the productive potential and broader environmental functions of
agricultural resources and the worlds biodiversity for future generations, the very
core of sustainability, while satisfying food and other needs.
The importance of these issues was emphasised by the major international conferences of
recent years: the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
and the FAO/WHO International Conference on Nutrition (ICN).
While most countries recognise these issues as pertinent to sustainable development, many fear
the economic repercussions of cutting back on their livestock sectors. To what extent is this
effective towards achieving the above-mentioned sustainable development goals and who
should undertake the burden of downgrading, or the economic endowment of fortifying their
livestock industry amid a strong, and increasing global demand for animal-derived products?
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S O M E I N I T I A T I V E S T A K E N
M I L L E N N I U M D E V E L O P M E N T G O A L S ( M D G S )
The MDGs are eight international development goals that all 192 United Nations member
states and at least 23 international organisations have agreed to achieve by the year 2015. They
include eradicating extreme poverty, reducing child mortality rates, fighting disease epidemics
such as AIDS, and developing a global partnership for development.
Relevant to this issue however, is Target 1.C, which is to halve, between 1990 and 2015, the
proportion of people who suffer from hunger in terms of,
1. Prevalence of underweight children under-five years of age
2. Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption
RE D U C T I O N O F M E A T C O N S U M P T I O N B I L L
( RI K S D A G O F SW E D E N )
The Swedish Parliament has passed a bill with the goal of reducing meat consumption by 25
per cent from the current total by year 2020.
Action plans for reduced consumption
Phase-out of EU subsidies to the meat industry
Incentives for reduced meat consumption
Increasing price of meat from the start to the end of the production line.
i.e, from the slaughterhouse to the dining table
Before that, a public inquiry into the feasibility of economic incentives for
reducing the climate and other environmental impacts of the entire chain
of food production should be conducted.
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Vegetarian Mondays
Modelled after the Belgian city of Ghent (Vegetarian Thursdays)
Also provided by the city are large numbers of free maps indicating the
locations of vegetarian r
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