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1

Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations

Section One—How Civilization Began the Paleolithic Era Unlike modern humans, early people

who lived in the Paleolithic Era did not live in cities. These

people did not know how to plant seeds to make food

grow, and were not capable of taming wild animals to

raise for food. As a result, they were nomads who had to

be able to move around wherever food could be

obtained. Since they had to be ready to follow the

animals they hunted or to go where wild plants could be

found, these early humans could not accumulate very

many possessions or build permanent structures. They also

had to spend most of their time hunting or gathering food,

so they had little time to spare to make art or create a

system of writing.

How Historians Know If these people lived so long

ago, and had no system of

writing, how do historians

know anything about them?

Historians and archaeologists

dig for artifacts left by early

people, and then make

inferences about their lives

based on these primary sources. In reference to later time

periods, historians will combine what they can find out

from artifacts with information from other types of written

primary sources. Some of the primary sources they use

include diaries, newspapers, government records, and

eyewitness accounts. Historians then use the information

they obtain from primary sources to create secondary

sources, such as History books and documentaries.

the Neolithic Revolution Around 10,000 BCE, people in the Arabian peninsula began to figure out that they could

plant seeds to grow food. They also learned to

domesticate, or tame, animals. This development is called

the Neolithic Revolution. Gradually, this new method of

food production began to spread, and the people who

adopted agriculture no longer had to worry about

wandering around to find food. As a result, they could

stay in one place and build permanent structures. This

discovery of agriculture is what allowed civilization to

begin.

The Paleolithic Era was a

time period from about 2.6

million years ago to 10,000

BCE during which humans

began to use stone tools.

‘Paleolithic’ literally means

‘old stone age.’

Nomads are people who

do not live in a permanent

spot and instead move

from place to place.

Artifacts are everyday

objects left behind by

historical people, which

historians use to make

inferences about their lives.

Primary sources are

historical sources that

come from the time period

being studied. Examples

include artifacts, diaries,

newspapers, government

records, and eyewitness

accounts.

Secondary sources are

historical sources written by

historians based on what

they have learned from

various primary sources.

Examples include History

books and historical

documentaries.

illustration of Paleolithic blades

The Neolithic Era has

different dates for different

civilizations, because each

discovered agriculture at a

different time.

Approximate dates for this

period are 10,000 BCE—

3000 BCE.

Chapter O

ne—Ancient C

iviliza

tions; S

ection One—How Civiliza

tion Began

1.1


2

1.1

Accounting for Dates in History ‘BC’ stands for ‘before Christ’ and ‘AD’ stands for ‘anno Domini,’ or ‘the year of our

Lord.’ These abbreviations have been used for a long time to

account for time when studying history.

BC dates are telling us how many years before the birth of Christ

something happened, so they count down, like negative

numbers. For example, 4000 BC stands for 4000 years before

Christ, so it is longer ago than 3000 years before Christ.

AD dates are telling us how many years after the birth of Christ

something happened, so AD dates count forward, like positive

numbers.

Recently, some scholars have suggested that the use of the BC/

AD system is ethnocentric, since not all people in the world are

Christian. So now, instead of BC and AD, historians have begun

using BCE & CE. ‘BCE’ stands for ‘before common era’ and

‘CE’ stands for ‘common era.’ BCE dates count down and CE

dates count forward. Also, if a date is mentioned without ‘BCE’

or ‘CE’ written after it, it is assumed that it is a CE date.

The Features of Civilization Once people had discovered agriculture, they could stay in one place, and did not have to

devote all their time to finding food. This allowed civilizations to

develop. All civilizations share the following eight features:

Cities People began to live in larger settlements. Most early

cities were situated near a river or other large water source.

1000

BCE

BCE dates count down,

like negative numbers.

2000

BCE

3000

BCE

4000

BCE

1

CE

2000

CE

1000

CE

CE dates count forward,

like positive numbers.

Ethnocentrism refers to

the study of history

from the point of view

of a particular ethnic

or cultural group. For

example, people of

European descent

who studied only the

history of Europe while

ignoring the history of

the rest of the world

would be considered

ethnocentric.

Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section One—How Civilization Began


3

Job Specialization In the Paleolithic Era, each person or family

took care of most every task themselves. In cities, individuals

would do one or two tasks that they were good at (such as

baking, shoemaking, carpentry, etc.) and then trade with

others to get what they needed.

Social Classes Different groups, or social classes, usually

based on occupation, formed within early cities. Each social

class had its own privileges and obligations.

Writing Early civilizations

needed to be able to keep

records, so systems of writing

developed. Most early systems

of writing used pictographs.

Because of these complex

systems, it was difficult and time

-consuming to learn to read &

write. Very few people were

literate, and scribes usually

enjoyed high social status.

Complex Religion Most early civilizations’ religions were

polytheistic.

Centralized Government Governments originally developed

to make sure that food and water were distributed fairly, then

began to perform other functions, such as keeping order and

protecting property.

Public Works Governments would pay for large projects, such

as roads, dams, and irrigation systems, that would benefit

everyone.

Arts & Architecture

Permanent structures

were now more

practical since people

were no longer

wandering around in

search of food. Also,

individuals did not need

to spend all their time

looking for food, so they

had extra time to

create artworks for

purely aesthetic

reasons.

Sumerian tablet

with cuneiform writing

from a Sumerian banner

Pictographs are

symbols which stand

for a word or an idea.

As there is a different

symbol for every word,

alphabets which use

pictographs can have

thousands of

characters.

Polytheistic religions

have many gods.

Root words: poly—

many; the—god(s).

Public works are

structures paid for by

the government that

everyone can use.

The main purpose of

an item created for

aesthetic reasons is

simply to be beautiful.

Chapter O

ne—Ancient C

iviliza

tions; S

ection One—How Civiliza

tion Began

1.1


4

Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Two—Mesopotamian Civilization

Section Two—Mesopotamian Civilization

The earliest civilizations developed around 4000 B.C. in the

modern-day Middle East in an area known as Mesopotamia.

Mesopotamia ‘Mesopotamia’

means ‘between the rivers’ in Greek.

It refers to the area between the

Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the

Middle East. Sometimes this area is

called ‘the Fertile Crescent’

because it is shaped like, well, a

crescent. Others call this area ‘the

cradle of civilization’ because it is where

civilization began. It makes sense that the first civilization would

be near two rivers, since farming is necessary to begin civilization,

and farming requires a source of water.

Ancient Civilizations in Mesopotamia Over time, many

different civilizations have settled in Mesopotamia. The ancient

civilizations there, in chronological order, included Sumer,

Babylon, Assyria, Chaldea, and Persia.

Sumerian City-States The earliest Mesopotamian civilization,

Sumer, was divided into city-states. Each city-state had a king

who ruled along with the advice of noblemen. Sumerian city-

states included Ur, Uruk, Kish, and Lagash.

Sumerian Writing The Sumerian tale the Epic

of Gilgamesh is the oldest known piece of fictional literature in the world. It tells a story

of a hero, Gilgamesh, who is trying to find

immortality. In one part of the story, he meets

a man who was instructed by the gods to

build a boat because a flood is coming.

The portion of the Epic of Gilgamesh that

refers to the flood is similar to the story of

Noah’s flood in the Hebrew scriptures. Many

ancient cultures have such stories about

floods. Some historians believe that this is

because there was a catastrophic flood

sometime around 5600 BCE. Early people

may have told these tales as a way to explain

the purpose of natural occurrences that they

weren’t able to understand scientifically.

the Fertile Crescent

Memory Trick To

remember the order

of Mesopotamian

civilizations, think

about how cuddly a

baby sumo wrestler

would be.

Sumo Sumer

Babies Babylon

Are Assyria

Cuddly Chaldea

People Persia

1.2

Sumerian frieze

showing a scene

from the Epic of

Gilgamesh

A city-state is a city

that governs itself

more or less

independently. It’s

as if each city is a

separate country.


5

Sumerians used a pictographic alphabet called

cuneiform to record their literature and for other

writing purposes. The Babylonians and Assyrians also

used this alphabet.

Babylonian Law In Babylonia, King

Hammurabi put his code of law into

effect. Hammurabi’s Code is one of

the earliest codes of law and also

one of the earliest surviving written

documents.

In the code, laws and punishments

were set out clearly so that potential

law-breakers might be deterred from

misbehaving. Punishments differed

according to the law-breaker’s

social status. Upper-class people

usually had to pay fines. Lower-class

people suffered physical

consequences for their misbehavior.

Many of the punishments for lower-class people followed the

’eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth’ principle. This means that the

punishment for breaking a law was related to the crime. (For

example, a thief might have a hand cut off; a liar might have a

tongue cut out.)

Assyrian Warfare The Assyrians, a very warlike people,

conquered Babylonia around 1200 BCE. They are best known for

their efficient army, and were the first to use cavalry and to

recognize the advantages of iron weapons (rather than bronze

weapons).

Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian

Architecture The Sumerians,

Babylonians, and Assyrians all built

ziggurats, which were terraced

pyramids that housed religious shrines

at the top.

Chaldean Copycats The Chaldeans ruled the Fertile Crescent

from about 626 BCE to 539 BCE. The most notable Chaldean

king, Nebuchadnezzar, was very interested in reviving traditions

from the Babylonian time period. In fact, Chaldean culture was

so similar to Babylonian culture that many historians refer to the

Chaldeans as ‘Neo-Babylonians.’ (The Latin root ’neo’ means

’new.’)

Chapter O

ne—Ancient C

iviliza

tions; S

ection Tw

o—Mesopotamian Civiliza

tion

1.2

Cuneiform is Greek

for ‘wedge-shaped.’

This is an accurate

name for the

Sumerian alphabet,

since many of the

characters have

triangular elements.

Deterrence occurs

when people are

made aware that a

strict punishment will

be administered if

they commit a

crime. This causes

them not to want to

commit the crime

because they don’t

want to be

punished.

Memory Trick The

main thing you’ve

got to remember

about the Assyrians is

that they were

warlike, so... don’t

say it out loud or

anything, but look at

the first three letters

of the word

‘Assyrian,’ and

you’ve got a pretty

decent way to

remember that the

Assyrians liked

conflict!

Cavalry soldiers fight

while mounted on

horseback.

Terracing refers to

the carving of stair-

stepped levels into a

steep slope.

a ziggurat

cuneiform script

King Hammurabi, ‘the Law-giver’


6

1.2

Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Two—Mesopotamian Civilization

Persian Empire Around 550 BCE,

Cyrus, the chief of a small

Mesopotamian tribe, began to

conquer the area around the Tigris

and Euphrates. He did this because

he felt it was his duty to spread his

religion, Zoroastrianism, as far as he

could. In doing so, he created the

Persian Empire.

Around 520 BCE, the Persian king

Darius divided the empire into 120

satrapies, or small states. Each

satrapy was ruled by a governor

called a satrap. This division of the

empire made it more efficient and

easier to govern.

Mesopotamian Currency & Trade Most of the economies of the

Mesopotamian civilizations were based on farming and used a

barter system for trade. In 546 BCE, the Persian king Cyrus

conquered Lydia, a small kingdom in modern-day Turkey. The

Lydians were the first to use coins for trade, and so the Persians

adopted the use of coins instead of bartering in order to trade.

Phoenician Sea Traders Unlike the other civilizations in this

section, the Phoenicians never controlled the entire Fertile

Crescent. They were primarily sea traders who sailed and traded

all around the Mediterranean Sea (a little southwest of

Mesopotamia). As they traveled, they established colonies, such

as Carthage, in Mediterranean port cities. This gave them a

unique opportunity to promote cultural diffusion.

The most important idea that the Phoenicians spread was that of

the phonetic alphabet. In this type of alphabet, each character

stood for a sound. Characters could then be put together to

make words. This was much easier than using a pictographic

alphabet, in which there was a

different character for each

word. Most languages have

thousands of words, so that

would require people to learn

thousands of characters. In

contrast, the Phoenician

alphabet had only twenty-two

symbols. In fact, our own

alphabet is derived from that of

the Phoenicians.

Zoroastrianism is a

religion which

originated in ancient

Persia. It emphasizes

the importance of

the triumph of good

over evil.

In a barter economy,

people trade goods

directly for other

goods instead of

using money. For

example, a person

might trade a

chicken for a bushel

of wheat.

King Darius the Great

Cultural diffusion is

the spread of ideas

from one place to

another.

Phoenician alphabet


7

Chapter O

ne—Ancient C

iviliza

tions; S

ection Th

ree—Egyptia

n Civiliza

tion

Section Three—Egyptian Civilization

Importance of the Nile Like all other early

civilizations in the Eastern

hemisphere, Egyptian

civilization sprang up around

a river, the Nile. Rivers were

necessary for all early

civilizations to provide

irrigation for crops, but the

Nile was especially

important for Egypt since

most of Egypt is a desert.

The Greek historian

Herodotus summed it up well

when he wrote, “Egypt is the

gift of the Nile.” By this he

meant that, without the Nile,

there could be no civilization

in Egypt.

Egyptians divided their land

into two categories, and felt

that each served an

important purpose. ’Black

land’ was the fertile soil around the Nile, which was used for food

production. ’Red land’ was the dry, barren desert that surrounded

the black land. This seemingly useless terrain actually helped to

protect Egypt from invasion, since it would have been difficult for

armies to cross the desert. Additionally, many precious metals and

minerals could be mined from the red land, providing Egypt with

trade goods.

Egyptian Historical Records The Egyptians left behind lots of primary sources which historians can study to learn about their

civilization. Official Egyptian

records were carved into

clay tablets or onto

monuments in hieroglyphics,

a pictographic alphabet.

Egyptians also used papyrus

for other records, but not as

many of these records have

survived.

1.3

A barren piece of

land will not

produce crops.

Hieroglyphics were

pictographic

symbols which the

Egyptians used for

record-keeping.

Papyrus is a reedy

plant that grows in

Egypt. It was used

to make a paper-

like substance for

record-keeping. Egyptian hieroglyphics


8

Historians are able to read hieroglyphics because of the Rosetta

Stone. This stone was dug up in 1799 by French soldiers who were

laying the foundation for a fort in Egypt. Because there is a

message written on the stone in both Greek and hieroglyphics,

scholars who knew Greek were able to decode the hieroglyphics.

Egyptian Society and Economy Like most ancient

civilizations, Egypt had a hierarchical social structure. At the top of

society was the pharaoh, who was not only the monarch, but also

considered to be a living god. Next were government officials and

priests, and then there was a large middle class composed of

merchants, soldiers, farmers, and artisans. Most Egyptians

belonged to this class, and farming was the most usual

occupation. At the bottom of the social ladder were slaves and

servants.

Because of its location near the Mediterranean & Red Seas, it was

easy for Egyptians to trade with other civilizations nearby, such as

Nubia, Palestine, and Greece. Exports included grain, linen, and

papyrus; imports included lumber, gold, and incense. The female

pharaoh Hatshepsut is especially well-known for promoting trade.

Egyptian Religion Traditional Egyptian religion was both

polytheistic and ethical.

Important gods included Anubis,

Osiris, and Horus. It was believed

that when people died, they

went to a place where their

behavior in life would be judged.

If they were deemed to have

been good, they would spend

eternity in paradise. If they were

deemed to have been evil, then

a crocodile-headed dog called

the Eater of the Dead would consume their souls.

Deceased Egyptians were buried with all of their possessions,

because it was believed that they would need them in the

afterlife. Most corpses were buried with a copy of the Book of the Dead in their arms. The Book of the Dead was a sort of manual to

help a person get to paradise in the afterlife, and contained

instructions on how to live a virtuous life.

Short-lived Monotheism One pharaoh, Ahkenaton, embraced a

monotheistic religion in which only one god, the sun god, was

worshipped. But after Ahkenaton’s reign, Egyptians quickly

returned to their traditional polytheism.

Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Three—Egyptian Civilization

1.3

Ammit, the Eater of the Dead

In a hierarchical

society, some

social classes are

higher than others,

and higher social

classes have fewer

members.

A pharaoh was an

Egyptian god-king

(or god-queen,

sometimes).

Artisans are skilled

workers who

create useful

objects, such as

weapons, shoes,

prepared food, or

tools.

In an ethical

religion, proper

behavior is

considered

important.

Followers of such

religions usually

follow a set of rules

that tell them what

is acceptable.

A virtuous person

makes an effort to

do what is

considered to be

right or good.

In a monotheistic

religion, only one

god is worshipped.

Root words:

mono—one; the—

god.

Memory Trick

‘Hatshepsut’

sounds like ‘hot

sheep suit.’

Imagine that if you

were wearing a

sheep suit, you

would be hot and

glad to trade with

someone else.


9

Chapter O

ne—Ancient C

iviliza

tions; S

ection Th

ree—Egyptia

n Civiliza

tion

1.3

Mummification & the Pyramids Due to the Egyptian idea that a

person needed all of his or her possessions in the afterlife, including

body and organs, the process of mummification developed to

preserve these items. Mummification was very expensive,

however, so only pharaohs and very wealthy nobles could afford

it.

Pyramids were built as burial tombs for pharaohs. The first Egyptian

pyramids had stepped sides, like the ziggurats of Mesopotamia.

Later pyramids had smooth sides. The world’s largest pyramid, at

Giza, was built around 2550 BCE by Pharaoh Khufu.

When a pharaoh died, his

mummified body would be

enclosed in a decorated

coffin, called a

sarcophagus. The

sarcophagus would then be

placed inside the pyramid,

along with all of the

pharaoh’s worldly goods.

Most of the largest pyramids were robbed before modern times, so

historians couldn’t be sure what kinds of items might have been

placed inside. But in 1922, the undisturbed tomb of King

Tutankhamen was discovered. The tomb contained huge

amounts of precious objects, even though King Tut was only a

minor pharaoh. We can only imagine what must have been in the

tombs of the major pharaohs.

Egyptian Art Many examples

of Egyptian art are still around

today, in part because Egypt’s

dry climate is good for

preserving old things. Surviving

artworks include sculptures,

friezes, and paintings. The

artworks portray pharaohs, the

gods, and sometimes even

everyday life. Egyptian art

features stylized bodies. They

look unnatural and are often

posed awkwardly, with their feet

and heads pointed to the sides,

but with their chests turned

toward the front.

King Tut’s sarcophagus

Egyptian painting with stylized bodies

The mummified

remains of a

pharaoh were put

inside a

sarcophagus

made of precious

metals and carved

in the pharaoh’s

likeness.

A frieze is a

sculpture carved

into a wall.

Stylized bodies in

art do not look

natural and are

often strangely

posed.


10

1.4

Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Four—

Hebrew Civilization

Section Four—Hebrew Civilization Hebrew civilization is considered to have

begun with the patriarch Abraham. The Torah

is the main source for information about

Abraham and the other patriarchs of Ancient

Israel. Since it is a religious text, there is some

controversy about the accuracy of the

information. When we study the ancient

Hebrews, it is important to keep this in mind.

The information presented in this packet is

considered by historians to be highly

probable, taking into account the non-

religious accounts of other civilizations that

existed at the same time.

Geography & Contact

with Other Cultures Hebrew civilization began

in the area surrounding

modern-day Jerusalem,

near the Eastern coast of

the Mediterranean. Most

of Ancient Israel enjoyed a

temperate climate that

was perfect for a pastoral

lifestyle.

Due to their location near

the Mediterranean, the

Hebrews came into

contact with many other

civilizations, such as

Assyria, Chaldea, Egypt,

and Rome.

The Origins of Judaism The ancient Hebrews were unique among early civilizations in that they practiced ethical

monotheism—meaning that they worshipped one God and felt

that behavior was important. They believed that they had a

special covenant with their god, whom they called Yahweh. If

they worshipped only Yahweh and followed his laws, then

someday he would lead them to a promised land.

Within the Torah are the Ten Commandments, which governed Hebrew society. Unlike Hammurabi’s Code, the Ten

Commandments did not specify how individuals would be

punished if they broke the law. However, many of the same ideas

prevail in both documents. Each promotes respect for elders,

and prohibits killing and theft.

a Torah scroll

A patriarch is the

male head of a

family or tribe. In a

patriarchal society,

fathers and

husbands have

power over their

families. Root

words: ‘patria’—

father; ‘arch’—

government

The Torah is one of

the holy texts of the

Hebrews. It

corresponds

roughly to the Old

Testament of the

Christian Bible.

In a pastoral

society, the raising

of herd animals, like

sheep or goats, is

the main method of

food production.

Root word: pasture

A covenant is a

binding agreement.

To prohibit is to

forbid something.


11

1.4

Chapter O

ne—Ancient C

iviliza

tions; S

ection Four—

Hebrew Civiliza

tion

the Kingdom of Israel In most civilizations ruled by a

monarch, the monarch is

simply born into a royal

family. However, in Ancient

Israel, a prophet was asked

to appoint the first two kings

of Israel, Saul and David. The

fact that a religious figure

was made responsible for

selecting the ruler shows how

important religion was in

Hebrew society.

Both Saul and David were

concerned primarily with war,

as Israel was under attack by

neighboring tribes during their

reigns. After these attackers

were dealt with, King David

established the capital at Jerusalem around 1000 BCE. The next

king, Solomon, ordered the building of a holy temple to house

important religious documents. After Solomon’s death in 930 BCE,

the kingdom of Israel was split into the kingdoms of Israel & Judah.

the Diaspora The kingdom of Israel was conquered by Assyrians in

722 BCE, and the kingdom of Judah fell to Chaldeans in 586 BCE.

As a result of these conquests, many Hebrews were forced to

move to other areas. This spreading out of the Jews is referred to

as the Diaspora (pronounced die-ass-puh-ruh).

illustration of what Solomon’s Temple may have

looked like based on descriptions in the Torah

King Saul in battle

A diaspora is the

spreading out or

scattering of a

group of people.


12

To decipher means

to de-code or

figure out.

Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Five—Indian Civilization

Section Five—Indian Civilization

Early Indian civilizations grew up around two major Indian rivers—

the Indus River and the Ganges River. Both rivers originate in the

Himalayan mountain range, and carry sediment down into the

plains around the rivers. This sediment fertilizes the soil and makes

for very fertile farmland.

Harappan Civilization The earliest civilization in

India was situated on the

banks of the Indus River.

This civilization flourished

from about 2700 BCE to

1900 BCE. It is known as

Harappan India because

one of the main cities in

the civilization was called

Harappa. Another major

city from this civilization,

Mohenjo-Daro, has also

been unearthed by

archaeologists.

Harappan Writing The

scholars who excavated

Harappa and Mohenjo-

Daro found many objects

with writing on them.

However, nothing like the

Rosetta Stone has been

found to help us decipher

the writing. As a result, historians must make inferences about life in

Harappan India based on artifacts alone. These public works also

must have originated from the orders of a government.

Early Indus valley people also left behind

artwork and other objects that tell us

much about their civilizations. Some

stone seals from the city have pictures of

musical instruments are inscribed on

them, and game pieces and children’s

toys have also been found. These

objects tell us that the Harappan people

had free time to enjoy—one of the

benefits of civilization.

game pieces from

Mohenjo Daro

Little pieces of dirt

and rock are

referred to as

sediment.

To excavate is to

carefully dig

something up.

1.5


13

1.5

Chapter O

ne—Ancient C

iviliza

tions; S

ection Five—Indian Civiliza

tion

Harappan Ruins and

Artifacts Many clues from

the ruins of Harappa and

Mohenjo-Daro indicate that

both cities had strong

governments. We can infer

this because the cities were

well-organized, with straight

streets running at right

angles to each other.

Human beings don’t

naturally build structures in

straight lines—they must be

organized and directed to

do so by some authority or

government. Additionally,

within the ruins are military

forts and sewer systems,

which would also require government control.

Vedic Civilization Vedic civilization developed around the Ganges river from around 1500 BCE to 500 BCE. It takes its

name from the Vedas, a series of Hindu religious documents,

which were written during the time period.

Aryans and Dravidians Some evidence suggests that the

Aryans, a people from the area of modern-day southeast

Russia, migrated to India around 1700 BCE. These Aryans

settled around the Ganges River and may have conquered

the people who already lived there, the Dravidians. However

they got there, it is certain that the Aryan people considered

themselves superior to the Dravidians. Dravidians were placed

at the bottom of the social ladder in Vedic civilization.

Hinduism and the Caste System The

religion of the Vedic people was an

early version of Hinduism. This involved

the worship of multiple deities, including

Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Instructions

for rituals and sacrifices used to worship

these gods were included in the Vedas.

A class of priests, called Brahmins

(pronounced brah-menz), helped the

people to correctly interpret the Vedas

and perform rituals properly.

According to the Vedas, an organized

society was important. Vedic people

aerial view of the ruins of Harappa

ancient Vishnu figurine

A deity is a god or

goddess.


14

were divided into four social classes. The highest class was made

up of Brahmins, who were priests. Next were Kshatriyas

(pronounced kuh-shot-ree-uhs), who were warriors. Third were

Vaisyas (pronounced vizh-uhs), who were herders and merchants.

At the very bottom were Sudras, who were servants. Aryans made

up the upper three classes, while all Dravidians were classed as

sudras. This social hierarchy eventually evolved into the caste

system.

Belief in reincarnation is an important aspect of Hinduism.

Reincarnation is the idea that the soul is born again and again into

different bodies. By following the laws of karma and dharma, a

person can be reincarnated into a higher caste. (This is the only

way to change one’s caste, by the way.) The ultimate goal of

Hinduism is to achieve moksha, which is a release from the

suffering of constant life and rebirth.

The concepts of karma

and dharma actually

helped to reinforce the

caste system. If a

person was born into a

low caste, then it was

assumed that he or she

had not followed the

laws of karma and

dharma in a previous

life. If a person was

born into a high caste,

it would be assumed

that he or she had

been especially

virtuous in a past life. In

this way, one’s social

status was viewed as a

product of one’s own

choices.

Though not from an authentic ancient Indian

source, this is a pretty good illustration of the

concept of karma.

Karma

Memory Trick

Imagine a kshatriya

shooting you, then

saying, ’Ha ha, I

k-shot-ya!’ That will

help you remember

that they were

warriors.

‘Vaisya’ starts with

a V, and so does

’vendor,’ so you

can remember that

they were

merchants who sold

things.

Karma is the idea

that if a person

does bad things,

then bad things will

eventually happen

to him or her, and

vice versa.

To follow the law of

dharma a person

must fulfill his or her

obligations, which

will be affected by

caste, gender, and

age.

Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Five—Indian Civilization

1.5

Brahmins—priests

Kshatriyas—warriors

Vaisyas—merchants & herders

Sudras—non-Aryan servants

the Caste System


15

Xia, Shang, and Zhou China

Section Six—Ancient Chinese Civilization

Geography and Food Production Ancient Chinese civilization developed along the Huang-He, or Yellow River. (It is sometimes

called the Yellow River because of its yellowish sediment, called

loess.) This area had a warm, wet climate, which was perfect for

growing rice. As a result, this food became a staple of the Chinese

diet. There wasn’t much land suitable for grazing cattle or sheep,

but the early Chinese were also able to raise pigs and poultry as

sources of meat.

Chinese Dynasties Events in Chinese history are grouped according to dynasty. Each dynasty is named after the ruling

family of the time period. The dynasties of Ancient China were the

Xia (pronounced ‘zhee-uh’), Shang, and Zhou (pronounced ‘zho’).

Mythical Xia Dynasty? The first dynasty described in ancient Chinese historical texts was the Xia dynasty. Historians and

archaeologists are divided on the issue of whether this dynasty

actually existed, or was simply a mythical tale. If it did exist, it

would have been from approximately 2070 BCE to 1700 BCE.

Some artifacts have been found that date from this time period,

but since no Xia written records have ever been found, we cannot

confirm whether these artifacts belong to the people described in

the ancient historical texts.

Shang Dynasty The Shang Dynasty ruled the area around the Huang He from 1700 BCE to 1122 BCE. Much of what we know

about the Shang comes from the ruins of a Shang royal city found

near Anyang in the early 20th century.

Chapter O

ne—Ancient C

iviliza

tions; S

ection Six—Chinese Civiliza

tion

1.6

Staple crops are

crops produced in

large quantities

that form the main

part of a people’s

diet.

A dynasty is a

period of time

during which

members of one

family are in

power.

Memory Trick To

remember all of

the dynasties of

Chinese history in

order, imagine a

group of zebras

who have

become addicted

to huffing (which is

a terrible idea,

btw) and have

decided to go to

rehab.

Seven Shang

Zebras Zhou

Quit Qin

Huffing Han

The Tang

Stuff Song

Yesterday Yuan

Morning Ming

Or, you can sing,

to the tune of

‘Frere Jacques:’

♪Shang Zhou Qin

Han

Shang Zhou Qin

Han

Tay-ang Song

Tay-ang Song

Yuaaaaaaan Ming

Yuaaaaaaan Ming

Mao Zedong.

Mao Zedong.♫


16

Chapter One—Ancient Civilizations; Section Six—Chinese Civilization

1.6

Shang Religion Ancient Chinese religion

was polytheistic. This religion included

veneration of ancestors. It was believed

that the deceased ancestors had

influence with the gods, and so it was

important to honor them. The Shang did

this with shrines and offerings to the

ancestors.

Shang Writing Many oracle bones have

been found in Shang archaeological sites.

The Shang used these to ask questions of

the gods. A priest or king would ask the

question, then heat the bone (usually a large, flat bone, like the

shoulder-blade of a cow) until it cracked. Then he would interpret

the cracks and write the interpretation on the

bone. These oracle bones are important because

they are the earliest examples of Chinese writing.

Shang Art and Technology Many of the artifacts

from the Shang period are made of bronze or jade

stone, which indicates that the Shang had

knowledge of metal– and stone-working

technology. They made weapons, vases,

containers, and figurines from these materials.

Zhou Dynasty The Zhou dynasty, which lasted from about 1045

BCE to 256 BCE, is sometimes called ‘the Warring States’ period.

This is because many warlords were fighting each other for power.

As a result of all this disorder, many theories arose which supported

different ideas of government.

the Mandate of Heaven The Chinese considered their king to have

been chosen by the gods. In order to rule, the Zhou had to

overthrow the Shang, which might have been considered to be an

affront to the gods. In order to justify having usurped the god-

chosen Shang king, the Zhou created the idea of the Mandate of

Heaven.

According to the Mandate of Heaven, the gods chose a ruling

family, who had the right to rule as long as they governed the

people fairly and well. If this family did not fulfill their duties, then

the gods would send some kind of catastrophe (usually a natural

disaster like a flood or earthquake) to show their displeasure.

When the gods revoked the Mandate of Heaven from one ruling

family, it was acceptable for a new family to overthrow the old

one, thus beginning a new dynasty.

an oracle bone

jade figurine

To venerate

something is to

treat it with great

respect or honor.

An oracle is a

person who can

see the future. So

the name ‘oracle

bones’ tells us

exactly what they

were—bones used

to predict the

future.

An affront is a insult

or offensive action.

When a rightful ruler

has been usurped,

this means he or

she has been

overthrown by

someone else, who

then takes the

ruler’s place.


17

Chapter O

ne—Ancient C

iviliza

tions; S

ection Six—Chinese Civiliza

tion

1.6

Confucianism Confucius, who

lived from 551 to 479 BCE,

developed a set of ideas on

how an orderly society should

work. His main idea was that if

everyone behaved according

to his or her place or role, then

life would go smoothly for all.

According to Confucius, there

are five relationships. Most

relationships included a

superior person and an inferior

person. It was the superior

person’s job to set a good example and use their authority justly

and kindly. The inferior person was supposed to respect and obey

the superior.

The most important relationship of a person’s life was that among

children and their parents. A dutiful child practiced filial piety—

respect, honor, and obedience for parents.

According to this model, the best kind of government would be

one in which the ruler fulfilled the duties of the superior person in a

relationship. Good rulers should rule by example and treat their

subjects fairly.

Legalism Another thinker who spread his ideas about proper

government during the Zhou period was Hanfeizi. His system of

government was called Legalism. According to Hanfeizi, people

were naturally stupid and likely to misbehave. They could not

make good decisions for themselves, so a good ruler must make

very strict laws and enforce them with harsh punishments.

Daoism Laozi, who disseminated the

philosophy of Daoism, had ideas that

contrasted sharply with those of Hanfeizi.

Daoists believed that the world is full of

opposites, and that the way to find harmony

was to live naturally and achieve balance

between contrasting forces, such as light and

dark, good and evil, or beauty and ugliness.

This idea is symbolized by the yin and yang.

Laozi believed that government was

unnatural, and that having too many laws and restrictions would

only lead people to rebel. Therefore, he considered the best rulers

to be the ones who did not rule much.

The yin and yang

symbolizes balance

between opposites.

Confucius

The five

relationships were

those between

ruler and subject,

husband and wife,

parent and child,

older sibling and

younger sibling,

and friend and

friend. The only

equal relationship

was that between

friends.

The root words of

filial piety tell us

what it means.

The Latin word

‘filius’ means ‘son,’

and to be pious is

to be good,

honorable, or

virtuous.

To disseminate

information is to

spread it around or

distribute it.

Memory Trick

‘Lao’ rhymes with

‘Dao,’ so that can

help you to

remember that

Laozi founded

Daoism. Also, it’s a

pretty lousy way to

govern (if you ask

me), and ‘lousy’

sounds like ‘Laozi.’

Memory Trick

‘Hanfeizi’ just

SOUNDS angry

and mean, so

imagine a strict

ruler shouting it as

he beats someone

with a bamboo

stick (which is how

Legalists punished

wrongdoers).

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