Scientific Writing: An Introduction Writing Guidelines for Students The Craft of Scientific Writing...

Scientific Writing:An Introduction

Writing Guidelines for Studentshttp://writing.eng.vt.edu/

The Craft of Scientific Writing3rd edition (Springer-Verlag, 1996)

How well you communicate affects your career

Survey (Richard M. Davis) Successful engineers spent 25% of work week writing

Survey (Virginia Tech) Recruiters claim that engineers need more work on their writing

Survey (Wisconsin) Professional engineers found writing their most useful subject in college

How well you communicate affects the well-being of others

Space Shuttle Challenger(January 28, 1986)

Explosion was caused by failure of O-rings in the solid rocket boosters

Engineers knew of O-ring problems well before fatal launch

Engineers failed to communicate seriousness of problem

[Report, 1986]

Scientists and engineers are called upon to communicate in many different situations

specifictechnical

audiences

non-technicalaudiences

generaltechnical

audiences

ReportsArticlesProposalsWeb Pages

ConferencesLecturesMeetingsPosters

Scientific writing differs from other kinds of writing

Subject Matter Writing Constraints

audience

purpose

occasion

Purpose of Writing

To inform

To persuade

[Franklin, 1952]

Writing Style

[Peterson, 1987]

You should begin the writing process by analyzing your constraints

Purpose

Audience

Occasion

Format

Formality

Politics and ethics

Process and deadline

Who they are

What they know

Why they will read

How they will read

To inform

To persuade

Three aspects of writing affect the way that readers assess your documents

Content

Style

Form

Style is the way you communicate the content to the audience

Structure

wordswordswordswordswordswordswordswordswordswordswordswords

wordswordswords

wordswordswordswordswordswordswords

Languagestyle

Illustration

[Peterson, 1987]

Form embodies the format and mechanics of the writing

format

typography

layout

mechanics

grammar

usage

punctuation

spelling

We can split the writing process into stages

Writing the First DraftWriting the First DraftGetting in the MoodGetting in the Mood

Revising, Revising, RevisingRevising, Revising, Revising

FinishingFinishing

Structure: the Strategy of Style

Beginning

Ending

Middle

If a man can group his ideas, then he is a writer.

Robert Louis Stevenson

Beginning

Ending

Middle

The organization of a scientific document can be viewed as a beginning, middle, and ending

TitleSummaryIntroduction

Middle Sections

ConclusionsBack Matter

Beginnings prepare readers for understanding the work

Summary tells readers whathappens in document

Introduction prepares readersfor the middle

Title orients readers todocument

Several names for summaries exist

Summary

Abstract

TechnicalAbstract

ExecutiveSummary

DescriptiveAbstract

InformativeAbstract

A document's introduction prepares readers for the discussion

Topic?

Importance?

Introduction

Arrangement?

Background?

The introduction defines the scopeand limitations of the work

Proposed Study on Effects of Alcohol

on Life Expectancy

Three classes of drinkers:non-drinkers moderate drinkersheavy drinkers

Ten-year study

Other effects,such as exercise,not considered

Medical historiesnot considered

Women may notexperience thesame effects

Men surveyed

scope

limitations

Common strategies exist for the middles of scientific reports

Chronological

[Maizels, 2001]

Spatial

[Pratt & Whitney, 2000]

Common strategies exist for the middles of scientific reports

Parallel Parts

Corel Corporation

Flow

[Sandia, 1985]

Section headings should be descriptive and parallel

Non-ParallelNon-Descriptive

IntroductionBackgroundMarx GeneratorsLine PulseBeam GenerationTransporting BeamPelletsResultsConclusions

IntroductionBackgroundMarx GeneratorsLine PulseBeam GenerationTransporting BeamPelletsResultsConclusions

ParallelDescriptive

Introduction

Past Designs for Particle Beam Fusion

New Design for Particle Beam FusionCharging Marx GeneratorsForming Line PulseGenerating Particle BeamTransporting Particle BeamIrradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets

Results of New Design

Conclusions and Recommendations

Introduction

Past Designs for Particle Beam Fusion

New Design for Particle Beam FusionCharging Marx GeneratorsForming Line PulseGenerating Particle BeamTransporting Particle BeamIrradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets

Results of New Design

Conclusions and Recommendations

Many journal articles follow a set organization named IMRaD

Materials and Methods

Results

Discussion

Introduction

In a strong ending, you analyze resultsand give a future perspective

Analyze results from overall perspective

Conclusions

Analysis of Results

Several options:Make recommendationsDiscuss future workRepeat limitations

Future Perspective

Failing to cite the contribution of others can be a fatal flaw in your career

James Watson surreptitiously looked at Rosalind Franklin’s work

[Franklin, 1952]

Watson did not give enough credit to Franklin

[Luzzati, 1950]

Avoiding Common Errors

of Grammar

One of the most important skills a writer can have is the ability to compose clear, complete sentences. The sentence is the basic unit of communication in all forms of English.

Funk, McMahan, and Day

Elements of Grammar

Not all mechanical errors bother readers in the same way

Errors thatdisturb

run-on sentenceits/it’sspell checker ignored

Errors thatdistract

missing intro commafaulty parallelismunclear pronoun ref

Errors that few even notice

different from/thancontractionsplit infinitive

The most important aspect of grammaris understanding what a sentence is

Sentence: A sentence is group of words with a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought.

Fragment: A fragment being a group of words that either is missing a subject or a verb or does not express a complete thought.

Run-on: A run-on is two or more independent clauses that are not joined properly, for instance, a common mistake is to have a comma between the clauses.

Which are sentences (S), fragments (F), or run-ons (RO)?

Rubidium has no major uses, however, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.

Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has dramatically increased its concentration this past century.

Several systems can detect plastic explosives. For example, thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems.

RO

S

S / F

Shown in yellow are corrections to the errors from the previous slide

Although rubidium has no major uses, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.

Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has dramatically increased its concentration this past century.

Several systems can detect plastic explosives. Examples include thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems.

Note that there are several ways to correct each of these errors

Rubidium has no major uses; however, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.

Rubidium has no major uses, but it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.

Rubidium has no major uses. This metal, however, is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.

Making lists parallel is another important aspect of grammar

Printed circuit board relays are limited to small coil voltages, contact ratings, and lack multi-pole configurations.

Printed circuit board relays are limited to small coil voltages and contact ratings, and lack multi-pole configurations.

Making lists parallel is another important aspect of grammar

Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes, sores, and may leave the area.

Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes and sores, and may leave the area.

Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes, sores, and wandering tendencies.

Placing a modifier in its appropriate place is also important in grammar

These proteins indicate to the body what hormones should be given off among other things.

These proteins indicate, among other things, to the body what hormones should be given off.

In meeting the staff of the Parks Department, the greatest problem was that of water leakage.

From the staff of the Parks Department, we learned that the greatest problem was that of water leakage.

Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities

it???Because the receiver presented the radiometer with a high flux environment, it was mounted in a silver-plated stainless steel container.

If you receive an e-mail titled "Win A Holiday," do not open it. It will erase everything on your hard drive. Forward this e-mail out to as many people as you can. This is a very malicious virus and not many people know about it.

This???this???

Avoiding Common Errors

of Punctuation

Punctuation marks are the traffic signs and signals placed along the reader’s road. They tell him when to slow down and when to stop, and sometimes they warn him of the nature of the road ahead. Traffic engineers do not always agree on what signs should be used and where they should be placed, and neither do writers or editors.

Theodore M. BernsteinThe Careful Writer

,

Punctuation rules are designed to have sentences be read one way

Colon: a colon introduces a formal list, long quotation, equation, or definition.

Semi-Colon: a semi-colon either joins two independent clauses (closely linked in thought) or separates complex items in a list.

Dash: a dash acts as a parenthesis to separate items that cannot be separated by commas.

Comma: a comma separates details in a sentence.

A colon introduces a formal list, long quotation, equation, or definition

We studied five types of marsupials: opossums, bandicoots, koalas, wombats, and kangaroos.

The laboratory growth of this crystal made possible a new astronomical tool: a gamma-ray detector with high-energy resolution.

In formal writing, what is on the left side of the colon should stand alone as a separate sentence.

Once the list ends, the sentence ends.

Although equations are separated by white space, they should be treated as part of the sentence

To calculate the strain, , we used equation 1:

where is the stress estimated by FEPC and E is the modulus of elasticity of aluminum.

=E

(1),

Commas separate introductory phrases and clauses

After cooling the exhaust gases continue to expand.

After cooling, the exhaust gases continue to expand.

Commas separate parenthetical details

X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive require the operator’s attention.

X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive, require the operator’s attention.

Commas separate items in a list

Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred through spills when loading vehicles, spills and over-spills when filling the tanks, leaks from supply pipes and corroded welds, rust holes and cracks in the seams of the tanks themselves.

Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred through the following: spills when loading vehicles; spills and over-spills when filling the tanks; leaks from supply pipes; and corroded welds, rust holes, and cracks in the seams of the tanks themselves.

The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of acid rain (are / is) given in the next section.

So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has / have) remained constant.

The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from any damaging effects that a laser could cause.

In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the first series of computers was replaced.

are

Two common usage errors are possessives and subject-verb disagreements

has

person’s

boss’s

The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the document depend upon position

Introduction

This report presents a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller.

Results and Discussion

...Figure 1 shows the circuit that connects the light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller.

Conclusions

This report has presented a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller. As was shown in Figure 1, the circuit...

Use numerals when referring to measurements

When to write out numbers

Counting (one or two words) twenty-three gages

Informal measurements two hours

First word of sentence Thirty-three...

When to use numerals

Specific measurements 3 volts, 2 seconds, 1 m/s

Percentages 15 percent

Monetary figures $3000

Large numerals 5 million

Language:the Way We Use Words

Short words are the best, and short words when old are best of all.

Winston Churchill

Concise

Familiar

Clear

Fluid

Precise

Forthright

wordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordwordword

wordword

word

word wordwordwordwordwordwordword

word

wordword

word wordword

Generalities that are not anchored with specifics are soon forgotten

After recognizing some problems with the solar mirrors, we took subsequent corrective measures.

Trash

After finding that high winds (and not hail) had cracked the ten solar mirrors, we began stowing all mirrors in a horizontal position during thunderstorms.

For precise language, you should avoid over-specifying details

The number of particular hydrocarbon combinations in our study is enormous. For example, the number of possible C20H42 is 366,319 and the number for C40H82 is 62,491,178,805,831.

The number of hydrocarbon combinations in our study is enormous. For example, the number of possible C40H82 is more than 62 trillion.

For precision, you must choose theappropriate level of detail

Operations at the plant stopped momentarilybecause the thermal storage charging systemdesuperheater attemperator valve was replaced.

Operations at the plant stopped for 1.5 hoursso that a valve in the thermal storage systemcould be replaced.

R.I.P.

Complex wording buries ideas

This study will consider why current solar energysystems, such as Solar One, have not reached thecommercial stage and will find out what steps we can take to make these systems commercial.

The goal of this study is to develop a commerciali-zation strategy for solar energy systems by analyzingfactors impeding early commercial projects (i.e., SOLAR ONE) and by identifying the potential actionsthat can facilitate the viability of the projects.

Stacking adjectives before nouns swallows the ideas

Solar One is a solar-powered pilot plant located near Barstow, California. Solar One produces 10 megawatts of electricity by capturing solar energy in a central receiver design.

Solar One is a 10 megawatt solar thermal electric central receiver Barstow power pilot plant.

Complex sentences misdirect readers

The goal of the work was to confirm the nature of electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields at high pressures and electrode gaps which approach those obtained in engineering practice, prior to the deter-mination of the processes which set the criterion for breakdown in the above-mentioned gas in uniform and non-uniform fields of engineering significance.

At high pressures (760 torr) and typical electrode gapdistances (1 mm), the electrical breakdown of nitrogen was studied inuniform fields.

The more muddled the original, the more revisions are needed to streamline it

At high pressures (760 torr) and typical electrode gapdistances (1 mm), the electrical breakdown of nitrogen was studied inuniform fields.

In our study, we examined the electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields. For these experiments, the electrode gap distances were typical (1 mm), while the pressures were relatively high (760 torr).

An ambiguity is a group of words that can have more than one meaning

We examined neat methanol and ethanol and methanol and ethanol with 10% water.

We examined four fuels: neat methanol, neat ethanol, methanol with 10% water, and ethanol with 10% water.

Ambiguities occur for many reasons

?????????

???????As light hydrocarbons evaporate the oil vapor pressure falls.

Although engineers realized the design flaws in the Titanic soon after its sinking in 1912, the reasons for the severe damage inflicted by the iceberg remained a mystery until its discovery in 1985.

????

The proposed schedule is discussed below for the next four years.

about

cause; bring about

carry out

individual

can operate

use

Pretentious diction often causesproblems with tone

approximately

facilitate

implement

individualized

operationability

utilization

Weak verbs hide the energy of your work

A new process for eliminating nitrogen oxides from diesel exhaust engines is presented. Flow tube experiments to test this process are discussed. The percentage decrease in nitrogen oxide emissions is revealed.

This paper presents a new process for eliminating nitrogen oxides from the exhaust of diesel engines. To test this process, we performed experiments in flow tubes. These experiments revealed a 99 percent decrease in nitrogen oxide emissions.

A formal definition has a specific form

Bremsstrahlung: the radiation emitted by a charged particle that is accelerated in the Coulomb force field of a nucleus.

nounterm +

noun naming class to which noun term belongs

information to separate noun term from other terms in class

noun term

noun term

noun term

noun term noun term

noun term

noun term

To tighten your writing, eliminate redundancies and writing zeroes

Vibration measurements made in the course of the Titan flight test program were complicated by the presence of intense high-frequency excitation of the vehicle shell structure during the re-entry phaseof the flight.

Vibration measurements made in the Titan flight were complicated by intense high-frequency excitation of the vehicle shell during re-entry.

Examples anchor abstract generalities

By the late Middle Ages, cities throughout Europe were building Gothic cathedrals. The only way, however, that architects could test a new design was to build the cathedral, a process that took more than forty years. Unfortunately, many cathedrals caved in during or after construction. What took forty years to test in the Middle Ages could have been done in minutes on a supercomputer.

William Wilson

Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. A cloud of hot rock

and gas surged northward from its collapsing slope. The cloud

devastated more than 500 square kilometers of forests and

lakes. The effects of Mount St. Helens were well documented

with geophysical instruments. The origin of the eruption is not

well understood. Volcanic explosions are driven by a rapid

expansion of steam. Some scientists believe the steam comes

from groundwater heated by the magma. Other scientists

believe the steam comes from water originally dissolved in the

magma. We need to understand the source of steam in

volcanic eruptions. We need to determine how much water the

magma contains.

When sentence openers do not vary, the sentences do not seem to connect Z

Z

Z

Varying sentence openers allows for more kinds of transitions between sentences

Sentence #1 Sentence #2 Sentence #3

Topic of Sentence Subject

Time of action Prepositional Phrase

Location of action Prepositional Phrase

Manner of action Adverb

Subordinate action Dependent Clause

Reason for action Infinitive Phrase

Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm

Mount St. Helens erupted on May…

subject-verb

In minutes, the mountain emitted…

prepositional phrase

Recently, debate has arisen... adverb

Although the exact time of the eruption surprised scientists, evidence had been collected...

dependent clause

To understand the eruption, we have to...

infinitive phrase

Varying sentence openers enlivens the writing and allows connections

Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. Its slope

collapsing, the mountain emitted a cloud of hot rock and gas.

In minutes, the cloud devastated more than 500 square

kilometers of forests and lakes. Although the effects of the

eruption were well documented, the origin is not well

understood. Volcanic explosions are driven by a rapid

expansion of steam. Recently, debate has arisen over the

source for the steam. Is it groundwater heated by magma or

water originally dissolved in the magma itself? To understand

the source of steam in volcanic eruptions, we need to

determine how much water the magma contains.

The Craft

of Editing

Editing isn’t a cosmetic process. It’s a thinking process.

Richard Rhodes, authorMaking of the Atomic Bomb