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Peace of Westphalia
The Peace of Westphalia (German: Westfälischer Frie-de) was a series of peace treaties signed between Mayand October 1648 in theWestphalian cities of OsnabrückandMünster effectively ending the European wars of reli-gion. These treaties ended the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years’War (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Repub-lic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence ofthe Dutch Republic.The peace negotiations involved a total of 109 delegationsrepresenting European powers, including Holy RomanEmperor Ferdinand III, Philip IV of Spain, the Kingdomof France, the Swedish Empire, the Dutch Republic, thePrinces of the Holy Roman Empire and sovereigns of thefree imperial cities. The treaties that comprised the peacesettlement were:
• The Peace of Münster[1] between the Dutch Repub-lic and the Kingdom of Spain on 30 January 1648,ratified in Münster on 15 May 1648; and
• Two complementary treaties both signed on 24 Oc-tober 1648, namely:
• The Treaty of Münster (Instrumentum PacisMonasteriensis, IPM),[2] between the HolyRoman Emperor and France and their respec-tive allies.
• The Treaty of Osnabrück (InstrumentumPacis Osnabrugensis, IPO),[3] involving theHoly Roman Empire, Sweden and their re-spective allies.
The treaties did not restore peace throughout Europe, butthey did create a basis for national self-determination.The Peace of Westphalia established the precedent ofpeaces established by diplomatic congress,[4][5] and a newsystem of political order in central Europe, later calledWestphalian sovereignty, based upon the concept of co-existing sovereign states. Inter-state aggression was to beheld in check by a balance of power. A norm was es-tablished against interference in another state’s domesticaffairs. As European influence spread across the globe,these Westphalian principles, especially the concept ofsovereign states, became central to international law andto the prevailing world order.[6]
1 Locations
Peace negotiations between France and the Habsburgs,provided by the Holy Roman Emperor and the SpanishKing, were started in Cologne in 1641. These negotia-tions were initially blocked by France.Cardinal Richelieu of France desired the inclusion of allits allies, whether sovereign or a state within the Holy Ro-man Empire.[7] In Hamburg and Lübeck, Sweden and theHoly Roman Empire negotiated the Treaty of Hamburg.This was done with the intervention of Richelieu.TheHoly Roman Empire and Sweden declared the prepa-rations of Cologne and the Treaty of Hamburg to be pre-liminaries of an overall peace agreement. This largeragreement was negotiated in Westphalia, in the neigh-bouring cities of Münster and Osnabrück. Both citieswere maintained as neutral and demilitarized zones forthe negotiations. Münster was, since its re-Catholizationin 1535, a strictly mono-denominational community. Ithoused the Chapter of the Prince-Bishopric of Münster.Only Roman Catholic worship was permitted. No placesof worship were provided for Calvinists and Lutherans.Osnabrück was a bidenominational Lutheran andCatholic city, with two Lutheran and two Catholicchurches for its mostly Lutheran burghers and exclu-sively Lutheran city council and the Catholic Chapter ofthe Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück with pertaining otherclergy and also other Catholic inhabitants. In the yearsof 1628–1633 Osnabrück had been subjugated by troopsof the Catholic League. The Catholic Prince-BishopFranz Wilhelm, Count of Wartenberg then imposed theCounter-Reformation onto the city with many Lutheranburgher families being exiled. While under Swedishoccupation Osnabrücks’s Catholics were not expelled,but the city severely suffered from Swedish war contri-butions. Therefore, Osnabrück hoped for a great reliefbecoming neutralised and demilitarised.Both cities strove for more autonomy, aspiring to becomeFree Imperial Cities, so they welcomed the neutrality im-posed by the peace negotiations, and the prohibition of allpolitical influence by the warring parties including theiroverlords, the prince-bishops.Since Lutheran Sweden preferred Osnabrück as a confer-ence venue, its peace negotiations with the Empire, in-cluding the allies of both sides, took place in Osnabrück.The Empire and its opponent France, including the al-lies of each, as well as the Republic of the Seven UnitedNetherlands and its opponent Spain (and their respective
1
2 3 RESULTS
allies) negotiated in Münster.[8]
2 Delegations
The peace negotiations had no exact beginning and end-ing, because the participating total of 109 delegationsnever met in a plenary session, but arrived between 1643and 1646 and left between 1647 and 1649. Between Jan-uary 1646 and July 1647 probably the largest number ofdiplomats were present. Delegations had been sent by16 European states, sixty-six Imperial States, represent-ing the interests of a total of 140 involved Imperial States,and 27 interest groups, representing the interests of a va-riety of a total of 38 groups.[9]
• The French delegation was headed by Henri IId'Orléans, duc de Longueville and further com-prised the diplomats Claude d'Avaux and AbelServien.
• The Swedish delegation was headed by Count Jo-han Oxenstierna (son of Chancellor Count Axel Ox-enstierna) and was assisted by Baron Johan AdlerSalvius.
• The head of the delegation of the Holy RomanEmpire for both cities was Count Maximilian vonTrautmansdorff; in Münster, his aides were JohannLudwig von Nassau-Hadamar and Isaak Volmar (alawyer); in Osnabrück, his team comprised JohannMaximilian von Lamberg and Reichshofrat JohannKrane, a lawyer.
• Philip IV of Spain was represented by a doubledelegation. The Spanish delegation was headed byGaspar de Bracamonte y Guzmán, and notably in-cluded the diplomats and writers Diego de Saave-dra Fajardo, and Bernardino de Rebolledo. TheBurgundian lawyer Antoine Brun represented Philipas hereditary ruler of the Franche Comté and theSpanish Netherlands.
• The papal nuncio in Cologne, Fabio Chigi, and
• the Venetian envoy Alvise Contarini acted as medi-ators.
• Various Imperial States of the Holy Roman Empirealso sent delegations.
• Brandenburg sent several representatives, includingVollmar.
• The Republic of the Seven United Netherlands senta delegation of six (including two delegates from theprovince of Holland (Adriaan Pauw) and WillemRipperda from one of the other provinces;[10] twoprovinces were not present).
• Johann Rudolf Wettstein, the mayor of Basel, rep-resented the Swiss Confederacy.
3 Results
3.1 Internal political boundaries
A simplified map of Europe after the Peace of Westphalia in1648.
Historical map
0 20 40 60 80 100
Miles
Württemberg
Spanish Habsburg
Austrian Habsburg
Wittelsbach Bavarian
Wittelsbach Palatinate
Hohenzollern Brandenburg
Wettin Albertine
Wettin Ernestine
Hohenzollern Franconian
Oldenburg
Hesse-Kassel
Ecclesiastical
Imperial Cities
Swedish from 1648
Danube
Danube
Isar
Lech
EnnsPinzg
auInn
Drave
Save
Mur
Leith
a
Thaya
Moldau
Elbe
Eger
Mulde
Spree
Neisse
Havel
Elbe
Aller
Wes
er
Fulda
Werra
Lippe
Meuse
Saar
Ruhr
Rhine
Mos
elle
Rhi
ne
Iser
Oder
Netze
Lahn
Mai
n
Doubs
Eider
Ems
Lein
e
Rober
Finow Canal
Rostock
Gustrow
HavelbergWerben
Fehrbellin
Hanover
LuneburgBremen
Stuttgart
Biberach
Lindau
Kempten
Kaufbeuren
Tuttlingen
Rottweil
Alpirsbach
Tübingen
Durlach
Hall
Augsburg
Nuremberg
Coburg
Gotha
Nordhausen
Brunswick
Celle
Segeberg
Cassel
Frankfurt
Giessen
Höchst
Mergentheim
Liege
Cologne
Antwerp
Eger
Kaaden
Chemnitz
Freiberg
Meissen
Wittenberg
Rosslau
Potsdam
Berlin
Dannenberg
Neerwinden
Louvuin
MechlinDunkirk
Nieuport
OstendBruges
Brussels
Ghent
Arrus
Cambray
Conde
LilleSt. Omer
Cassel
Mandyck
ValenciennesMons
Charleroi
NamurFleurusSeneffe
Steenkerque
Vossem
Bouillon
Montmedy
Luxemburg
Diedenhofen
Vancy
Münster
Turkheim
Schlettstadt
Ehnheim
Vesoul
Besancon
Pontarlier
Montbeliard
Breisach
Buchenberg
Strasburg
Weissenburg
Saarbrucken Landau
Spires
Worms
HöchstHanau
Darmstadt
Kreuznach
Mayence
Coblenz
Bonn
Dortmund
Steinfurt
Bentheim
Lingen
Meppen
Wesel
Geldern
Fulda
Schweinfurt
Ahausen
Öttingen
Alerheim
Rain
Ulm
Memmingen
Salzburg
Alt-Ötting
Vocklabruck
Wolfsegg
EferdingLinz
Passau
Klattau
PilsenMies
Netolitz
Prague
Ossegg
Joarhimsthal
Zwickau
Altenburg
Torgau
Schwedt
Bärwalde
Wollin
Kammin
Kolberg
Frankfort
Küstrin
Schwiebus
Züllichau
GrünbergGuben
Krossen
Kottbus Sagan
Gorlitz
Friedland
Hirschberg
Tetschen
Aussig
Leitmeritz
Klostergrab
Konigstein
Pirna
Dresden Lobau
Zittau
Brandeis
Kolin
Tabor
Jankau
Budweis
Horn
Znaim
Laa
Nikolsburg
Brunn
Iglau
Olmutz
Friedland
Leipnik
Kremsier
NeisseKosel
Jagerndorf
Glatz
Braunau
Schweidnitz
Goldberg
Breslau
Öls
WartenbergWohlau
Steinau
Glogau
Oppeln
Ratibor
Beuthen
Oderberg
Teschen
Troppau
Landsberg
Driesen
Neu-Stettin
Koslin
Stolp
Stettin
Gartz Greifenhagen
StargardWamm
Anklam
Wolgast
Usedom
Neu-Brandenburg
Neu-Strelitz
Wismar
Ribnitz
Bergen
WittstockDonitz
Stendal
Brandenburg
Spandau
Halle
LeipzigMerseburg
Weimar
Muhlhausen
HildesheimWolfe
nbuttelOsnabrück
Wildeshausen
Dusseldorf
Virnelburg
Limburg
VeldenzTreves
Freiburg
LandeckAmbras
Botzen
Trent
Rovereto
Innsbruck
Partenkirchen
Munich
Kufstein
Radstadt
JudenburgGratz
Bruck
Vienna
KorneuburgKrems
Wiener Neustadt
Stahremberg
Laxenburg
Bunzlau
Weiden
Amberg
Cham Furth
Kelheim
Regensburg
Ingolstadt
Neuburg
Zusmarshausen
DonauwörthGmünd
RastattPforzheim
Heidelberg
Wimpfen
Heilbronn
Philippsburg
Wiesloch
Mannheim
Deutz
Stadtlohn
Ritzebüttel
Verden
Himmelpforten
Gluckstadt Lübeck
Rendsburg
Kiel
Heiligenhafen
Eutin
Stralsund Neukamp
Köpenick
Kölln
Jüterbog
Lübben
Breitenfeld
Düben
Dessau
Bautzen
Marburg
Krainburg
Laibach
NeustadtlGorz
Trieste
Lienz
VillachKlagenfurt
Nördlingen
Herbrech
Konigsbronn
Aalen
Furth
Altdorf
Bamberg
Kulmbach
Rothenburg
Schaftersheim
Zweibrücken
Kaiserslauten
Friedberg
Marburg
Ehrenbreitstein
Wetzlar
Emmerich
ErlangenCastell
KitzingenWurzburg
Gelnhausen
Erfurt
Hohnstein
Magdeburg
Halberstadt
Quedlinburg
Rochlitz
Walkenried
Arnstadt
Rudolstadt
Frankenthal
Weissenburg
Eichstädt
Minden
Rinteln
Greetsiel
Emden
ArtlenburgLauenburg
Hamburg
Ratzeburg
SchwerinStadeAltona
Elsfleth
Lutter am Barenberg
Hameln
Detmold
Münster
Tournai
Xanten
Hagenau
Zabern
Kirchheim
Sasbach
Sinsheim
Kötzschenbroda
Greifswald
Berchtesgaden
Goslar
Grubenhagen
Drübeck
Gmunden
Gradisca
Tulln
Paderborn
Oldenburg
Gitschin
HermanitzWaldstein
Enns
Aix-la-Chapelle
Jena
Rathenow
Liegnitz
Hersfeld
Jülich
Grimma
Demmin
B. OF MÜNSTER
D. OF
WÜRTTEMBERG
KINGDOM OFBOHEMIA
M. OF MORAVIA
ARCHDUCHY OF AUSTRIA
UNTER DER ENNSOB DER ENNS
D. OF STYRIA D. OF CARINTHIA
D. OFCARNIOLA
C. OF TYROL
A. OF SALZBURG
E. OF BAVARIA
E. OF SAXONY
D. OF
SAXONY
E. OF BRANDENBURG
D. OFMECKLENBURG
WEST POMERANIA
EAST POMERANIA
GUSTROW
UPPER LUSATIA
LOWER L
USATIA
B. OF WÜRZBURG
B. OF BAMBERG
M. OF ANSBACH
A. OF
MAINZ
C. OF ISENBERG
L. OF HESSE-DARMSTADT
-
L. OF HESSE-CASSEL
D. OF WESTPHALIASPANISH NETHERLANDS
B. O
F LI
EGE D. OF
JÜLICH
A. O
F
TRIE
R
C. O
FEA
ST F
RIS
IA
C. OF
OLDEN BURG
A. OF BREMEN
D. OFBRUNSWICK LÜNEBURG
HOLSTEIN-GLUCKSTADT
FRA
NC
HE-
CO
MTÉ
D. O
F
LO
RR
AIN
E
B. OF PADERBORN
C. OF LIPPE
C. OFRAVENS- BERG
C. OFWALDECK
PALATINATE
D. OF BERG
C. OF MARK
M.
O
F
BA
DEN
D. OFFÜRSTENBERG
BR
EISG
AU
B. OF TRENT
D. OF SILESIA
C. OF HOYA
M. OFBAYREUTH
A. O
F
MAGDEBURG
B. OF BASEL
D. O
F B
AR
P. OF LIEGNITZ
VORARLBERG
B. OF FREISING
B. OF F
ULDA
P. OFHERSFELD
D. O
F KA
LEN- B
ERG P. OF
ANHALT
B. OF REGENSBURG
B.OF PASSAU
B. O
F
STR
ASS
BURG
A. O
F CO
LOG
NE
B. OF
OSN
ABRÜ
CK
C. OF LIN
GEN
EICH
SFEL
D
RUGEN
C. OF HENNENBERG
D. OF CLEVES
C. OF SPONHEIM
HADELN
VOGTLAND
P. OF PFALZ SULZBACH
B. OFBRIXEN
P. OF WOHLAU
P. OF BRIEG
B. OF VERDEN
P. OF
ZWEIB
RC
KEN
B. OFMINDEN
B. OF KAMMIN
SCHWERIN
B. OF
LÜBECK
P. OF
LAUENBURG
C. OFSCHWARZ- BURG
HOLSTEIN-GOTTORP
Prignitz
Ukermark
MittelmarkAltmark
Neum
ark
FRANCE
SWISSCONFEDERATION
VENETIANREPUBLIC
D. OFSAVOY P. OF
PIEDMONT
D. OF MILAN
HU
NG
ARY
POLAND
D. OF PRUSSIA
UNITED
NETHERLA
NDS
DENMARK
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
SUNDGAU
North Sea
Baltic Sea
Adriatic Sea
Lake Constance
2° 4° 6° 8° 10° 12° 14° 16° 18° 20° 22°
54°
52°
50°
48°
46°
Holy Roman Empire, 1648
Holy Roman Empire in 1648.
The power taken by Ferdinand III in contravention of theHoly Roman Empire’s constitution was stripped and re-turned to the rulers of the Imperial States. This recti-fication allowed the rulers of the Imperial States to in-dependently decide their religious worship. Protestants
3.2 Tenets 3
and Catholics were redefined as equal before the law, andCalvinism was given legal recognition.[11][12] Indepen-dence of the Dutch Republic also provided a safe countryfor European Jews.[13]
The Holy See was very displeased at the settlement, withPope Innocent X in Zelo Domus Dei reportedly calling it“null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, repro-bate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all time”.[14]
3.2 Tenets
The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia were:
• All parties would recognize the Peace of Augsburgof 1555, in which each princewould have the right todetermine the religion of his own state, the optionsbeingCatholicism, Lutheranism, and nowCalvinism(the principle of cuius regio, eius religio).[11][12]
• Christians living in principalities where their de-nomination was not the established church wereguaranteed the right to practice their faith in publicduring allotted hours and in private at their will.[15]
• General recognition of the exclusive sovereignty ofeach party over its lands, people, and agents abroad,and responsibility for the warlike acts of any of itscitizens or agents. Issuance of unrestricted letters ofmarque and reprisal to privateers was forbidden.
There were also territorial adjustments:
• The independence of Switzerland from the Empirewas formally recognized; these territories had en-joyed de facto independence for decades.
• The majority of the Peace’s terms can be attributedto the work of Cardinal Mazarin, the de facto leaderof France at the time (the king, Louis XIV, be-ing a child). Not surprisingly, France came outof the war in a far better position than any ofthe other participants. France retained the controlof the Bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun nearLorraine, received the cities of the Décapole in Al-sace (but not Strasbourg, the Bishopric of Stras-bourg, or Mulhouse) and the city of Pignerol nearthe Spanish Duchy of Milan.
• Sweden received an indemnity of five million talers,used primarily to pay its troops.[16] Sweden furtherreceived Western Pomerania (henceforth SwedishPomerania), Wismar, and the Prince-Bishoprics ofBremen and Verden as hereditary fiefs, thus gain-ing a seat and vote in the Imperial Diet of the HolyRoman Empire as well as in the respective circle di-ets (Kreistag) of the Upper Saxon, Lower Saxon andWestphalian circles.[17] However, the wording of thetreaties was ambiguous:
• Whether or not the city of Bremen wasincluded in Swedish Bremen-Verden re-mained disputed. Facing the Swedishtake-over, Bremen had claimed Imperialimmediacy, which was granted by theemperor and thus separated the city fromthe surrounding bishopric with the samename. Sweden understood that Bre-men was nevertheless to be ceded to it,and started the Swedish-Bremen wars in1653/54.[18]
• The treaty also delegated the determina-tion of the Swedish-Brandenburgian bor-der in the Duchy of Pomerania to theparties. At Osnabrück, both Swedenand Brandenburg had claimed the wholeduchy, which had been under Swedishcontrol since 1630 despite legal claims ofBrandenburgian succession. While theparties settled for a border in 1653, theunderlying conflict continued.[19]
• The treaty ruled that the Dukes of Meck-lenburg, owing their re-investiture to theSwedes, cede Wismar and the Mecklen-burgian port tolls. While Sweden un-derstood this to include the tolls of allMecklenburgian ports, the Mecklenbur-gian dukes as well as the emperor under-stood this to refer to Wismar only.[19]
• Wildeshausen, a petty exclave ofBremen-Verden and fragile basis forSweden’s seat in the Westphalian circlediet, was also claimed by the Bishopricof Münster.[19]
• Bavaria retained the Palatinate's vote in the ImperialCouncil of Electors (which elected the Holy RomanEmperor), which it had been granted by the banon the Elector Palatine Frederick V in 1623. ThePrince Palatine, Frederick’s son, was given a new,eighth electoral vote.
• The Palatinate was divided between the re-established Elector Palatine Charles Louis (son andheir of Frederick V) and Elector-Duke Maximilianof Bavaria, and thus between the Protestants andCatholics. Charles Louis obtained the LowerPalatinate, along the Rhine, while Maximilian keptthe Upper Palatinate, to the north of Bavaria.
• Brandenburg-Prussia (later Prussia) receivedFarther Pomerania, and the Bishoprics ofMagdeburg, Halberstadt, Kammin, and Minden.
• The succession to the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, whose last duke had died in 1609, wasclarified. Jülich, Berg, and Ravenstein were given tothe Count Palatine of Neuburg, while Cleves, Mark,and Ravensberg went to Brandenburg.
4 5 REFERENCES
• It was agreed that the Prince-Bishopric of Os-nabrück would alternate between Protestant andCatholic holders, with the Protestant bishops chosenfrom cadets of the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg.
• The independence of the city of Bremen was clari-fied.
• Barriers to trade and commerce erected during thewar were abolished, and “a degree” of free naviga-tion was guaranteed on the Rhine.[20]
3.3 Legacy
Main article: Westphalian sovereignty
The treaty did not entirely end conflicts arising out of theThirty Years’ War. Fighting continued between Franceand Spain until the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. Nev-ertheless, it did settle many outstanding European is-sues of the time. Some of the principles developed atWestphalia, especially those relating to respecting theboundaries of sovereign states and non-interference intheir domestic affairs, became central to the world or-der that developed over the following centuries, and re-main in effect today. In several parts of the world, how-ever, sovereign states emerged from what was once im-perial territory only after the post-World War II periodof decolonization.[6] More significantly, one of majorprinciples—the balance of power—was undermined inthe Twentieth century. Referring to the Soviet Union,Adolf Hitler said: Without Wehrmacht, a “wave wouldhave swept over Europe that would have taken no careof the ridiculous British idea of the balance of power inEurope in all its banality and stupid tradition—once andfor all.”[21] During World War II, the multipolar balancebecame bipolar, between the Axis and the Allies, fol-lowed by the United States and NATO nations against theSoviet Union and Warsaw Pact nations during the ColdWar. (1967: 332) His chapter, titled “The New Balanceof Power,” Hans Morgenthau opened with the words:
The destruction of that intellectual andmoral consensus which restrained the strugglefor power for almost three centuries deprivedthe balance of power of its vital energy thatmade it a living principle of international pol-itics … The most obvious of these structuralchanges which impairs the operation of thebalance of power is to be found in the dras-tic numerical reduction of the players in thegame.”[22]
After the fall of the Soviet Union, power was seenas unipolar with the United States in absolutecontrol,[23][24][25] though nuclear proliferation andthe rise of Japan, the European Union, the Middle East,
China, and a resurgent Russia have begun to recreatea multipolar political environment.[26][27] Instead of atraditional balance of power, inter-state aggression maynow be checked by the preponderance of power,[28] asharp contrast to the Westphalian principle.
4 See also
• Charter of Liberties
• Concordat of Worms
• Eighty Years’ War
• Freedom of religion
• History of Sweden, 1648–1700
• List of treaties
• Peace of Augsburg
• Peace of Münster
• Roger Williams (theologian)
• Thirty Years’ War
• Westphalian sovereignty
5 References[1] “Original text in Dutch National Archives”. beeld-
bank.nationaalarchief.nl.
[2] “Digital German text Treaty of Münster”. lwl.org.
[3] “Digital German text Treaty of Osnabrück”. lwl.org.
[4] “Principles of the State System”. Faculty.unlv.edu. Re-trieved 2012-09-11.
[5] “Information from city of Münster”. Muenster.de. Re-trieved 2012-09-11.
[6] Henry Kissinger (2014). “Introduction and Chpt 1”.World Order: Reflections on the Character of Nations andthe Course of History. Allen Lane. ISBN 0241004268.
[7] Croxton, Derek (2013). Westphalia: The Last ChristianPeace. Palgrave.
[8] Konrad Repgen, 'Negotiating the Peace of Westphalia: ASurvey with an Examination of the Major Problems’, In:1648: War and Peace in Europe: 3 vols. (Catalogue of the26th exhibition of the Council of Europe, on the Peace ofWestphalia), Klaus Bußmann and Heinz Schilling (eds.)on behalf of the Veranstaltungsgesellschaft 350 JahreWestfälischer Friede, Münster and Osnabrück: no publ.,1998, 'Essay Volume 1: Politics, Religion, Law and Soci-ety', pp. 355–372, here pp. 355 seq.
5
[9] Konrad Repgen, 'Negotiating the Peace of Westphalia: ASurvey with an Examination of the Major Problems’, In:1648: War and Peace in Europe: 3 vols. (Catalogue of the26th exhibition of the Council of Europe, on the Peace ofWestphalia), Klaus Bußmann and Heinz Schilling (eds.)on behalf of the Veranstaltungsgesellschaft 350 JahreWestfälischer Friede, Münster and Osnabrück: no publ.,1998, 'Essay Volume 1: Politics, Religion, Law and Soci-ety', pp. 355–372, here p. 356.
[10] Sonnino, Paul (30 June 2009). Mazarin’s Quest: TheCongress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde.Harvard University Press.
[11] Treaty of Münster 1648
[12] Barro, R. J. & McCleary, R. M. “Which Countries haveState Religions?" (PDF). University of Chicago. p. 5.Retrieved 7 November 2006.
[13] “This day, Mary 15, in Jewish history”. Cleveland JewishNews.
[14] Larry Jay Diamond; Marc F. Plattner; Philip J.Costopoulo (2005). World religions and democracy.
[15] Section 28
[16] Böhme, Klaus-R (2001). “Die sicherheitspolitische LageSchwedens nach dem Westfälischen Frieden”. In Hacker,Hans-Joachim. Der Westfälische Frieden von 1648:Wende in der Geschichte des Ostseeraums (in German).Kovač. p. 35. ISBN 3-8300-0500-8.
[17] Böhme (2001), p. 36.
[18] Böhme (2001), p. 37.
[19] Böhme (2001), p. 38.
[20] Gross, Leo (1948). “The Peace of Westphalia, 1648–1948”. American Journal of International Law. 42 (1):20–41 [p. 25]. doi:10.2307/2193560.
[21] Hitler, Adolf (2004). Domarus, Max, ed. Hitler; Speechesand Proclamations (PDF). 3. Bolchazy-Carducci Publish-ers. p. 2536. ISBN 0-86516-228X.
[22] Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power andPeace, 4th edition, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967,p 332.
[23] Krauthammer, Charles (1990). “The Unipolar Moment”.Foreign Affairs. 70/1.
[24] Wohlforth, William (1999). “The Stability of UnipolarWorld”. International Security. 24/1.
[25] Lake, David A. (2007). “Escape from the State-of-Nature: Authority and Hierarchy in World Politics”. In-ternational Security. 32/1.
[26] National Intelligence Council. 2025 Global Trends(PDF).
[27] Yueh, Linda. “America’s place in a multi-polar world”.BBC.
[28] Leffler, Melvyn P. (1992). A Preponderance of Power.Stanford University Press.
6 External links• Treaty of Münster Text (Yale University)
• Texts of the Westphalian Treaties (German)
• Peace Of Westphalia – Firmly Plants Protestantismin Europe
• High Resolution Map of Germany after the Treatyof Westphalia Dead link
• Peace Treaty of Osnabrück (Full Text)
• Peace Treaty of Münster (Full Text)
6 7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
7.1 Text• Peace ofWestphalia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia?oldid=739674372 Contributors: Paul Drye, Mav, BryanDerksen, Tarquin, Jeronimo, -- April, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Dachshund, Christian List, SimonP, Ktsquare, Heron, Leandrod, In-frogmation, Gdarin, Gabbe, Mic, SebastianHelm, Tregoweth, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Jebba, Kingturtle, Djmutex, Vzbs34, Andres,John K, Ruhrjung, Pizza Puzzle, UsagiYojimbo, Frieda, Adam Bishop, Reddi, TwinsFan48, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, Joseaperez,Wetman, Chl, Jason Potter, DavidA, Josh Cherry, Aliter, RedWolf, Baldhur, Puckly, Ojigiri~enwiki, Lupo, Seth Ilys, Guy Peters, Tomharrison, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Cantus, Mboverload, Gugilymugily, Hazzamon, Neilc, Andycjp, MarkSweep, Piotrus, Vanished user1234567890, OwenBlacker, Salvadors, Bonhumm, WpZurp, Klemen Kocjancic, Lacrimosus, Mike Rosoft, Freakofnurture, Rich Farm-brough, Fvdham, Vsmith, Aris Katsaris, Ahkond, Francis Davey, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, Pavel Vozenilek, MarkS, Bender235, Brian0918,Edwinstearns, Surachit, Markussep, Dtremenak, JW1805, RussBlau, Friviere, ADM, Alansohn, Guy Harris, Ricky81682, John Quig-gin, Sligocki, Wanderingstan, Spangineer, AndreasPraefcke, Ilse@, Mcmillin24, Kusma, Sleigh, Tainter, DanielVonEhren, Mhazard9,Nuno Tavares, Velho, Corsairstw, Woohookitty, Doctor Boogaloo, Camw, TomTheHand, Ardfern, Zbyszek, RicJac, SDC, Silverpsy-cho13, Graham87, Qwertyus, Angusmclellan, Tim!, Janosabel, Funnyhat, Ligulem, Isthatyou, Olessi, Matt Deres, Rangek, FlaBot, Gün-niX, JYOuyang, RexNL, Colonel Mustard, JonathanFreed, Chobot, Thundertje, Jared Preston, DVdm, AllyD, Volunteer Marek, Gdrbot,Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, Ravenswing, Ec-, RussBot, Tonywiki, Grubber, ML, Kaligon~enwiki, Wiki alf, Howcheng, Isolani, Stijn Calle,Deucalionite, Lockesdonkey, AjaxSmack, Zzuuzz, Arthur Rubin, Dspradau, Petri Krohn, Curpsbot-unicodify, Garion96, Che829, Roke,Tom Morris, Yvwv, Attilios, 6SJ7, SmackBot, Britannicus, YellowMonkey, Indyguy, Olorin28, Davewild, Wittylama, Alsandro, Par-lorGames, Quidam65, TimBentley, Philosopher, Rex Germanus, Ksenon, JoshNarins, Jprg1966, Baa, Mihai Andrei, Zhinz, Aacool, Zvar,Lord Eru, NickdelaG, Coffeinfreak, Mystborne, BryanG, DMacks, Curly Turkey, Oneilius, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Esrever, Scientizzle,J 1982, Marco polo, XBananiax, RandomCritic, A. Parrot, Nbatra, Selphiet, AdultSwim, Dl2000, Fitzwilliam, Provocateur, Courcelles,Adam sk, Malickfan86, Tawkerbot2, Filiep, Blue-Haired Lawyer, R9tgokunks, N2e, Liist, Hemlock Martinis, Cydebot, Jasperdoomen,Odie5533, Doug Weller, Ulritz, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Marek69, Carole Jean, Benny45boy, Mdotley, Wmgries, JAnDbot, Charles01, Tak-sen, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Sodabottle, Chrisweuve, Amitabho, Simba B, Mtd2006, Martynas Patasius, JaGa, MartinBot, Mgee4424,Sm8900, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, FANSTARbot, JoDonHo, Athaenara, Chrisfow, B****n, Elchimba, Mr Rookles, M-le-mot-dit, Joost 99, KGV, Fbarton, Hugo999, VolkovBot, Aciram, Postlebury, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Keeg bob, Elsanaturk, Charles-drakew, Corvus cornix, Optigan13, AlleborgoBot, SalJyDieBoereKomLei, SieBot, Frans Fowler, BotMultichill, VVVBot, SE7, Lucasbfr-bot, Gotipe, Flyer22 Reborn, SilverbackNet, Lightmouse, A E Francis, Jmp98251, Dabomb87, The.helping.people.tick, Francvs, ClueBot,The Thing That Should Not Be, Rjd0060, Hongthay, RashersTierney, Skäpperöd, P. S. Burton, Piledhigheranddeeper, Jonathanwebster,Excirial, Bracton, The Red, Meagannnn, RexxS, Mhwilk, Good Olfactory, Bridgetfox, Surtsicna, FactStraight, Addbot, Proofreader77,Narayansg, Manuel Trujillo Berges, Jtrusso, AkhtaBot, VEB Text, NjardarBot, CarsracBot, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, Machahn, Yobot,Estudiarme, Markcob, FeydHuxtable, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Fc12, AMuseo, 2deseptiembre, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II, Capricorn42,Ryomaandres, Fern 24, Ulf Heinsohn, Ched, AsticeSRL, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Mattis, Joaquin008, Tfjt, Room244,Filippo83, Lelisamantha, Tetraedycal, Finn Froding, Geogene, Moonraker, Lotje, Vrenator, Turther, Jfmantis, Ripchip Bot, AndreasPhilopater, Jimtaip, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Look2See1, Exitandlight, Dcirovic, ZéroBot, Git2010, GrindtXX,Wayne Slam, Donner60,Targaryen, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, Editør, CleggCanada, Helpful Pixie Bot, Quarkgluonsoup, MusikAnimal, Red Rover112, Dakotakissel-bach, Billyboy12345678910, Ernio48, Yxesmai12, Lubiesque, Asisman, Dissident93, Supaflymeat, Blaue Max, Animus93, The Collectiveof Craig, Sombak'ed, Monochrome Monitor, Library Guy, Vang her, GeorgeRiches, Juggler314, Smoothintellect, Gabriel HM, Gog theMild, Samdir1, Fiatnix, Px5x5x5, Wisdom Scholar, KasparBot, Sweepy, BU Rob13, Maxaxax, Colonel Wilhelm Klink, Tyieeb, Syedkafeel abbas, Muckraker12 and Anonymous: 319
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• File:Europe_1648_westphal_1884.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Europe_1648_westphal_1884.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: University of Texas Library From “An Historical Atlas Containing a Chronological Series of OneHundred and Four Maps, at Successive Periods, from the Dawn of History to the Present Day.” by Robert H. Labberton. Sixth Edition.1884. Original artist: Robert H. Labberton
• File:Europe_green_light.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Europe_green_light.png License: Publicdomain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aegean Boy
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• File:Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svgLicense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Made from the public domain map “Central Europe about 1648” from the Historical Atlas byWilliam R. Shepherd, at the Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection at the University of Texas. Further information from Overy, Richard,2006, The Times Complete history of the world Times Books ISBN 0007181299, and from this map Original artist: Astrokey44
• File:Waricon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/65/Waricon.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?• File:Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_(Gerard_Terborch_1648).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:www.geheugenvannederland.nl : Home : Info : Pic Original artist: Gerard ter Borch
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