SDYC 2011 Academic Booklet

8/6/2019 SDYC 2011 Academic Booklet

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S U S T A I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T Y O U T H C O N V E N T I O N

AC A D E M I C B O O K L E T

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All content contained herein, except those from acknowledged sources, was prepared by and is

intellectual property of the Academic Committee of the Organising Team of the 2nd

Sustainable Development Youth Convention, 2011

All steps have been taken in order to ensure the completeness and accuracy of information and

their sources contained within this booklet

Last modified August 14, 2011 12:19 PM

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F O R E W O R D

Every year, world leaders convene to address the pressing issues brought about by unsustainable

development. During these discussions and debates, decisions are made and resolutions are

crafted and implemented. Today, as participants of the Sustainable Development Youth

Convention 2011, you will be given the opportunity to participate in a similar discussion

setting. We hope this learning journey will allow you to broaden your knowledge and further

your interest in sustainable development.

Sustainable development can be applied to a plethora of fields - from issues in society, to the

environment, and the economy. But at the very heart of sustainable development, lies the

concept of balance and compromise. It is a balance between economic growth and

environmental conservation. It is a compromise between fulfilling each partys agenda and

serving the greater good. During the course of the debates and discussions, it is our hope that

you will learn to understand each others roles and purposes, and ultimately craft a solution

which best aligns the respective parties gains with sustainable development.

This year, SDYC will cover four scenarios of sustainable development carbon emissions,

deforestation, food production and resource depletion. These topics were selected as they span

the three critical aspects of sustainable development - the economy, the environment and the

society.

While this guide will provide you the basic information on each of the four topics, we would

like to emphasise that it is merely a platform on which you should build your knowledge base.

Before attending the 3 day convention, do some research and develop opinions, perspectives

and ideas which you can contribute during the committee sessions. Lastly, we would like to

stress that sustainable development is more than just any one scenario. It is the underlyingprinciple that should steer our decisions as leaders of tomorrow.


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TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S

OV E R E X P L O I T A T I O N Key Question 1O F I N E S

Scenario 1

Key Concepts and Definitions 2

Links to Sustainable Development 3

Some Initiatives Taken 4

Key Issues 5

Stakeholders 8

Food for Thought 27

CA R B O N F U T U R E S Key Question 28

Scenario 28

Key Concepts and Definitions30



Stakeholders 32

Food for Thought 49

F O O D Key Question 50U S T A I N A B I L I T Y

Scenario 50




Key Issues 56

Stakeholders 57

Food for Thought 80


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D E F O R E S T A T I O N Key Question 81

Scenario 81




Key Issues 84

Some Possible Solutions 87

Stakeholders 89

Food for Thought 98

AP P E N D I C E S Appendix A

References99

Appendix BFurther Reading 106


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OV E R E X P L O I T A T I O N O F

M I N E S

K E Y Q U E S T I O N

How can countries implement its policies so as to achieve a balance between the short-term

benefits of poorly regulated mining and the long-term benefits of safe and sustainable mining?

S C E N A R I O

In South Africa, 100 years of gold mining has resulted in massive environmental consequences

such as acid water seeping and corroding the foundation of buildings. In Humberstone, Chile,

what was a booming town in the 1920s is now deserted after the mine was depleted. This left

the town with polluted and toxic land. Such incidents are not limited to the above-mentioned

countries and have occurred in other parts of the world from Poland to Papau New Guinea.

However, many of the offenders are not local mining companies but companies from the

United Kingdom and the United States of America. The involvement of multinational

corporations in the matter makes this a transnational issue. Under these circumstances, the

United Nations has organised a session where countries and companies are invited to discuss

issues related to poor mining practices. This session focuses on the feasibility of a global set of

regulations to manage mining, how countries should implement policies to regulate domestic

mining and the diversification of developing countries economy from mining profits.

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K E Y C O N C E P T S A N D D E F I N I T I O N S

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, from

an ore body, vein or coal seam. The nature of mining processes could have potential negative

impacts on the environment both during the mining operations and years after the mine is

closed. This impact has led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to moderate the

negative effects of mining operations.

Sustainable Mining is all about developing procedures, regulations, and enforcing them to

ensure that mining practices do not result in environmental, financial or social harm which

could in turn affect current and future generations. This can only be brought about through

the concerted enforcement of certain regulations mutually agreed upon by mining

corporations, the government and NGOs. While it is clear that some regulation is necessary,

the extent of this regulation is open to discourse.

EITI (Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative) increases transparency over payments by

companies to governments and to government-linked entities, as well as transparency over

revenues by those host country governments. It was announced by Tony Blair, the then-Prime

Minister of the United Kingdom, at the World Summit on Sustainable Development inJohannesburg, South Africa in September 2002. Ghana, Nigeria and Azerbaijan piloted the

EITI approach.

Artisanal mining is mining not done by mining companies, but by independent people,

mining or panning for gold using their own resources. Mining done in such a manner is hard

to regulate.

The International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) is composed of 18 mining

companies and works with local communities and governments to find ethical means to

discover and extract metal ore from the earth.

Land Reclamation is the process of returning the land in a given area to some degree of its

former state, after some process (industrial, natural disasters etc.) has resulted in its damage.

S U S T A I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T YO U T H C O N V E N T I O N 2 0 1 1

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L I N K S T O S U S T A I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T

Figure 1 Map of mining operations throughout the world.

Mining is an economic activity that happens in many countries all over the world and is a huge

economic contributor to many countries gross domestic product. However, the nature of

mining negatively impacts the environment both during and after the mine is closed. This

impact can be mitigated by strict regulations that force mining companies to clean up the

surrounding area after the mine is depleted. However, the process is not perfect and much of

the environmental damage weathered during the mining process is irreversible.

Problems such as heavy metal runoff and surface mining destroy local ecosystems which might

cause endemic species to go extinct. The environment becomes uninhabitable for not only

wildlife, but also humans. Land improperly reclaimed is unsuitable for agricultural or

residential uses, and might be fit only industrial use. This poses a huge problem when the mine

is depleted and the surrounding area is unable to be used productively.

If measures are not put in place to minimise environmental damages, arable and habitable landwill be lost - a consequence that future generations will have to bear. However, any money

spent on implementing safety measures and technology is profit lost and might be unjustifiable

to shareholders. A balance between the two must be reached in order to develop sustainably.


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S O M E I N I T I A T I V E S T A K E N

T H E IN T E R N A T I O N A L C O U N C I L O N M I N I N G & M E T A L S ( I C M M )

ICMM brings together 20 of the world's leading mining and metals companies as well as 31

national and regional mining associations and global commodity associations to address the

core sustainable development challenges faced by the industry.

Their members include: African Rainbow Minerals, AngloAmerican, AngloGold Ashanti,

AREVA, Barrick, BHP Billiton, Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold, Goldcorp, Gold Fields,

Hydro, JX Nippon Mining & Metals, Lonmin, Minerals and Metals Group, Mitsubishi

Materials, Newmont, Rio Tinto, Sumitomo Metal Mining, Teck, Vale and Xstrata.

They come from countries such as US, Canada, China, Brazil, Japan and South Africa, and

work together on projects called work programs. These work programs aim to tackle issues

related to sustainable mining such as climate change, socio-economic problems, the

environment and materials stewardship.

On the front of climate change, ICMM members have committed towards establishing a

comprehensive and rigorous climate change management program of policy principles. This

allows policy implementations to be f lexible to suit a nation-targeted approach. For example,

member companies have taken steps to comprehend a mining operations water balance, and

then act appropriately on it.

The ICMM understands that there are socio-economic aspects to mining operations. They have

written a paper on responsible mine closure practices. The paper is available online at http://

bit.ly/qcNWWG/.


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T H E C O S T A N D C O M P L E X I T Y O F RE G U L A T I O N

While widely acknowledged that some form of regulation can reduce the environmental, social

and financial consequences of mining operations, both companies and governments are

resistant to forms of regulation which could burden them economically.

From the perspective of companies, compliance to regulation involves spending on technology

and manpower that will reduce profits in the short term. As a result of regulatory measures,

mining corporations are forced to cut into their profit margins which could affect shareholders

and its employees. Forced to choose between profit and environmental consequences,

corporations often forgo the latter, resulting in unsustainable practices.

From the perspective of the government, more manpower and infrastructure is needed to

enforce newly legislated regulations. This means an increase in budget for that department, a

move that the current political party might not wish to spend political capital on. In addition,

countries that have corrupt governments benefit from corporations by promising not to pass

laws that affect the companies business.

As a result, there is inertia on both sides preventing the mining industry from being regulated.

The only motivator, which has had a measure of success, is public pressure. This led to the

formation of the ICMM.

E F F E C T O F RE G U L A T I O N O N T H E D O M E S T I C E C O N O M Y

Many countries depend heavily on mining to supplement their domestic economy. Mining

provides many jobs in developing nations and imposing regulations might scare off potentialinvestors. In addition, the government can use the money saved by reducing mining regulation

to improve the infrastructure and the lives of the citizens. The promise of money in the short

term is perceived to outweigh the loss of useful land in the future. Hence, for many countries

fighting to survive in the present, environmental issues are at the back of their minds.


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C O M P E T I T I O N B E T W E E N M I N I N G C O M P A N I E S

The profit from a mine depends not only on the amount of ore in the mine, but also from the

cost of setting up a mine in that country. Different countries have different regulations that

force companies to protect the environment. These costs cut into a companies profit margin,

and affect the companies ability to decrease prices.

As a result, companies operating in countries with tighter regulations have no choice but to sell

at higher prices and are less competitive than countries operating without any restrictions.

Companies extensive lobbying against regulation has resulted in a stagnation of regulatory

efforts.

S O C I A L AS P E C T S

During the initial setup stages of a mining operation, large amounts of resources and human

capital are directed to the area around the operation. A town is usually founded, funded from

the wages of miners. Businesses and services sprout up to service the miners and their families,

and such towns can last for generations.

However, mines are not an infinite resource, and eventually mines run out of ores. As the

mining operation winds down, the money that used to fund the businesses and services stops

flowing and the towns die out. This is evident in many countries which industrialised in the

1900s. America, for example, is home to many abandoned mining towns.

Nevada, one of the youngest and wildest states in America, is strewn with ruins that seem as

gray and silent and time-worn as if the civilisation to which they belonged had perished

centuries ago. Yet, these ruins are the result of mining efforts made during the 1900s and

contain abandoned houses, furnaces and machinery.

In order to prevent such towns from littering the landscape of a country, governments have a

responsibility to diversify the services of the mining towns in order to prevent their collapse

should resources run out.


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S T A K E H O L D E R S

G E N E R A L L Y F O R

CA T E G O R Y S T A K E H O L D E R RO L E I N D I S C U S S I O N

South Africa

South Africa is one of the world's and

Africa's most important mining countries in

terms of the variety and quantity of minerals

produced. It has the world's largest reserves

of chrome, gold, vanadium, manganese and

PGM's. The country's mineral industry can

be broken down into five broad categories:

Gold, PGM, Diamonds, Coal and

Vanadium. It has encouraged much

immigration into the country. The mining

industrys relative contribution to South

Africas GDP has declined.

Countries

USA

The United States produces a wide variety of

commodities from gold to coal. It has a land

area of over 9.6 million square kilometers,

19,924 kilometers of coastline, and a

population of over 298 million people. It

uses 25% of the worlds energy reserves and

spends more on maintaining its military

might than most other country's entire GDP.

It is the world's second largest producer of

copper and gold, exports over US$26 billion

worth of minerals and material produced

from minerals each year and its mining

industry employs over 3 million people

directly and indirectly.


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Green Peace

Greenpeace is an independent global

campaigning organisation that acts to changeattitudes and behaviour, to protect and

conserve the environment and to promote

peace. Greenpeace is present in 40 countries

across Europe, the Americas, Asia, Africa

and the Pacific. To maintain its

independence, Greenpeace does not accept

donations from governments or corporations

but relies on contributions from individual

supporters and foundation grants.

on overnmen a

Organisations

ICMM

The International Council on Mining and

Metals (ICMM), which comprises 20 mining

and metals companies as well as 31 national

and regional mining associations and global

commodity associations, has as its aim the

improvement of sustainable development

performance in the mining and metals

industry. ICMM engages with a broad range

of stakeholdersgovernments, international

organizations, communities and indigenous

peoples, civil society and academiain order

to build meaningful relationships.


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Corporations

Anglo American

Headquartered in London, UK, Anglo

American plc engages in mining platinum,diamonds, coal, base metals, iron ore,

metallurgical coal, and thermal coal in

Africa, Europe, South and North America,

Australia, and Asia. It mines, processes, and

refines platinum group metals, such as

platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium,

iridium, and osmium; and copper,

manganese, and nickel metals. In addition,

the company produces heavy building

materials, including crushed rock, sand and

gravel, asphalt, ready-mixed concrete, and

concrete products; rolled steel and alloy iron

castings, cast alloy iron and forged steel

grinding media, chain, steel wire rope, and

strand and wire products; phosphate

fertilizers and phosphoric acid; and zinc and

niobium.

Gold Fields

Gold Fields is one of the worlds largest gold

exploration and development companies and

ranks as South Africas #2 gold producer,

after AngloGold Ashanti. Production in the

country represents well more than half of

Gold Fields total sales. The company, having

possession of, and access to, a reservoir of 80

million ounces of gold, produces about 3.5

million ounces of gold a year at mines in

Australia, Ghana, Peru, and South Africa.


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AREVA

This state-controlled French company is

involved in every step of nuclear powerproduction. AREVA mines uranium and

enriches it (under the trade name AREVA

NC), and it builds nuclear reactors and

services them. The company also treats and

recycles used fuel. Subsidiary Canberra

makes radiation detection equipment.

AREVA is also developing a broad portfolio

of clean energy plants (using wind energy,

bioenergy, solar power, hydrogen power and

other renewable sources) to complement its

nuclear energy activities.

Corporations

BHP Billiton

A diversified natural resources company that

has just recently acquired Athabasca Potash

Incorporated and Petrohawk Energy

Corporation, BHP Billiton Limited operates

nine customer sector groups: petroleum,

aluminium, base metals (including uranium),

diamonds and specialty products, stainless

steel materials, iron ore, manganese,

metallurgical coal and energy coal. During

the fiscal year ended June 30, 2010, the

Company realized an annual production

volume of 158.56 million barrels of oil

equivalent; and produced 1.2 million tonnes

of aluminium, 13.9 million tonnes of bauxite

and 3.8 million tonnes of alumina.


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Goldcorp

Goldcorp is a leading gold producer engaged

in gold mining and related activitiesincluding exploration, extraction, processing

and reclamation. The Companys operating

assets include the Red Lake, Porcupine and

Musselwhite gold mines in Canada,

Peasquito, Los Filos and El Sauzal mines in

Mexico, the Marlin mine in Guatemala, the

Marigold mine (67% interest) and Wharf

mine in the United States and the

Alumbrera mine (37.5%) in Argentina. Over

64% of Goldcorps reserves are in low

political risk NAFTA countries.

Corporations

Rio Tinto

Rio Tinto is a diversified, British-Australian,

multinational mining and resources group

with headquarters in London and

Melbourne, and is among the world leaders

in the production of many commodities,

including aluminium, iron ore, copper,

uranium, coal, and diamonds. Although

primarily focused on extraction of minerals,

Rio Tinto also has significant operations in

refining, particularly for refining bauxite and

iron ore. The company has operations on six

continents but is mainly concentrated in

Australia and Canada, and owns gross assets

valued at $81 billion through a complex web

of wholly and partly owned subsidiaries.


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Corporations Teck

Headquartered in Vancouver, Canada, Teck

Resources Limited operates as a diversifiedmining, mineral processing, and

metallurgical company. The company engages

in a range of activities related to mining,

including exploration, development,

smelting, refining, safety, environmental

protection, product stewardship, recycling,

and research. It produces copper and

metallurgical coal; zinc, lead, and

molybdenum concentrates; specialty metals

comprising cadmium, germanium, and

indium; precious metals consisting of silver

and gold; advanced materials, such as low

alpha lead, high purity copper plating

anodes, and indium powder for

semiconductor and integrated circuit,

thermal interface, solar panel, and next

generation technology applications; and

chemicals and fertilizer products.


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G E N E R A L L Y N E U T R A L


Countries Australia

Australias thriving resources sector

(comprising minerals and petroleum) is the

countrys largest single export sector, and

over 80 percent ofof its output in 2006-2007

was exported, accounting for approximately

49 per cent of total goods and services

exports. During that period, the minerals

and petroleum industries produced over

eight per cent of Australias GDP and

accounted for 63 per cent of Australias

merchandise export earnings. Some facts are

especially telling: Australia has the worlds

largest deposits of recoverable brown coal,

lead, rutile, zircon, nickel, tantalum,

uranium and zinc, and ranks second in the

world for bauxite, copper, gold, ilmenite and

silver; her reserves of industrial diamonds are

ranked third largest in the world and reserves

of manganese ore are ranked fourth; and she

is the worlds largest exporter of alumina,

black coal, iron ore, lead and zinc


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Countries Canada

Canadas mining industry is a major driver

of Canadian prosperity, contributing $32billion to GDP in 2009 and employing

306,000 workers in mineral extraction,

processing and manufacturing. Canada

remained the top destination for global

exploration in 2009, attracting 16% of world

spending. The industry accounts for 19% of

Canadian goods exports. The industry places

a high priority on corporate social

responsibility (CSR) issues in Canada and

abroad, as reflected by sector initiatives such

as the Mining Association of Canadas

Towards Sustainable Mining program, by the

fact that the government unveiled a CSR

framework in 2009 and by company actions

in developing countries such as helping to

pay for schools, roads, electrical grids,

hospitals, clinics, community halls, and child

ealth and nutrition programs


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Countries Russia

The mineral industry of Russia is one of the

world's leading mineral industries andaccounts for a large percentage of the

Commonwealth of Independent States'

production of a range of mineral products,

including metals, industrial minerals, and

mineral fuels. In 2005, Russia ranked among

the leading world producers or was a

significant producer of such mineral

commodities as aluminum; arsenic; asbestos;

bauxite; boron; cadmium; cement; coal;

cobalt; copper; diamond; fluorspar; gold;

iron ore; lime; lithium; magnesium

compounds and metals; mica, sheet, and

flake; natural gas; nickel; nitrogen; oil shale;

palladium; peat; petroleum; phosphate;

potash; rhenium; silicon, sulfur; titanium

sponge; tin; tungsten; and vanadium.


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AngloGold Ashanti

AngloGold Ashanti Limited, which has a

strategic alliance with Thani Dubai MiningLimited and as of December 31, 2010 had

proved and probable gold reserves of 71.2

million ounces, primarily engages in the

exploration and production of gold. It also

produces silver, uranium oxide, and sulfuric

acid. The company conducts gold-mining

operations in South Africa; continental

Africa, including Ghana, Guinea, Mali,

Namibia, and Tanzania; Australia; and the

Americas, which include Argentina, Brazil,

and the United States.

Corporations

Freeport-McMoRan

Copper & Gold

Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold Inc.

engages in the exploration, mining, and

production of mineral resources. The

company, which primarily explores for

copper, gold, molybdenum, silver, and cobalt

deposits, holds interests in various properties

located in North and South America;

Grasberg minerals district in Indonesia; and

Tenke Fungurume minerals district in the

Democratic Republic of Congo. As of

December 31, 2009, its consolidated

recoverable proven and probable reserves

luminiu 104.2 billion pounds of copper, 37.2

million ounces of gold, 2.59 billion pounds

of molybdenum, 270.4 million ounces of

silver, and 0.78 billion pounds of cobalt.


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JX Nippon Mining &

Metals

JX Nippon Mining & Metals (formerly

Nippon Mining Holdings) is involved in thedevelopment and mining of non-ferrous

metal resources, and the smelting, refining,

and marketing of non-ferrous metals, such as

copper, gold. And silver. The company also

recycles non-ferrous metals. In 2010 Nippon

Mining merged with Nippon Oil to form JX

Holdings, one of the worlds largest energy

companies; accordingly, JX Nippon Mining

& Metals is currently a subsidiary of JX

Holdings.

Corporations

Lonmin

The worlds third largest primary platinum

producer, Lonmin possesses mines in South

Africa from which ore is mined and

concentrated before being processed through

smelter and refineries to deliver finished

metals to the market. It engaged around

24,000 full time employees for the year

ending 30 September 2010.

Sumitomo Metal

Mining

With a history dating back to 1590,

Sumitomo Metal Mining, a part of the

Sumitomo keiretsu, refines copper along

with gold, nickel, and zinc. Metals-related

refining and processing operations account

for more than half of SMMs sales. The

company has smelting and refining

operations, plus mining resources, in Japan,

the US, Australia, Peru, Philippines, and

Chile.


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Minerals and Metal

Group

Members of the Minmetals Resources

Limited group of companies (HKEx: 1208);MMG owns and operates a portfolio of

world-class base metal mining operations,

development projects and exploration fields.

The group is one of the worlds largest

producers of zinc as well as a substantial

producer of copper, lead, gold and silver. The

group currently has mining operations

located in Australia and Asia and a large

portfolio of advanced and early stage

exploration projects through Australia, Asia

and North America.

Corporations

Mitsubishi Materials

With operations in copper, cement, and

luminium, Mitsubishi Materials is steeped in

materialism; the companys Metals segment

smelts copper and makes copper products

(billets, cake, wire, balls), and other divisions

include Cement (cement, concrete, and

other building materials), Aluminum

(beverage cans and other luminium

products), Advanced Materials (sintered auto

parts and cutting tools) and Electronic

Materials (electronic components,

chemicals). Mitsubishi Materials is also

involved in precious metals, recycling-related

products, real estate, fossil fuels, and nuclear

energy-related services. The company is part

of the Mitsubishi keiretsu.


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Newmont Mining

Corporation

Newmont Mining Corporation is one of the

worlds largest producers of gold, with activemines in Nevada, Indonesia, Canada,

Australia, New Zealand, Bolivia, Mexico,

Ghana, and Peru. As of December 31, 2006,

Newmont produced approximately 5.9

million equity ounces of gold annually and

held reserves of about 94 million of those

equity ounces. Production in

the Americas accounts for about 70% of the

companys equity ounces, but even so,

Newmont, employing 15,000 people

worldwide, is the largest gold mining

company in Australia.

Corporations

Xstrata

Headquartered in Zug, Switzerland, Xstrata

plc operates as a diversified metals and

mining company in Switzerland and

internationally. It primarily explores for

copper, coal, ferrochrome, nickel, vanadium,

and zinc metals; platinum group metals; and

gold, cobalt, iron, lead, and silver deposits.

The companys operations and projects span

various countries, including Canada, the

United States, Chile, Peru, Colombia,

Argentina, the Dominican Republic, Spain,

Norway, Germany, the United Kingdom,

Ireland, South Africa, Tanzania, Mauritania,

the Republic of Congo, Australia, the

Philippines, New Caledonia, and Papua New

Guinea.


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Norsk Hydro Asa

Also holding investments in the solar and

hydroelectric power industry, Norsk HydroASA, headquartered in Oslo, Norway,

supplies luminium and luminium products,

as well as produces energy in Europe and

internationally. It operates in five segments:

Primary Metal, Metal Markets, Rolled

Products, Extruded Products, and Energy.

Corporations

Vale

Vale Limited (formerly Vale Inco), whose

mining operations are located in Indonesia

and Canada, turns nickel into gold. No

surprise there, given that the world's #2

producer of nickel (after Russia's Norilsk

Nickel), which is used to manufacture

stainless steel and batteries. It makes nickel

battery materials and nickel foams, flakes,

and powders for use in catalysts, electronics,

and paints, the byproducts of such

manufacturing processes being sulphuric acid

and sulphur dioxide.

Mines Springvale Colliery

The Springvale Colliery is located just off the

Castlereagh Highway in eastern New South

Wales, a distance of about 120km west-

northwest from Sydney. At about 921m

above sea level, the Springvale Colliery is one

of the higher mines in New South Wales.


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G E N E R A L L Y A G A I N S T


Brazil

Brazil is trying to attract new investment and

to diversify its mining industry. Having

consolidated its position among the world

largest producers of iron ore, bauxite,

alumina and aluminum, niobium, nickel,

zinc and soon also copper, Brazil is willing to

stimulate new external investment to develop

extensive geological resources. The challenge

it has to face is the small number of areas

available to exploration with quality

geological data. They are usually controlled

by a few large companies and data on

extensive areas of the country are scarce.

Jamaica

Jamaica is recognised for its tourism and

bauxite industries. Jamaica is the worlds

fourth largest bauxite producer, after

Australia,Brazil and Guinea.There is

considerable potential in parts of the

industrial mineral sector. Jamaica's calcium

carbonate resources include 152,000 Mt of

recoverable limestone, 350 Mt of recoverable

marble, and about 350 Mt of high purity,

high brightness ground calcium carbonate

(GCC) or whiting appropriate for filler-grade

material. GCC is now the second most

important mineral exported from Jamaica

after bauxite.


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China

China, which has latterly held the China

Mining Congress & Expo 2011, has seen aburgeoning mining industry, as it surpasses

the US as the top energy user. Mining

accidents are not an infrequent occurrence

and it remains to be seen how companies can

embrace CSR and solid safety measures.

Democratic Republic of

Congo

DR Congo is estimated to have $24 trillion

(equivalent to the combined Gross Domestic

Product of Europe and the United States)

worth of untapped deposits of raw mineral

ores, including the worlds largest reserves of

cobalt and significant quantities of the

worlds diamonds, gold and copper. The

major ores extracted throughout the DRC

are cobalt, diamonds, gold and copper.Much

of the resource extraction is done in small

operations, known as "Artisanal and Small-

Scale Mining" (ASM), which are unregulated

in the DRC. Recently, more money is being

invested into the extraction and refining of

some of the ores found in the DRC,

primarily copper and cobalt, which may help

regulate the extraction and reduce

environmental impacts.


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Botswana

The mineral industry of Botswana has

dominated the national economy since theearly 1990s. Diamond has been the leading

component of the mineral sector since large-

scale diamond production began 25 years

ago. Most of Botswanas diamond

production was of gem quality, which

resulted in the countrys position as the

worlds leading producer of diamond by

value. Copper, gold, nickel, and soda ash

production also has held traditionally

significant, though smaller, roles in the

national economy.

Zambia

The mining industry has been the economic

and social backbone on Zambia since the

first major phase of exploitation of the

Copperbelt's Cu-CO deposits commenced in

the early 1930's. Since that time a wide

spectrum of other metalliferous and non-

metalliferous resources have been discovered

in Zambia and although exploitation of these

has been limited, they clearly demonstrate

the considerable opportunities for further

exploration and mining.


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INTEX Resources

Intex Resources ASA is a diversified mineral

exploration company, based in Oslo, Norway.The company discovers and develops mineral

deposits for commercial exploitation by

mining companies. Its largest resource is the

world class Mindoro Nickel project, located

on the island of Mindoro in the Philippines.

TVI Pacific Inc.

TVI Pacific Inc. is a publicly-traded resource

company focused on the production,

development, exploration and acquisition of

resource projects in the Philippines. TVI

produces copper concentrate from its

Canatuan mine, is developing the Balabag

gold property for anticipated production in

late 2012, and is initiating an exploration

program at its high-impact Tamarok property.

TVI also has oil interests in various stages of

discovery, drilling and exploration in Alaska,

Niger and off-shore Philippines.

Barrick

Barrick Gold Corporation, which made a

couple of significant acquisitions last year, is

principally engaged in the production and

sale of gold and related activities, such as

exploration and mine development. The

company also produces copper, and holds

interests in oil and gas properties located in

Canada through its oil and gas subsidiary,

Barrick Energy. Its producing mines are

concentrated in three regional business units

in the Americas, as well as Australia Pacific.


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F O O D F O R T H O U G H T

1. To what extent should regulation be implemented, taking into account both

corporations and governments grievances against regulation?

2. How can regulations be enforced under an international framework so as to make

mining a sustainable activity?

3. How can existing organisations such as the ICMM and EITI be roped in to regulate

the mining industries?

4. Can mining industries set up a timeline for action in order to spread out the cost

of sustainability measures?


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CA R B O N F U T U R E S


What feasible methods and conditions must be implemented in order to ensure the efficient

reduction of carbon emissions for the future?

S C E N A R I O

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions mainly released from the burning of fossil fuels, but also

from the destruction of carbon sinks are a significant factor in global climate change. It is

imperative for carbon emissions to be reduced in order to mitigate the extent of climate change

and prevent further degradation of the environment.

One critical aspect of sustainable carbon management is the maintenance of carbon sinks,

which include natural sinks like forests. Environmentalists have tried to replenish carbon sinks

through forest carbon projects, as well as artificial sinks like underground carbon reservoirs. In

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considering carbon sinks, not only must governance and management be taking into account,

but so must the potential impact of carbon leakage and the cost-benefit ratio of investing in

creating new sinks.

Another tool to secure carbon futures involves green taxes imposed by the state to curb current

emissions and to fund mitigatory measures. However, these could backfire because they create

large new costs and hence major inflationary consequences that somehow have to be

absorbed (Giddens 2008, p.13).

Government regulation is essential to ensuring efficient reduction of carbon emissions and the

adoption of effective mitigatory action, yet it may become financially and politically costly in its

deterrence of foreign investment and corporations. Furthermore, enforcement of regulation

and government involvement in research and development require resources too. The legal

aspect of government management, technology and energy commitments must figure in

evaluating the role of government in regulating carbon.

Critically, climate change mitigation is carried out primarily by governments while technology

research and development is spearheaded by corporations. The role of the latter is

compounded by the fact that corporations have little incentive to develop such technology, and

given their protectiveness of industry secrets even less motivation to share the benefits of

such technology or to allow competitors to create alternatives. The United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change UNFCCC also cautions that technological mitigation can

only be used in conjunction with other existing measures that take into account the socio-

economic situation on the ground.

Additionally, it has been argued that the standard market-based environmental policy tools of

cap-and-trade and emissions taxes cannot provide credible incentives [] because there is a

problem of dynamic inconsistency between what governments will announce as a future policy

and what governments will be subsequently be motivated to adopt (Montgomery and Smith

2005, p.1).

Creation of a sustainable carbon future therefore necessitates international cooperation

between governments, and also collaboration with industries heavily reliant on carbon.


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Carbon Colonialism refers to the profitable exploitation of third-world country carbon

emission reductions by Economically More Developed Countries (EMDCs) through carbon

credits. EMDCs invest in non-polluting development infrastructure in lesser-developed nations

to earn carbon credits from these countries. This allows for more developed countries to simply

fill their quota of carbon credits to offset their own emissions, without any reduction in the

volume of their actual emissions.

Carbon Credits are tradable permits or entitlements for a nation or organisation to emit one

ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in greenhouse pollutants. In other words, one carbon

credit represents the reduction or removal of one ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent from

the environment.

Carbon Leakage occurs when one countrys carbon emissions increase as a result of another

countrys increase in stringency on climate policies. When a countrys climate policies cause

local prices to rise, due to more stringent rules and checks on production with lowered

emissions, another country with a more relaxed policy may increase their production of the

same commodities due to their comparatively cheaper prices. As a result, the reduction ofemissions would be negated.

Carbon Sinks are a reservoir where carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide or any other form, is

stored for an indefinite amount of time. Types of sinks include natural sinks, which include

photosynthetic terrestrial plants, the ocean and mineral sequestration. There are also artificial

sinks, which include man-made landfills. However, as emissions worldwide increase due to

human activity, the efficiency of natural sinks has declined, necessitating more artificial sinks

today to keep up with the increased carbon output.

Forest Carbon Projects aim to sequester carbon through planting trees, hence creating a

natural carbon sink. These projects take place largely in the economically less developed

nations, in order to create opportunities for agricultural careers for the impoverished people of

these nations, therefore also benefitting the country on an economic level.


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Aspects of planning for sustainable carbon management and use in the future must include

consideration of technological developments and the role of governments and corporations.

Long-term carbon sequestration and maintenance of current natural carbon sinks not only

afford a means of storage but prevent the environmental damage caused by carbon leakage.


The voluntary nature of international accords makes them difficult to be applied. With the

imminent expiry of the Kyoto Protocol an international agreement that was not signed by the

United States of America, a leading carbon emitter, and an agreement that took eight years to

become legally enforceable a successor is urgently needed.

The Copenhagen Accord which was marked by international disputes was not a legally binding

instrument. Although it was designed to work toward a more conclusive agreement at Cancun,

the Cancun Agreements were inconclusive. Voluntary agreements cannot stand alone because

of the difficulty in enacting and enforcement.

The different standing of countries relative to one another is also a concern. This is manifested

in debates over carbon colonialism where wealthier nations or corporations may use their

economic and environmental power to complicate their involvement in economically less

wealthy countries (e.g. debt-for-nature swaps).


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S T A K E H O L D E R S

For the purposes of this convention, the stakeholders have been classified into three

generalised blocs with reference to their stances:

1. Generally FOR

2. Generally NEUTRAL

3. Generally AGAINST

G E N E R A L L Y F O R

Stakeholders who fall in this bloc have taken concrete steps towards preserving carbon sinks,

mitigating carbon emissions or seeking alternative energy sources. They have invested in

ecologically-friendly technologies and facilities, implemented policies which are beneficial for

the environment or expressed views and honoured international agreements to such effect.

Countries represented in the proactive towards carbon futures bloc are relatively open to

adopting green initiatives. These include many in the European Union and numerous

developed countries.

Germany has been drastically cutting carbon emissions since 1990 due to reduced dependence

on lignite (brown coal). However, it will likely face an uphill challenge in maintaining its track

record while encouraging economic growth.

France has been investing heavily in alternative forms of energy after the energy shortage

triggered by the 1973 oil embargo by the Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries.

As for Costa Rica, besides its long-standing claim of sustainable development and carbon

neutrality, it has recently legislated an all-out ban on open-pit metal mining which would

protect carbon sinks in the form of forests.

Nongovernmental and intergovernmental organisations which are proactive towards carbon

futures advocate carbon sink projects, facilitate intergovernmental cooperation on carbon


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issues, advise member or non-member states to take specific action, or contribute guidelines for

the furthering of cooperation on research.

The Plan Vivo Foundation focuses on using the Plan Vivo System to make sustainable

development possible. Such nongovernmental initiatives may be viewed as having too narrow a

scope and hence may not be able to singlehandedly make a significant impact on carbon

problems.

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, having evolved from being a

vestige of the Marshall Plan for a Europe recovering from World War II, has become more

forward-looking and instead aids some of the most developed countries in streamlining their

efforts against climate change.

The World Bank, on the other hand, is devoted to enabling developing countries to benefit

from the investments of developed countries in alternative energy sources which pave the way

towards sustainable development.

Corporations like Royal Dutch Shell are keen on rebranding to distance themselves from

negative perceptions of them as a profit-hungry oil company. While Shell has previously

expressed enthusiasm for developing renewable energy, it has tipped its priorities towards shale

gas, which it controversially labels as an alternative green fuel in response to improvements in

the extraction efficiency of shale gas.


Corporations Royal Dutch Shell

Supports a shift from dependency on oil

to shale gas as energy source, which could

allow carbon capture and storage

effectively. (N.B.: the long-term

sustainability of shale gas is

controversial.)


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Federal Republic of

Germany

In the last decade the annual CO2-

emissions in Germany have been reducedconsiderably (more than 15% since 1990)

mainly due to the breakdown of eastern

lignite energy supply. The annual rate of

CO2 reduction has, however,

continuously decreased and in the last

years stabilised close to zero. German

politicians have pledged to halve

emissions by 2030.

CountriesRepublic of Costa

Rica

Imposed 3.5% carbon tax on fossil fuels

in 1997; has Payment for Environmental

Services (PSA) programme; strives to

achieve carbon neutrality before 2030;

currently produces 90% of electricity

through renewable resources. A site for

forest carbon projects.

French Republic

France is committed to reducing

dependence on oil following an energy

crisis in 1973. It invests in building

efficiency and public transport. With

regard to private vehicles, the government

extends financial incentives for the

technological development of bio-fuels

and also taxes high-horsepower cars. 80%

of the country's electricity is produced via

nuclear power.


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Canada

Canada has implemented regulations

pertaining to the use of biofuel as areplacement for petrol in transport

vehicles. The government invests heavily

in green infrastructure, with $10 billion

spent since 2006, and provides financial

support for economically less wealthy

countries more vulnerable to the effects

of climate change.

Countries

United Kingdom of

Great Britain

and Northern Ireland

The UK government has committed to

creating legislation like the 2008 Climate

Change Act with curbs on carbon

emissions in the country. Industry cap-

and-trade taxation is also in the works,

with auctioning of carbon credits

allowed.

Republic of India

Since 1 July 2010, a nation-wide carbon

tax on coal has been in place, to finance a

National Clean Energy Fund; voluntarily

targets to reduce amount of carbon

dioxide released per unit of gross

domestic product by 25% from 2005

levels by 2020. India is both an economic

power with a huge demand for natural

resources, as well as home to significant

forest land area.


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Kingdom of Sweden

Sweden is very dedicated to reducing

carbon emissions, not only purchasingcarbon credits in accordance with the

Kyoto Protocol, but also creating a

national wind power network and

investing in bio-gas and solar cell

technology not yet available on the

market.

CountriesJapan

Japan is committed to curbing industry

emissions through heavy financial

penalties enforceable by law. Japan is also

a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol and a

leader in low-emission transport

technologies by manufacturers.

Netherlands

The Netherlands is a heavy investor in

carbon credit purchases in eastern

Europe under Dutch law. The

Netherlands gains carbon credits from its

use of renewable energy such as

hydroelectric generation instead of

traditional fossil fuels.


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Countries

Republic of South

Africa

South Africa supports independence

from international donor organisations,preferring instead to make use of the

country's existing natural and research

resources to create an adaptation strategy

under the National Climate Change

Response Strategy and Framework for

Sustainable Development. It favours an

overhaul of current climate forestry

measures which would involve countries

tying their estimates of climate change

progress to current carbon levels in order

to prevent gaming the system in the

global carbon credits trade.

United Mexican

States

Mexico seeks to develop a model for

delivering technical assistance from the

project coalition, and income from

investors seeking potential GHG

reduction benefits, to farmers increasing

carbon sequestration. It also is developing

protocols for the administration,

monitoring, and evaluation of larger-scale

land use sequestration programmes for

low-productivity lands in southern

Mexico, through its strong research and

monitoring components. Also was the

site of Cancun summit.


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Nongovernmental

OrganisationsPlan Vivo Foundation

The Plan Vivo System is a framework for

developing and managing community-based land-use projects where

communities generate long-term carbon,

livelihood and ecosystem benefits. Project

participants are smallholders, also known

as small farm owners, and forest-

dependent communities in developing

countries. Plan Vivo encourages

government and NGO collaboration to

protect carbon sinks.

Intergovernmental

Organisations

Organisation for

Economic Co-

operation and

Development

The OECD works closely with member

governments, chief of which are

economically more developed countries,

to assist them to identify and implement

least-cost policies to reduce GHG

emissions in order to limit climate

change, as well as to integrate adaptation

to climate change into all relevant sectors

and policy areas. As OECD countries are

the major international donors, OECD

has a critical role in tracking climate

finance, and in examining how public

finance can be scaled-up and best targeted

to help leverage private financial flows.


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African Union

The 53-member AU has called for

carbon-emitting nations to cut pollutionregardless of whether or not they are

parties to the Kyoto Protocol. African

countries are concerned about the impact

of climate change on poverty and social

issues and call for member nations to

integrate their governments' economic

policies with environmental planning.

Intergovernmental

Organisations

Association of

Southeast Asian

Nations

ASEAN favours regional collaboration

that would foster scientific development

and protect against forest degradation;

has called on less wealthy nations to

implement Nationally Appropriate

Mitigation Actions with the support of

financial aid from wealthier countries.

World Bank

Created the Clean Energy Investment

Framework to support the development

of appropriate technology to support

economically less wealthy countries while

offsetting costs, increasing information

access and research, and facilitating

market-based instruments while tapping

on the resources of the private sector.


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G E N E R A L L Y N E U T R A L

Stakeholders labelled as such cover mostly nongovernmental organisations that do not have

enforcement rights over countries and regions, but rather play advisory roles. Thus, they may

not have to explicitly state their stands; or even if they do, it may not play a large role in

influencing the decisions of countries.

Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth, environmental advocacy groups, are supportive of fair

solutions to the carbon crisis. Yet, they take a cautious approach, choosing not to jump on

every bandwagon of projects claiming to help the environment. Instead, they examine such

projects holistically, examining factors such as equality among wealthier investing countries and

less wealthy recipient countries as well as actual impact on locals, before pledging their support.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change aims to be an objective and neutral advisory

authority on scientific research conducted on climate change which is inextricably linked to

carbon futures. It bases its stand solely on sound scientific research and part of its work is to

analyse data and conclusions of scientists to determine their credibility.

Corporations such as the Edinburgh Centre for Carbon Management may profit from

increased awareness about carbon issues since they serve to measure the carbon emissions of

corporations, which may be used to determine the amount of carbon credits required to

achieve so-called carbon neutrality or simply for the sake of assessing carbon footprint.


Nongovernmental

Organisations

World Agroforestry

Centre

Works towards mitigating tropical

deforestation, land depletion and rural

poverty through improved agro-forestry

systems; aims to initiate and assist in

generation and dissemination of

appropriate agro-forestry technologies to

resource-poor farmers and other land

users.


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Friends of the Earth

Argues that economically wealthier

nations owe an 'ecological debt' thatmust be paid off as reparations to

economically less wealthy nations for

climate justice.

Nongovernmental

Council on

Hemispheric Affairs

COHA promotes inter-American

collaboration between the USA and

Latin America on transnational issues,

but is opposed to what it perceives as

excessive USA intervention in Latin

American affairs.

Organisations

Greenpeace

A proponent of the 'Energy Revolution'

switch to 80% renewable energy and an

80% cut in energy industry emissions by

2050, Greenpeace is against both coal

and oil sands petroleum extraction.

Katoomba Group

The Katoomba Group addresses key

challenges to developing markets and

payments for ecosystem services, from

enabling legislation throughestablishment of new market institutions,

strategies of pricing and marketing, and

performance monitoring.


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European Renewable

Energy Council

EREC is composed of several renewable

energy associations lobbying forrenewable energies and providing

relevant information and consultancy to

decision-makers.

Organisations

World Resources

Institute

WRI is an international think-tank that

involves itself chief ly in transnational

negotiations at environmental

conferences and seeks to achieve a

balance between environmentalism and

governance.

Intergovernmental

Organisations

Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate

Change

Intergovernmental body which reviews

and assesses scientific research conducted

on climate change and publishes special

reports relevant to the UN Framework

Convention on Climate Change.

CorporationsEdinburgh Centre for

Carbon Management

Commercial provider of emission

assessments for corporate activities,

product supply chains and terrestrial

ecosystems; founded by University of

Edinburgh scientists.


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G E N E R A L L Y A G A I N S T

Stakeholders deemed as passive towards carbon futures display inertia and unwillingness to

change unsustainable current practices. They usually have vested commercial interests

safeguarded by the continuity of these ventures. They have been revealed to hinder the uptake

of policies geared towards reduction of dependence on carbon, development of green

technologies and even refuse to take their share of the responsibility for carbon dilemmas.

Examples of countries in this bloc are the United States of America and China, world powers

driven by capitalism and oil. The United States, being a highly influential global player, has

drawn flak for refusing to ratify the Kyoto Protocol while China is expected to emit ever more

greenhouse gases should its growth and development continue unabated.

As for nongovernmental organisations, the American Farm Bureau represents the interests of

farmers and ranchers, functioning as an agricultural trade union. For the sake of maintaining

the status quo of their livelihoods and current farming practices, it opposes emission

restrictions.

The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries and the League of Arab States are

intergovernmental organisations with the agenda of retaining demand for oil so that oil prices

remain high. They do not favour the rise of alternative energy sources and may use their

economic clout to prolong the dominance of oil. The Group of 77 or G-77, composed of

developing countries, cries foul that they should bear the brunt of the already developed

countries past mistakes. They believe in their right to develop their economies without undue

restrictions which were not present before and they think they have no obligation to contribute

to costly, low-yield research for technological solutions.

Corporations who stand to lose customers as the world inches away from carbon may take a

hard line against any such threat, thus appearing backward and stubborn. Exxon Mobil

Corporation is in denial of the adverse effects of climate change and continues to advocate the

use of oil, in line with its commercial interests, and to prevent legislations unfriendly to its

business. It contributes less to research for alternative energy than other leading oil companies.

In juxtaposition, Shell was reported to yearly set aside 80 times Exxon Mobils annual

investment with regard to renewable energy.


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Peoples Republic of

China

Highest carbon dioxide output

worldwide; contributes to 22.30% oftotal global carbon dioxide emissions

(from burning of fossil fuels and

cement manufacture, not from land use

such as deforestation), with increased

emissions expected and defended, as

countrys affluence increases. Rising

economic superpower, with much

influence over international markets.

Countries

United States of

America

Second highest output of carbon

dioxide worldwide, contributing to

19.91% of total global carbon dioxide

emissions (from burning of fossil fuels

and cement manufacture, not from

land use such as deforestation).

Economic superpower, with much

influence over international markets.

The current political climate is hostile

to USA intervention in global climate

issues due to a resurgence of American

exceptionalism, despite the pro-

intervention Democratic government.

Republic of Indonesia

Carbon tax has been drafted but not

yet implemented; infamous for forest

fires due to 'slash and burn' agriculture

practice.


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Italian Republic

One of the biggest carbon emitters in

the EU, Italy has faced major spendingproblems of late, and argues that it

cannot be held to post-Kyoto reduction

standards because its industries cannot

absorb the costs associated with

regulation, taxes, and emissions targets.

Countries

Democratic Republic

of the Congo

The DRC is very protective of its

logging industry and recently signed a

deal with McKinsey & Co. where it

would be paid to retain forests based on

economic value if they were cleared at a

higher rate by logging companies. It

insists that this is a cost-effective and

sustainable method of reducing

emissions as this grants it eligibility for

foreign development aid. Deforestation

is a major environmental issue in the

DRC, as its rapidly-depleting forests are

important carbon sinks.

Russian Federation

Russia has had traditionally low carbon

emissions since the fall of the Soviet

Union, and hence hoards carbon

credits. Scepticism on the reality of

climate change is high. Politicians in

fact welcome a slight temperature

increase as being favourable to living

conditions and agricultural yields.


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Countries

Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia

Saudi Arabia produces 1.1% of the

world's global emissions with 0.4% ofworld population; opposes caps on

both carbon and methane emissions.

The kingdom worries about the

economic impact of moving away from

oil as an energy source, and will not

reduce its dependency without foreign

provisions for the development of solar-

energy technologies. 'Other Saudi

demands from the U.N. talks include a

re-vamping of fossil fuel taxes in

industrialized countries to focus on

carbon rather than energy, which may

benefit oil because it emits less of the

greenhouse gas compared to coal.'

Republic of the

Philippines

The Philippines is opposed to the

Copenhagen Accord and concerned

that climate change strategies are

economic burdens for less wealthy

countries like it.

Islamic Republic of

Iran

Most vehicles run on leaded gas and

Tehran is amongst the world's most

polluted cities. Iran is pursuing a

nuclear programme purportedly for

energy reasons, but is opposed

significantly by global superpowers like

the USA.


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Countries

Commonwealth of

Australia

The government of Australia has

delayed the Garnaut Climate ChangeReport and Carbon Pollution

Reduction Scheme due to economic

concerns and is hesitant about its

commitment to implementation of

carbon tax schemes.

Peoples Republic of

Bangladesh

Highly vulnerable to the deleterious

effects of climate change, Bangladesh

constantly calls for greater action by

economically wealthier countries while

unable to curb emissions itself.

Nongovernmental

Organisations

American Farm

Bureau

Strongly opposed to cap-and-trade on

the USA agriculture industry, which is

a key carbon emitter, despite potential

carbon offset revenues, for fear of

negative impact on its members in

terms of fuel, fertiliser, and operations

costs.

Intergovernmental

Organisations

Organisation of

Petroleum Exporting

Countries

OPEC denies that oil is to blame for

climate change, opposes reduction of

oil consumption, and prefers mitigatory

and adaptive approaches to dealing

with climate change. It favours the sole

involvement of oil consumers, rather

than suppliers, in tackling climate

change.


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Intergovernmental

Organisations

Group of 77

A group of economically less wealthy

countries at the UN, the Group of 77and China reiterates that the UN

Framework Convention on Climate

Change is, and should remain, the

primary comprehensive framework for

addressing climate change. They

request that , ins tead of G-77

governments channelling their own

resources toward climate change

mitigation, the UN provide them with

the necessary technology for clean and

affordable energy.

League of Arab States

Many Arab countries have built their

wealth on oil exports and are loath to

see the world's dependence on oil

reduced, due to the economic and

political cost for them.

CorporationsExxon Mobil

Corporation

Has funded climate change denialist

lobbies in order to reduce pressure for

it to curb greenhouse emissions from its

role in the petrochemical industry.


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F O O D F O R T H O U G H T

1. Taking into consideration the fact that developed countries did not face emission

restrictions previously and that the blame for current carbon problems can be

mostly attributed to them while developing countries have yet to enjoy the fruits of

unconfined development, what is a just method of capping carbon emissions?

2. What sort of technologies and methods should governments favour in their

crafting of carbon future policy, and how can they best come to this decision? What

sort of technologies and methods should governments favour in their crafting ofcarbon future policy, and how can they best come to this decision?


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F O O D S E C U R I T Y


With resource constraints on expanding food production, significant wastage in many parts of

the world, and a growing global population set to consume even more, how can we ensure that

there remains sufficient food for everybody?

S C E N A R I O

Droughts throughout Chinas Yellow and Yangtze River basins, as well as the Mekong region,

have compelled China to ban all grain exports and northern ASEAN states to halve their rice

exports. China will see an estimated 13-million-metric-ton drop in wheat production (-11% of

total), a 19-million-metric ton drop in rice production (-10%),and at least 15 million metric

tons of lost corn production (-10%). China will have to import additional corn and livestock

feed to maintain its current meat production levels, which are also under threat from the

drought. ASEAN states including Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Thailand have reported losses

of almost 8 million metric tons of rice (-10%).

The droughts are the result of unusual heat and low rainfall attributed to climate change, and

overuse of water in the heavily populated and industrialised cities of the North China Plain.

Thai, Lao and Vietnamese officials have accused Chinese dams in Yunnan of withholding

water to pre-empt drought in Chinas southwest, prompting the Mekong to dry up drastically.

These weather conditions, coupled with the historical phenomenon of droughts occurring

annually within Chinese territories, pose a serious threat to food security in East Asia.

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As rural poverty and unemployment worsens, millions of jobless peasants in China, Thailand,

Cambodia and Vietnam are migrating to over-crowded urban areas to find jobs to secure

incomes for their households. Lack of proper, affordable housing and jobs with decent pay

mean that these rural migrants mainly live under unacceptable conditions. These cities arefacing burgeoning slum populations and crime levels. The resulting spike in urban food

demand might also rob rural markets of food supplies as these get diverted to large cities.

Inflation rates flare up across Asia as food markets see sharp swings in grain commodities

prices. Asian states and regions highly dependent on grain imports from these sources, like

Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka are

hard hit by the food supply shortages.

As national stockpiles run out in grain-importing nations, governments have further subsidised

food prices to mollify citizens, who have begun rioting in major cities like Manila and Jakarta.

Prices of white rice, noodles and bread have risen substantially, pushing up poverty levels,

malnutrition and popular discontent. Beijing, fearing destabilising riots due to its failure to

curb the yuans longstanding inflation and seriously high food prices, has pledged RMB 100

billion to alleviate the condition of Chinese farmers and consumers.

The shortage of East Asian grain has compelled Asian states to buy more from other sources.

China has inked deals for more Kazakh and Russian wheat, and will buy corn from the US,

with which it has a substantial trade surplus. Heavy importers like South Korea and Japan will

likely follow suit. This has led to fears that the hole in Asian food supplies might travel abroad

and hit the Mideast and Africa, both of which are big consumers of US wheat. This market

competition for grain might in turn drive up grain prices in the Mideast and Africa.

The world still cannot feed everyone even with decades of growth in yields (amounts of crops

raised per unit area of land) and productivity; the UN FAO estimated 925 million victims of

hunger in 2010. Hunger and malnutrition will intensify as the global population marches

towards 9 billion by 2050. Growth in staple crop yields is now 1% compared with 3% in the

1960s food production has to go up by 70% from current levels to feed the world in 2050,

according to FAO estimates.


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Urban demand for meat is expected to increase more than that for grains and cereals. By 2050,

the FAO estimates that meat demand would double to 470 million metric tonnes from current

levels as the percentage of meat, dairy and oils in diets moves to 29% from 20% in 2000.

Demand for soybeans to feed livestock is expected to reach 515 million metric tonnes.

This burgeoning demand for meat will mean more land, water, and food crops, among other

resources, have to be poured into raising livestock for slaughter. Livestock-raising causes serious

problems such as water scarcity and greenhouse gas emissions. It would seem reasonable to

divert resources to crop cultivation from livestock-raising, which would supplement the grain

deficiency, reduce livestock-raisings environmental impact, and free up food crops to feed

humans directly instead of feeding livestock.

Biofuel issues will become significantly more pertinent in light of this crisis. Biofuels industries

in Brazil and the US consume much sugarcane and corn respectively, directly competing with

hungry consumers needs and thus pushing up food crop prices. Criticism has been levelled at

the amount of money, time and resources required to grow enough crops to supply limited

amounts of biofuels. Brazil has cut down much forest to grow sugarcane. The US heavily

subsidises its farmers, a practice long defended by the Republican Party, to cover the actual cost

of growing corn for biofuels.

These events call for a global conference on how to tackle our underlying food problems: the

misguided use and overuse of resources in food production, the inefficiency of food

distribution by global food markets, and worldwide hunger and malnutrition.

The hope is that a Kyoto Protocol for food might emerge from these discussions to move the

world towards better food security.


Livestockrefers to any or all of the following:

Poultry such as chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys, and

Beasts such as cattle, goats, pigs and sheep.

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The types ofmeat/egg/dairy products in discussion include:

(Un)processed foodstuffs derived from the f lesh, bone or organs of livestock,

Eggs from hens and ducks, and

Milk from cattle or goats or sheep, as well as processed foodstuffs derived frommilk, such as various types of butter and cheeses and condensed milks and creams

These livestock and meat/egg/dairy products are all produced and traded for profit by

commercial enterprises of sufficiently large scale (production and processing of these goods are

not home-based or conducted by an individual household).


The motion for the debate is to scale down livestock to conserve potable water and feed where

these are deficient (e.g. sub-Saharan Africa, China), while preventing further woodland from

being razed to make way for cattle herds, and preserve natural biodiversity, and hence mitigate

the environmental destruction caused by excessive livestock production.

The idea behind these measures is to Progress towards the elimination of under-nutrition and food insecurity of the

significant part of the population of developing countries

Safeguard the productive potential and broader environmental functions of

agricultural resources and the worlds biodiversity for future generations, the very

core of sustainability, while satisfying food and other needs.

The importance of these issues was emphasised by the major international conferences of

recent years: the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)

and the FAO/WHO International Conference on Nutrition (ICN).

While most countries recognise these issues as pertinent to sustainable development, many fear

the economic repercussions of cutting back on their livestock sectors. To what extent is this

effective towards achieving the above-mentioned sustainable development goals and who

should undertake the burden of downgrading, or the economic endowment of fortifying their

livestock industry amid a strong, and increasing global demand for animal-derived products?


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M I L L E N N I U M D E V E L O P M E N T G O A L S ( M D G S )

The MDGs are eight international development goals that all 192 United Nations member

states and at least 23 international organisations have agreed to achieve by the year 2015. They

include eradicating extreme poverty, reducing child mortality rates, fighting disease epidemics

such as AIDS, and developing a global partnership for development.

Relevant to this issue however, is Target 1.C, which is to halve, between 1990 and 2015, the

proportion of people who suffer from hunger in terms of,

1. Prevalence of underweight children under-five years of age

2. Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption

RE D U C T I O N O F M E A T C O N S U M P T I O N B I L L

( RI K S D A G O F SW E D E N )

The Swedish Parliament has passed a bill with the goal of reducing meat consumption by 25

per cent from the current total by year 2020.

Action plans for reduced consumption

Phase-out of EU subsidies to the meat industry

Incentives for reduced meat consumption

Increasing price of meat from the start to the end of the production line.

i.e, from the slaughterhouse to the dining table

Before that, a public inquiry into the feasibility of economic incentives for

reducing the climate and other environmental impacts of the entire chain

of food production should be conducted.

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Vegetarian Mondays

Modelled after the Belgian city of Ghent (Vegetarian Thursdays)

Also provided by the city are large numbers of free maps indicating the

locations of vegetarian r

Documents

SDYC 2011 Academic Booklet