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1
Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations
Section One—How Civilization Began the Paleolithic Era Unlike modern humans, early people
who lived in the Paleolithic Era did not live in cities. These
people did not know how to plant seeds to make food
grow, and were not capable of taming wild animals to
raise for food. As a result, they were nomads who had to
be able to move around wherever food could be
obtained. Since they had to be ready to follow the
animals they hunted or to go where wild plants could be
found, these early humans could not accumulate very
many possessions or build permanent structures. They also
had to spend most of their time hunting or gathering food,
so they had little time to spare to make art or create a
system of writing.
How Historians Know If these people lived so long
ago, and had no system of
writing, how do historians
know anything about them?
Historians and archaeologists
dig for artifacts left by early
people, and then make
inferences about their lives
based on these primary sources. In reference to later time
periods, historians will combine what they can find out
from artifacts with information from other types of written
primary sources. Some of the primary sources they use
include diaries, newspapers, government records, and
eyewitness accounts. Historians then use the information
they obtain from primary sources to create secondary
sources, such as History books and documentaries.
the Neolithic Revolution Around 10,000 BCE, people in the Arabian peninsula began to figure out that they could
plant seeds to grow food. They also learned to
domesticate, or tame, animals. This development is called
the Neolithic Revolution. Gradually, this new method of
food production began to spread, and the people who
adopted agriculture no longer had to worry about
wandering around to find food. As a result, they could
stay in one place and build permanent structures. This
discovery of agriculture is what allowed civilization to
begin.
The Paleolithic Era was a
time period from about 2.6
million years ago to 10,000
BCE during which humans
began to use stone tools.
‘Paleolithic’ literally means
‘old stone age.’
Nomads are people who
do not live in a permanent
spot and instead move
from place to place.
Artifacts are everyday
objects left behind by
historical people, which
historians use to make
inferences about their lives.
Primary sources are
historical sources that
come from the time period
being studied. Examples
include artifacts, diaries,
newspapers, government
records, and eyewitness
accounts.
Secondary sources are
historical sources written by
historians based on what
they have learned from
various primary sources.
Examples include History
books and historical
documentaries.
illustration of Paleolithic blades
The Neolithic Era has
different dates for different
civilizations, because each
discovered agriculture at a
different time.
Approximate dates for this
period are 10,000 BCE—
3000 BCE.
Chapter O
ne—Ancient C
iviliza
tions; S
ection One—How Civiliza
tion Began
1.1
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1.1
Accounting for Dates in History ‘BC’ stands for ‘before Christ’ and ‘AD’ stands for ‘anno Domini,’ or ‘the year of our
Lord.’ These abbreviations have been used for a long time to
account for time when studying history.
BC dates are telling us how many years before the birth of Christ
something happened, so they count down, like negative
numbers. For example, 4000 BC stands for 4000 years before
Christ, so it is longer ago than 3000 years before Christ.
AD dates are telling us how many years after the birth of Christ
something happened, so AD dates count forward, like positive
numbers.
Recently, some scholars have suggested that the use of the BC/
AD system is ethnocentric, since not all people in the world are
Christian. So now, instead of BC and AD, historians have begun
using BCE & CE. ‘BCE’ stands for ‘before common era’ and
‘CE’ stands for ‘common era.’ BCE dates count down and CE
dates count forward. Also, if a date is mentioned without ‘BCE’
or ‘CE’ written after it, it is assumed that it is a CE date.
The Features of Civilization Once people had discovered agriculture, they could stay in one place, and did not have to
devote all their time to finding food. This allowed civilizations to
develop. All civilizations share the following eight features:
Cities People began to live in larger settlements. Most early
cities were situated near a river or other large water source.
1000
BCE
BCE dates count down,
like negative numbers.
2000
BCE
3000
BCE
4000
BCE
1
CE
2000
CE
1000
CE
CE dates count forward,
like positive numbers.
Ethnocentrism refers to
the study of history
from the point of view
of a particular ethnic
or cultural group. For
example, people of
European descent
who studied only the
history of Europe while
ignoring the history of
the rest of the world
would be considered
ethnocentric.
Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section One—How Civilization Began
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3
Job Specialization In the Paleolithic Era, each person or family
took care of most every task themselves. In cities, individuals
would do one or two tasks that they were good at (such as
baking, shoemaking, carpentry, etc.) and then trade with
others to get what they needed.
Social Classes Different groups, or social classes, usually
based on occupation, formed within early cities. Each social
class had its own privileges and obligations.
Writing Early civilizations
needed to be able to keep
records, so systems of writing
developed. Most early systems
of writing used pictographs.
Because of these complex
systems, it was difficult and time
-consuming to learn to read &
write. Very few people were
literate, and scribes usually
enjoyed high social status.
Complex Religion Most early civilizations’ religions were
polytheistic.
Centralized Government Governments originally developed
to make sure that food and water were distributed fairly, then
began to perform other functions, such as keeping order and
protecting property.
Public Works Governments would pay for large projects, such
as roads, dams, and irrigation systems, that would benefit
everyone.
Arts & Architecture
Permanent structures
were now more
practical since people
were no longer
wandering around in
search of food. Also,
individuals did not need
to spend all their time
looking for food, so they
had extra time to
create artworks for
purely aesthetic
reasons.
Sumerian tablet
with cuneiform writing
from a Sumerian banner
Pictographs are
symbols which stand
for a word or an idea.
As there is a different
symbol for every word,
alphabets which use
pictographs can have
thousands of
characters.
Polytheistic religions
have many gods.
Root words: poly—
many; the—god(s).
Public works are
structures paid for by
the government that
everyone can use.
The main purpose of
an item created for
aesthetic reasons is
simply to be beautiful.
Chapter O
ne—Ancient C
iviliza
tions; S
ection One—How Civiliza
tion Began
1.1
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Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Two—Mesopotamian Civilization
Section Two—Mesopotamian Civilization
The earliest civilizations developed around 4000 B.C. in the
modern-day Middle East in an area known as Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia ‘Mesopotamia’
means ‘between the rivers’ in Greek.
It refers to the area between the
Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the
Middle East. Sometimes this area is
called ‘the Fertile Crescent’
because it is shaped like, well, a
crescent. Others call this area ‘the
cradle of civilization’ because it is where
civilization began. It makes sense that the first civilization would
be near two rivers, since farming is necessary to begin civilization,
and farming requires a source of water.
Ancient Civilizations in Mesopotamia Over time, many
different civilizations have settled in Mesopotamia. The ancient
civilizations there, in chronological order, included Sumer,
Babylon, Assyria, Chaldea, and Persia.
Sumerian City-States The earliest Mesopotamian civilization,
Sumer, was divided into city-states. Each city-state had a king
who ruled along with the advice of noblemen. Sumerian city-
states included Ur, Uruk, Kish, and Lagash.
Sumerian Writing The Sumerian tale the Epic
of Gilgamesh is the oldest known piece of fictional literature in the world. It tells a story
of a hero, Gilgamesh, who is trying to find
immortality. In one part of the story, he meets
a man who was instructed by the gods to
build a boat because a flood is coming.
The portion of the Epic of Gilgamesh that
refers to the flood is similar to the story of
Noah’s flood in the Hebrew scriptures. Many
ancient cultures have such stories about
floods. Some historians believe that this is
because there was a catastrophic flood
sometime around 5600 BCE. Early people
may have told these tales as a way to explain
the purpose of natural occurrences that they
weren’t able to understand scientifically.
the Fertile Crescent
Memory Trick To
remember the order
of Mesopotamian
civilizations, think
about how cuddly a
baby sumo wrestler
would be.
Sumo Sumer
Babies Babylon
Are Assyria
Cuddly Chaldea
People Persia
1.2
Sumerian frieze
showing a scene
from the Epic of
Gilgamesh
A city-state is a city
that governs itself
more or less
independently. It’s
as if each city is a
separate country.
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5
Sumerians used a pictographic alphabet called
cuneiform to record their literature and for other
writing purposes. The Babylonians and Assyrians also
used this alphabet.
Babylonian Law In Babylonia, King
Hammurabi put his code of law into
effect. Hammurabi’s Code is one of
the earliest codes of law and also
one of the earliest surviving written
documents.
In the code, laws and punishments
were set out clearly so that potential
law-breakers might be deterred from
misbehaving. Punishments differed
according to the law-breaker’s
social status. Upper-class people
usually had to pay fines. Lower-class
people suffered physical
consequences for their misbehavior.
Many of the punishments for lower-class people followed the
’eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth’ principle. This means that the
punishment for breaking a law was related to the crime. (For
example, a thief might have a hand cut off; a liar might have a
tongue cut out.)
Assyrian Warfare The Assyrians, a very warlike people,
conquered Babylonia around 1200 BCE. They are best known for
their efficient army, and were the first to use cavalry and to
recognize the advantages of iron weapons (rather than bronze
weapons).
Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian
Architecture The Sumerians,
Babylonians, and Assyrians all built
ziggurats, which were terraced
pyramids that housed religious shrines
at the top.
Chaldean Copycats The Chaldeans ruled the Fertile Crescent
from about 626 BCE to 539 BCE. The most notable Chaldean
king, Nebuchadnezzar, was very interested in reviving traditions
from the Babylonian time period. In fact, Chaldean culture was
so similar to Babylonian culture that many historians refer to the
Chaldeans as ‘Neo-Babylonians.’ (The Latin root ’neo’ means
’new.’)
Chapter O
ne—Ancient C
iviliza
tions; S
ection Tw
o—Mesopotamian Civiliza
tion
1.2
Cuneiform is Greek
for ‘wedge-shaped.’
This is an accurate
name for the
Sumerian alphabet,
since many of the
characters have
triangular elements.
Deterrence occurs
when people are
made aware that a
strict punishment will
be administered if
they commit a
crime. This causes
them not to want to
commit the crime
because they don’t
want to be
punished.
Memory Trick The
main thing you’ve
got to remember
about the Assyrians is
that they were
warlike, so... don’t
say it out loud or
anything, but look at
the first three letters
of the word
‘Assyrian,’ and
you’ve got a pretty
decent way to
remember that the
Assyrians liked
conflict!
Cavalry soldiers fight
while mounted on
horseback.
Terracing refers to
the carving of stair-
stepped levels into a
steep slope.
a ziggurat
cuneiform script
King Hammurabi, ‘the Law-giver’
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1.2
Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Two—Mesopotamian Civilization
Persian Empire Around 550 BCE,
Cyrus, the chief of a small
Mesopotamian tribe, began to
conquer the area around the Tigris
and Euphrates. He did this because
he felt it was his duty to spread his
religion, Zoroastrianism, as far as he
could. In doing so, he created the
Persian Empire.
Around 520 BCE, the Persian king
Darius divided the empire into 120
satrapies, or small states. Each
satrapy was ruled by a governor
called a satrap. This division of the
empire made it more efficient and
easier to govern.
Mesopotamian Currency & Trade Most of the economies of the
Mesopotamian civilizations were based on farming and used a
barter system for trade. In 546 BCE, the Persian king Cyrus
conquered Lydia, a small kingdom in modern-day Turkey. The
Lydians were the first to use coins for trade, and so the Persians
adopted the use of coins instead of bartering in order to trade.
Phoenician Sea Traders Unlike the other civilizations in this
section, the Phoenicians never controlled the entire Fertile
Crescent. They were primarily sea traders who sailed and traded
all around the Mediterranean Sea (a little southwest of
Mesopotamia). As they traveled, they established colonies, such
as Carthage, in Mediterranean port cities. This gave them a
unique opportunity to promote cultural diffusion.
The most important idea that the Phoenicians spread was that of
the phonetic alphabet. In this type of alphabet, each character
stood for a sound. Characters could then be put together to
make words. This was much easier than using a pictographic
alphabet, in which there was a
different character for each
word. Most languages have
thousands of words, so that
would require people to learn
thousands of characters. In
contrast, the Phoenician
alphabet had only twenty-two
symbols. In fact, our own
alphabet is derived from that of
the Phoenicians.
Zoroastrianism is a
religion which
originated in ancient
Persia. It emphasizes
the importance of
the triumph of good
over evil.
In a barter economy,
people trade goods
directly for other
goods instead of
using money. For
example, a person
might trade a
chicken for a bushel
of wheat.
King Darius the Great
Cultural diffusion is
the spread of ideas
from one place to
another.
Phoenician alphabet
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7
Chapter O
ne—Ancient C
iviliza
tions; S
ection Th
ree—Egyptia
n Civiliza
tion
Section Three—Egyptian Civilization
Importance of the Nile Like all other early
civilizations in the Eastern
hemisphere, Egyptian
civilization sprang up around
a river, the Nile. Rivers were
necessary for all early
civilizations to provide
irrigation for crops, but the
Nile was especially
important for Egypt since
most of Egypt is a desert.
The Greek historian
Herodotus summed it up well
when he wrote, “Egypt is the
gift of the Nile.” By this he
meant that, without the Nile,
there could be no civilization
in Egypt.
Egyptians divided their land
into two categories, and felt
that each served an
important purpose. ’Black
land’ was the fertile soil around the Nile, which was used for food
production. ’Red land’ was the dry, barren desert that surrounded
the black land. This seemingly useless terrain actually helped to
protect Egypt from invasion, since it would have been difficult for
armies to cross the desert. Additionally, many precious metals and
minerals could be mined from the red land, providing Egypt with
trade goods.
Egyptian Historical Records The Egyptians left behind lots of primary sources which historians can study to learn about their
civilization. Official Egyptian
records were carved into
clay tablets or onto
monuments in hieroglyphics,
a pictographic alphabet.
Egyptians also used papyrus
for other records, but not as
many of these records have
survived.
1.3
A barren piece of
land will not
produce crops.
Hieroglyphics were
pictographic
symbols which the
Egyptians used for
record-keeping.
Papyrus is a reedy
plant that grows in
Egypt. It was used
to make a paper-
like substance for
record-keeping. Egyptian hieroglyphics
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8
Historians are able to read hieroglyphics because of the Rosetta
Stone. This stone was dug up in 1799 by French soldiers who were
laying the foundation for a fort in Egypt. Because there is a
message written on the stone in both Greek and hieroglyphics,
scholars who knew Greek were able to decode the hieroglyphics.
Egyptian Society and Economy Like most ancient
civilizations, Egypt had a hierarchical social structure. At the top of
society was the pharaoh, who was not only the monarch, but also
considered to be a living god. Next were government officials and
priests, and then there was a large middle class composed of
merchants, soldiers, farmers, and artisans. Most Egyptians
belonged to this class, and farming was the most usual
occupation. At the bottom of the social ladder were slaves and
servants.
Because of its location near the Mediterranean & Red Seas, it was
easy for Egyptians to trade with other civilizations nearby, such as
Nubia, Palestine, and Greece. Exports included grain, linen, and
papyrus; imports included lumber, gold, and incense. The female
pharaoh Hatshepsut is especially well-known for promoting trade.
Egyptian Religion Traditional Egyptian religion was both
polytheistic and ethical.
Important gods included Anubis,
Osiris, and Horus. It was believed
that when people died, they
went to a place where their
behavior in life would be judged.
If they were deemed to have
been good, they would spend
eternity in paradise. If they were
deemed to have been evil, then
a crocodile-headed dog called
the Eater of the Dead would consume their souls.
Deceased Egyptians were buried with all of their possessions,
because it was believed that they would need them in the
afterlife. Most corpses were buried with a copy of the Book of the Dead in their arms. The Book of the Dead was a sort of manual to
help a person get to paradise in the afterlife, and contained
instructions on how to live a virtuous life.
Short-lived Monotheism One pharaoh, Ahkenaton, embraced a
monotheistic religion in which only one god, the sun god, was
worshipped. But after Ahkenaton’s reign, Egyptians quickly
returned to their traditional polytheism.
Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Three—Egyptian Civilization
1.3
Ammit, the Eater of the Dead
In a hierarchical
society, some
social classes are
higher than others,
and higher social
classes have fewer
members.
A pharaoh was an
Egyptian god-king
(or god-queen,
sometimes).
Artisans are skilled
workers who
create useful
objects, such as
weapons, shoes,
prepared food, or
tools.
In an ethical
religion, proper
behavior is
considered
important.
Followers of such
religions usually
follow a set of rules
that tell them what
is acceptable.
A virtuous person
makes an effort to
do what is
considered to be
right or good.
In a monotheistic
religion, only one
god is worshipped.
Root words:
mono—one; the—
god.
Memory Trick
‘Hatshepsut’
sounds like ‘hot
sheep suit.’
Imagine that if you
were wearing a
sheep suit, you
would be hot and
glad to trade with
someone else.
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Chapter O
ne—Ancient C
iviliza
tions; S
ection Th
ree—Egyptia
n Civiliza
tion
1.3
Mummification & the Pyramids Due to the Egyptian idea that a
person needed all of his or her possessions in the afterlife, including
body and organs, the process of mummification developed to
preserve these items. Mummification was very expensive,
however, so only pharaohs and very wealthy nobles could afford
it.
Pyramids were built as burial tombs for pharaohs. The first Egyptian
pyramids had stepped sides, like the ziggurats of Mesopotamia.
Later pyramids had smooth sides. The world’s largest pyramid, at
Giza, was built around 2550 BCE by Pharaoh Khufu.
When a pharaoh died, his
mummified body would be
enclosed in a decorated
coffin, called a
sarcophagus. The
sarcophagus would then be
placed inside the pyramid,
along with all of the
pharaoh’s worldly goods.
Most of the largest pyramids were robbed before modern times, so
historians couldn’t be sure what kinds of items might have been
placed inside. But in 1922, the undisturbed tomb of King
Tutankhamen was discovered. The tomb contained huge
amounts of precious objects, even though King Tut was only a
minor pharaoh. We can only imagine what must have been in the
tombs of the major pharaohs.
Egyptian Art Many examples
of Egyptian art are still around
today, in part because Egypt’s
dry climate is good for
preserving old things. Surviving
artworks include sculptures,
friezes, and paintings. The
artworks portray pharaohs, the
gods, and sometimes even
everyday life. Egyptian art
features stylized bodies. They
look unnatural and are often
posed awkwardly, with their feet
and heads pointed to the sides,
but with their chests turned
toward the front.
King Tut’s sarcophagus
Egyptian painting with stylized bodies
The mummified
remains of a
pharaoh were put
inside a
sarcophagus
made of precious
metals and carved
in the pharaoh’s
likeness.
A frieze is a
sculpture carved
into a wall.
Stylized bodies in
art do not look
natural and are
often strangely
posed.
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1.4
Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Four—
Hebrew Civilization
Section Four—Hebrew Civilization Hebrew civilization is considered to have
begun with the patriarch Abraham. The Torah
is the main source for information about
Abraham and the other patriarchs of Ancient
Israel. Since it is a religious text, there is some
controversy about the accuracy of the
information. When we study the ancient
Hebrews, it is important to keep this in mind.
The information presented in this packet is
considered by historians to be highly
probable, taking into account the non-
religious accounts of other civilizations that
existed at the same time.
Geography & Contact
with Other Cultures Hebrew civilization began
in the area surrounding
modern-day Jerusalem,
near the Eastern coast of
the Mediterranean. Most
of Ancient Israel enjoyed a
temperate climate that
was perfect for a pastoral
lifestyle.
Due to their location near
the Mediterranean, the
Hebrews came into
contact with many other
civilizations, such as
Assyria, Chaldea, Egypt,
and Rome.
The Origins of Judaism The ancient Hebrews were unique among early civilizations in that they practiced ethical
monotheism—meaning that they worshipped one God and felt
that behavior was important. They believed that they had a
special covenant with their god, whom they called Yahweh. If
they worshipped only Yahweh and followed his laws, then
someday he would lead them to a promised land.
Within the Torah are the Ten Commandments, which governed Hebrew society. Unlike Hammurabi’s Code, the Ten
Commandments did not specify how individuals would be
punished if they broke the law. However, many of the same ideas
prevail in both documents. Each promotes respect for elders,
and prohibits killing and theft.
a Torah scroll
A patriarch is the
male head of a
family or tribe. In a
patriarchal society,
fathers and
husbands have
power over their
families. Root
words: ‘patria’—
father; ‘arch’—
government
The Torah is one of
the holy texts of the
Hebrews. It
corresponds
roughly to the Old
Testament of the
Christian Bible.
In a pastoral
society, the raising
of herd animals, like
sheep or goats, is
the main method of
food production.
Root word: pasture
A covenant is a
binding agreement.
To prohibit is to
forbid something.
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1.4
Chapter O
ne—Ancient C
iviliza
tions; S
ection Four—
Hebrew Civiliza
tion
the Kingdom of Israel In most civilizations ruled by a
monarch, the monarch is
simply born into a royal
family. However, in Ancient
Israel, a prophet was asked
to appoint the first two kings
of Israel, Saul and David. The
fact that a religious figure
was made responsible for
selecting the ruler shows how
important religion was in
Hebrew society.
Both Saul and David were
concerned primarily with war,
as Israel was under attack by
neighboring tribes during their
reigns. After these attackers
were dealt with, King David
established the capital at Jerusalem around 1000 BCE. The next
king, Solomon, ordered the building of a holy temple to house
important religious documents. After Solomon’s death in 930 BCE,
the kingdom of Israel was split into the kingdoms of Israel & Judah.
the Diaspora The kingdom of Israel was conquered by Assyrians in
722 BCE, and the kingdom of Judah fell to Chaldeans in 586 BCE.
As a result of these conquests, many Hebrews were forced to
move to other areas. This spreading out of the Jews is referred to
as the Diaspora (pronounced die-ass-puh-ruh).
illustration of what Solomon’s Temple may have
looked like based on descriptions in the Torah
King Saul in battle
A diaspora is the
spreading out or
scattering of a
group of people.
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12
To decipher means
to de-code or
figure out.
Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Five—Indian Civilization
Section Five—Indian Civilization
Early Indian civilizations grew up around two major Indian rivers—
the Indus River and the Ganges River. Both rivers originate in the
Himalayan mountain range, and carry sediment down into the
plains around the rivers. This sediment fertilizes the soil and makes
for very fertile farmland.
Harappan Civilization The earliest civilization in
India was situated on the
banks of the Indus River.
This civilization flourished
from about 2700 BCE to
1900 BCE. It is known as
Harappan India because
one of the main cities in
the civilization was called
Harappa. Another major
city from this civilization,
Mohenjo-Daro, has also
been unearthed by
archaeologists.
Harappan Writing The
scholars who excavated
Harappa and Mohenjo-
Daro found many objects
with writing on them.
However, nothing like the
Rosetta Stone has been
found to help us decipher
the writing. As a result, historians must make inferences about life in
Harappan India based on artifacts alone. These public works also
must have originated from the orders of a government.
Early Indus valley people also left behind
artwork and other objects that tell us
much about their civilizations. Some
stone seals from the city have pictures of
musical instruments are inscribed on
them, and game pieces and children’s
toys have also been found. These
objects tell us that the Harappan people
had free time to enjoy—one of the
benefits of civilization.
game pieces from
Mohenjo Daro
Little pieces of dirt
and rock are
referred to as
sediment.
To excavate is to
carefully dig
something up.
1.5
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1.5
Chapter O
ne—Ancient C
iviliza
tions; S
ection Five—Indian Civiliza
tion
Harappan Ruins and
Artifacts Many clues from
the ruins of Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro indicate that
both cities had strong
governments. We can infer
this because the cities were
well-organized, with straight
streets running at right
angles to each other.
Human beings don’t
naturally build structures in
straight lines—they must be
organized and directed to
do so by some authority or
government. Additionally,
within the ruins are military
forts and sewer systems,
which would also require government control.
Vedic Civilization Vedic civilization developed around the Ganges river from around 1500 BCE to 500 BCE. It takes its
name from the Vedas, a series of Hindu religious documents,
which were written during the time period.
Aryans and Dravidians Some evidence suggests that the
Aryans, a people from the area of modern-day southeast
Russia, migrated to India around 1700 BCE. These Aryans
settled around the Ganges River and may have conquered
the people who already lived there, the Dravidians. However
they got there, it is certain that the Aryan people considered
themselves superior to the Dravidians. Dravidians were placed
at the bottom of the social ladder in Vedic civilization.
Hinduism and the Caste System The
religion of the Vedic people was an
early version of Hinduism. This involved
the worship of multiple deities, including
Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Instructions
for rituals and sacrifices used to worship
these gods were included in the Vedas.
A class of priests, called Brahmins
(pronounced brah-menz), helped the
people to correctly interpret the Vedas
and perform rituals properly.
According to the Vedas, an organized
society was important. Vedic people
aerial view of the ruins of Harappa
ancient Vishnu figurine
A deity is a god or
goddess.
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14
were divided into four social classes. The highest class was made
up of Brahmins, who were priests. Next were Kshatriyas
(pronounced kuh-shot-ree-uhs), who were warriors. Third were
Vaisyas (pronounced vizh-uhs), who were herders and merchants.
At the very bottom were Sudras, who were servants. Aryans made
up the upper three classes, while all Dravidians were classed as
sudras. This social hierarchy eventually evolved into the caste
system.
Belief in reincarnation is an important aspect of Hinduism.
Reincarnation is the idea that the soul is born again and again into
different bodies. By following the laws of karma and dharma, a
person can be reincarnated into a higher caste. (This is the only
way to change one’s caste, by the way.) The ultimate goal of
Hinduism is to achieve moksha, which is a release from the
suffering of constant life and rebirth.
The concepts of karma
and dharma actually
helped to reinforce the
caste system. If a
person was born into a
low caste, then it was
assumed that he or she
had not followed the
laws of karma and
dharma in a previous
life. If a person was
born into a high caste,
it would be assumed
that he or she had
been especially
virtuous in a past life. In
this way, one’s social
status was viewed as a
product of one’s own
choices.
Though not from an authentic ancient Indian
source, this is a pretty good illustration of the
concept of karma.
Karma
Memory Trick
Imagine a kshatriya
shooting you, then
saying, ’Ha ha, I
k-shot-ya!’ That will
help you remember
that they were
warriors.
‘Vaisya’ starts with
a V, and so does
’vendor,’ so you
can remember that
they were
merchants who sold
things.
Karma is the idea
that if a person
does bad things,
then bad things will
eventually happen
to him or her, and
vice versa.
To follow the law of
dharma a person
must fulfill his or her
obligations, which
will be affected by
caste, gender, and
age.
Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Five—Indian Civilization
1.5
Brahmins—priests
Kshatriyas—warriors
Vaisyas—merchants & herders
Sudras—non-Aryan servants
the Caste System
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15
Xia, Shang, and Zhou China
Section Six—Ancient Chinese Civilization
Geography and Food Production Ancient Chinese civilization developed along the Huang-He, or Yellow River. (It is sometimes
called the Yellow River because of its yellowish sediment, called
loess.) This area had a warm, wet climate, which was perfect for
growing rice. As a result, this food became a staple of the Chinese
diet. There wasn’t much land suitable for grazing cattle or sheep,
but the early Chinese were also able to raise pigs and poultry as
sources of meat.
Chinese Dynasties Events in Chinese history are grouped according to dynasty. Each dynasty is named after the ruling
family of the time period. The dynasties of Ancient China were the
Xia (pronounced ‘zhee-uh’), Shang, and Zhou (pronounced ‘zho’).
Mythical Xia Dynasty? The first dynasty described in ancient Chinese historical texts was the Xia dynasty. Historians and
archaeologists are divided on the issue of whether this dynasty
actually existed, or was simply a mythical tale. If it did exist, it
would have been from approximately 2070 BCE to 1700 BCE.
Some artifacts have been found that date from this time period,
but since no Xia written records have ever been found, we cannot
confirm whether these artifacts belong to the people described in
the ancient historical texts.
Shang Dynasty The Shang Dynasty ruled the area around the Huang He from 1700 BCE to 1122 BCE. Much of what we know
about the Shang comes from the ruins of a Shang royal city found
near Anyang in the early 20th century.
Chapter O
ne—Ancient C
iviliza
tions; S
ection Six—Chinese Civiliza
tion
1.6
Staple crops are
crops produced in
large quantities
that form the main
part of a people’s
diet.
A dynasty is a
period of time
during which
members of one
family are in
power.
Memory Trick To
remember all of
the dynasties of
Chinese history in
order, imagine a
group of zebras
who have
become addicted
to huffing (which is
a terrible idea,
btw) and have
decided to go to
rehab.
Seven Shang
Zebras Zhou
Quit Qin
Huffing Han
The Tang
Stuff Song
Yesterday Yuan
Morning Ming
Or, you can sing,
to the tune of
‘Frere Jacques:’
♪Shang Zhou Qin
Han
Shang Zhou Qin
Han
Tay-ang Song
Tay-ang Song
Yuaaaaaaan Ming
Yuaaaaaaan Ming
Mao Zedong.
Mao Zedong.♫
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16
Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Six—Chinese Civilization
1.6
Shang Religion Ancient Chinese religion
was polytheistic. This religion included
veneration of ancestors. It was believed
that the deceased ancestors had
influence with the gods, and so it was
important to honor them. The Shang did
this with shrines and offerings to the
ancestors.
Shang Writing Many oracle bones have
been found in Shang archaeological sites.
The Shang used these to ask questions of
the gods. A priest or king would ask the
question, then heat the bone (usually a large, flat bone, like the
shoulder-blade of a cow) until it cracked. Then he would interpret
the cracks and write the interpretation on the
bone. These oracle bones are important because
they are the earliest examples of Chinese writing.
Shang Art and Technology Many of the artifacts
from the Shang period are made of bronze or jade
stone, which indicates that the Shang had
knowledge of metal– and stone-working
technology. They made weapons, vases,
containers, and figurines from these materials.
Zhou Dynasty The Zhou dynasty, which lasted from about 1045
BCE to 256 BCE, is sometimes called ‘the Warring States’ period.
This is because many warlords were fighting each other for power.
As a result of all this disorder, many theories arose which supported
different ideas of government.
the Mandate of Heaven The Chinese considered their king to have
been chosen by the gods. In order to rule, the Zhou had to
overthrow the Shang, which might have been considered to be an
affront to the gods. In order to justify having usurped the god-
chosen Shang king, the Zhou created the idea of the Mandate of
Heaven.
According to the Mandate of Heaven, the gods chose a ruling
family, who had the right to rule as long as they governed the
people fairly and well. If this family did not fulfill their duties, then
the gods would send some kind of catastrophe (usually a natural
disaster like a flood or earthquake) to show their displeasure.
When the gods revoked the Mandate of Heaven from one ruling
family, it was acceptable for a new family to overthrow the old
one, thus beginning a new dynasty.
an oracle bone
jade figurine
To venerate
something is to
treat it with great
respect or honor.
An oracle is a
person who can
see the future. So
the name ‘oracle
bones’ tells us
exactly what they
were—bones used
to predict the
future.
An affront is a insult
or offensive action.
When a rightful ruler
has been usurped,
this means he or
she has been
overthrown by
someone else, who
then takes the
ruler’s place.
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17
Chapter O
ne—Ancient C
iviliza
tions; S
ection Six—Chinese Civiliza
tion
1.6
Confucianism Confucius, who
lived from 551 to 479 BCE,
developed a set of ideas on
how an orderly society should
work. His main idea was that if
everyone behaved according
to his or her place or role, then
life would go smoothly for all.
According to Confucius, there
are five relationships. Most
relationships included a
superior person and an inferior
person. It was the superior
person’s job to set a good example and use their authority justly
and kindly. The inferior person was supposed to respect and obey
the superior.
The most important relationship of a person’s life was that among
children and their parents. A dutiful child practiced filial piety—
respect, honor, and obedience for parents.
According to this model, the best kind of government would be
one in which the ruler fulfilled the duties of the superior person in a
relationship. Good rulers should rule by example and treat their
subjects fairly.
Legalism Another thinker who spread his ideas about proper
government during the Zhou period was Hanfeizi. His system of
government was called Legalism. According to Hanfeizi, people
were naturally stupid and likely to misbehave. They could not
make good decisions for themselves, so a good ruler must make
very strict laws and enforce them with harsh punishments.
Daoism Laozi, who disseminated the
philosophy of Daoism, had ideas that
contrasted sharply with those of Hanfeizi.
Daoists believed that the world is full of
opposites, and that the way to find harmony
was to live naturally and achieve balance
between contrasting forces, such as light and
dark, good and evil, or beauty and ugliness.
This idea is symbolized by the yin and yang.
Laozi believed that government was
unnatural, and that having too many laws and restrictions would
only lead people to rebel. Therefore, he considered the best rulers
to be the ones who did not rule much.
The yin and yang
symbolizes balance
between opposites.
Confucius
The five
relationships were
those between
ruler and subject,
husband and wife,
parent and child,
older sibling and
younger sibling,
and friend and
friend. The only
equal relationship
was that between
friends.
The root words of
filial piety tell us
what it means.
The Latin word
‘filius’ means ‘son,’
and to be pious is
to be good,
honorable, or
virtuous.
To disseminate
information is to
spread it around or
distribute it.
Memory Trick
‘Lao’ rhymes with
‘Dao,’ so that can
help you to
remember that
Laozi founded
Daoism. Also, it’s a
pretty lousy way to
govern (if you ask
me), and ‘lousy’
sounds like ‘Laozi.’
Memory Trick
‘Hanfeizi’ just
SOUNDS angry
and mean, so
imagine a strict
ruler shouting it as
he beats someone
with a bamboo
stick (which is how
Legalists punished
wrongdoers).
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