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LECTURERS’ ENGLISH-INDONESIAN-JAVANESE CODE-
SWITCHING IN ENGLISH STUDENTS’ CLASSROOMS
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the requirements
for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
GRATIANUS SILAS ANDERSON ABAA
Student Number: 114214052
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMS
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2016
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ii
LECTURERS’ ENGLISH-INDONESIAN-JAVANESE CODE-
SWITCHING IN ENGLISH STUDENTS’ CLASSROOMS
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the requirements
for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
GRATIANUS SILAS ANDERSON ABAA
Student Number: 114214052
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMS
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2016
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
iii
A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis
LECTURERS’ ENGLISH-INDONESIAN-JAVANESE CODE-
SWITCHING IN ENGLISH STUDENTS’ CLASSROOMS
By
GRATIANUS SILAS ANDERSON ABAA
Student Number: 114214052
Approved by
Dr. B. Ria Lestari, M.S. September 5, 2016
Advisor
Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. September 5, 2016
Co-Advisor
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
iv
A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis
LECTURERS’ ENGLISH-INDONESIAN-JAVANESE CODE-
SWITCHING ENGLISH STUDENTS’ CLASSROOMS
By
GRATIANUS SILAS ANDERSON ABAA
Student Number: 114214052
Defended before the Board of Examiners on
September 26, 2016
and Declared Acceptable
BOARD OF EXAMINERS
Name Signature
Chairperson : Dr. F.X. Siswadi, M.A.
Secretary : A.B. Sri Mulyani, Ph. D.
Member 1 : Adventina Putranti, S.S., M.Hum.
Member 2 : Dr. B. Ria Lestari, M.S.
Member 3 : Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A.
Yogyakarta, September 30, 2016
Faculty of Letters
Sanata Dharma University
Dean
Dr. P. Ari Subagyo, M.Hum.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
v
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
I certify this undergraduate thesis contains no material which has been previously
submitted for the award of any other degree at any university, and that, to the best
of my knowledge, this undergraduate thesis contains no material previously
written by any other person except where due reference is made in the text of the
undergraduate thesis.
Yogyakarta, September 4, 2016
Gratianus Silas Anderson Abaa
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
vi
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH
UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma
Nama : Gratianus Silas Anderson Abaa
Nomor Mahasiswa : 114214052
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul
LECTURERS’ ENGLISH-INDONESIAN-JAVANESE CODE-
SWITCHING IN ENGLISH STUDENTS’ CLASSROOMS
Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,
mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan
data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasiannya di internet atau
media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin kepada saya
maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya
sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal 4 September 2016
Yang menyatakan
Gratianus Silas Anderson Abaa
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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For my Beloved Parents
Thanks for Being Such Good Companies.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to The Almighty God, Jesus
Christ, for blessing me with wonderful people who have never been absent in
helping me get through the process of this thesis writing. My deepest gratitude
goes to my thesis advisor, Dr. B. Ria Lestari, M.S. for her patience and tolerance
during the consultation time. I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. Fr.
B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. as my Co-Thesis advisor, for his corrections and criticism
for the improvements of this thesis.
My warm gratitude goes to my lovely parents. I would like to thank my
mother for all her prayers for me and her financial support. I would like to thank
my father for the company for the last couple of months. I would also like to
thank my family in Jayapura and Timika for all their support.
I would like to express my gratitude to the members of Save Orang Utan
(SOU); Stefiana, Aldo, Alex, Bertha, Yanzher, and Dimas, for their company in
helping me get through the process of writing this thesis. I would also like to
thank Syntax Error for the last couple of years.
My gratitude also goes to my schoolmates: Utty, Erick, Everd, and Indra,
for sharing their ups and downs in the process of writing their theses. I would like
to thank my neighbor, Yosua, for always asking when I will graduate that I got
annoyed and angry, and felt the urge to finish this thesis. To Kaka Enda, I thank
her for the enlightenment and the encouragement in preparing me for the thesis
defense. I am sure there is an endless list of people to thank for, therefore, I would
also like to thank everyone who happens to help me in this process but has not
been mentioned in here.
Last but not least, I would like to thank Beasiswa Unggulan Dirjen DIKTI
Kemdikbud 2011 for helping me out finish my study. I would also like to thank
Library of Sanata Dharma for providing the books I need to finish this thesis. I
would like to thank all of the lecturers and staff of English Letters
Department, Sanata Dharma University, as well, for helping me through this
learning process. To all of my humble classmates in Class B batch 2011, I would
like to thank them very much for being part of my learning process. I am
definitely going to miss all the fun and the quality time we spent in class together.
Gratianus Silas Anderson Abaa
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ............................................................................................ ii
APPROVAL PAGE .................................................................................. iii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE…………………………………………………. iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ....................................... v
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH……. vi
MOTTO PAGE ......................................................................................... vii
DEDICATION PAGE ............................................................................... viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................... x
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................... xi
ABSTRAK ................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………… 1
A. Background of the Study .................................................... 1
B. Problem Formulation .......................................................... 3
C. Objectives of the Study ...................................................... 3
D. Definition of Terms ............................................................ 4
CHAPTER II: REVIEWS OF LITERATURE ………........................ 6
A. Review of Related Studies .................................................. 6
B. Review of Related Theories ............................................... 8
a. Sociolinguistics ............................................................. 8
b. Code .............................................................................. 10
c. Code-Switching ............................................................. 11
1. Types of Code-Switching ........................................ 12
2. Reasons of Code-Switching .................................... 15
C. Theoretical Framework ...................................................... 20
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY …………………………………… 22
A. Object of the Study ............................................................. 22
B. Approach of the Study ........................................................ 22
C. Method of the Study ........................................................... 23
1. Data Collection ………………………………………… 24
2. Data Analysis …………………………………………... 26
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS ……………………………………………. 27
A. Types of Code-Switching in English Students’ Classrooms. 27
a. Tag-Switching ................................................................. 28
b. Intersentential Switching ........................................... …. 32
c. Intrasentential Switching ................................................ 44
B. Reasons of Code-Switching in English Students’ Classrooms 57
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ................................................................ 62
BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………. 64
APPENDIX ............................................................................................... 66
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ABSTRACT
ABAA, GRATIANUS S. A. Lecturers’ English-Indonesian-Javanese Code-
Switching in English Students’ Classrooms. Yogyakarta: Department of
English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2016.
Language is the system of communication. In a verbal communication like,
for example, in a conversation, the language users sometimes have an ability to
speak more than one language. Due to that matter, the language users often switch
the use of language from one to another. One example of code-switching involves
three different languages, which are English, Indonesian, and Javanese, in the
classroom instructions produced by lecturers. In teaching English as a foreign
language, code-switching is one of the methods applied by the lecturers in the
classroom. Code-switching is quite important to be applied in helping lecturers
avoid the occurrence of misunderstanding with the students. Therefore, this switch
of language is given a special concern in the study.
The focus of the study itself is to answer two main problems. The first is to
identify the types of code-switching used by the lecturers in the classroom
instructions when the teaching-learning process is underway. Moreover, the
second is to identify the reasons why lecturers use code-switching.
There are two dominant approaches of code-switching used in this study.
They are the structural approach and the sociolinguistic approach. The structural
approach is applied to answer the first problem on types of code-switching, in
which there are three types of them; tag-switching, intersentential switching, and
intrasentential switching. Meanwhile, the sociolinguistic approach is applied to
answer the second problem on reasons of code-switching, in which there are many
possible reasons, such as assert power and declare solidarity. For data collection,
the methods applied for collecting data were by using record and interview
techniques. Furthermore, the data, which were in the form of oral expressions,
were transcribed into written form. Thus, the data were prepared for the analysis.
In the analysis, there are 180 code-switching expressions in the classroom
instructions produced by the lecturers. From total 180 expressions which are
identified, 23 expressions are categorized as tag-switching, 59 expressions as
intersentential switching, and 92 expressions as intrasentential switching.
Meanwhile, for the reasons of code-switching, there are 9 reasons for using code-
switching mentioned by the lecturers, which some of them are expressing
feelings, explaining difficult material, expressing particular terms, and talking
about particular topic. In conclusion, the three types of code-switching are found
used by the lecturers in the classroom instructions. Moreover, each lecturer has
their own reasons for using code-switching in the classroom.
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ABSTRAK
ABAA, GRATIANUS S. A. Lecturers’ English-Indonesian-Javanese Code-
Switching in English Students’ Classrooms. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra
Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2016.
Bahasa adalah sistem komunikasi. Dalam komunikasi verbal seperti, contoh,
di dalam sebuah percakapan, pengguna bahasa terkadang memiliki kemampuan
untuk berbicara lebih dari satu bahasa. Karena itu, pengguna bahasa sering
mengalihkan penggunaan bahasa dari satu bahasa ke bahasa lainnya. Satu contoh
alih kode melibatkan tiga bahasa berbeda, yaitu bahasa Inggris, bahasa Indonesia,
dan bahasa Jawa, dalam instruksi kelas yang diberikan oleh pengajar. Dalam
mengajar bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa asing, alih kode merupakan salah satu
metode yang diterapkan pengajar di dalam kelas. Alih kode cukup penting
diterapkan dalam membantu pengajar mencegah terjadinya kesalahpahaman
dengan pelajar. Karenanya, pengalihan bahasa ini diberikan perhatian khusus
dalam studi.
Fokus dari studi ini sendiri adalah untuk menjawab dua masalah utama.
Pertama adalah untuk mengidentifikasi tipe alih kode yang digunakan pengajar
dalam instruksi dalam kelas ketika proses belajar-mengajar sedang berlangsung.
Selain itu, kedua adalah untuk mengidentifikasi alasan mengapa pengajar
menggunakan alih kode.
Terdapat dua pendekatan dominan alih kode yang digunakan dalam studi ini.
Mereka adalah pendekatan struktural dan pendekatan sosiolinguistik. Pendekatan
struktural diterapkan untuk menjawab masalah pertama mengenai tipe alih kode,
di mana terdapat tiga tipe; tag-switching, intersentential switching, dan
intrasentential switching. Sementara itu, pendekatan sosiolinguistik diterapkan
untuk menjawab masalah kedua mengenai alasan alih kode, di mana terdapat
banyak alasan yang memungkinkan, seperti menegaskan kekuasaan dan
menyatakan solidaritas. Untuk pengumpulan data, metode yang diterapkan untuk
mengumpulkan data adalah dengan menggunakan teknik rekam dan wawancara.
Selanjutnya, data, yang berupa ekspresi lisan, diubah kedalam bentuk tulisan.
Kemudian, data siap untuk analisis.
Dalam analisis, terdapat 180 ekspresi alih kode instruksi kelas yang diberikan
pengajar. Dari total 180 ekspresi yang teridentifikasi, 23 ekspresi dikategorikan
sebagai tag-switching, 59 ekspresi sebagai intersentential switching, dan 92
ekspresi sebagai intrasentential switching. Sementara itu, terdapat 9 alasan
menggunakan alih kode yang disebutkan oleh pengajar, yang mana beberapa
diantaranya adalah untuk mengungkapkan perasaan, menjelaskan materi yang
susah, menjelaskan istilah khusus, dan membahas topik tertentu. Kesimpulannya,
terdapat tiga tipe alih kode yang digunakan dalam instruksi kelas. Selain itu,
setiap pengajar memiliki alasan tersendiri untuk menggunakan alih kode di dalam
kelas.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Code-switching is a part of the study of the relation between language and
society, called sociolinguistics. Code-switching concerns itself on the changing of
language use from one to another in a single conversation. Wardhaugh (2006:101)
mentions that “code” in code-switching refers to a particular dialect or language that
a person chooses to use in an occasion. Heller (1988:1) adds that code-switching
occurs when a person mixes two languages in a single sentence or in a conversation.
Therefore, according to the statement, it is concluded that code-switching is the
process of switching language use from one to another occurring in a single
conversation. One example of code-switching is the switch of language use from both
English to Indonesian and English to Javanese. This switch of language is actually the
topic that is going to be discussed in this study. This study discusses lecturers’ code-
switching in three different languages: English, Indonesian, and Javanese, in the
classroom instructions.
Code-switching is often applied by the lecturers in the classroom to support
students’ learning success. In teaching English as a foreign language, code-switching
is one of the methods applied by the lecturers in the classroom. According to Norrish
(1997:1), lecturers code-switch when the level of English, whether in the explanation
or in the textbook, is quite difficult to understand. Since there is a lot of
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misunderstandings in the classroom and the lecturers do not want to spend time
giving detail explanations about the misunderstanding or searching for simplest
words to clarify the misunderstanding and the confusion in the classroom, code-
switching is applied to help the lecturers facilitating a good situation of teaching-
learning process. In fact, lecturers apply code-switching as a means of providing
opportunities towards the students and also enhancing students’ understanding
(Ahmad, 2009: 49). It is argued by Lai (1996: 91) that code-switching is needed to be
a useful tool in assisting English in teaching and learning process to avoid the
misunderstanding and to make sure that the instructions given by the lecturers are
well received and understood by the students. Therefore, this changing of language
used by the lecturers underlies this study to be conducted.
This study focuses on the type and reason of code-switching. Poplack (1980:614-
615) identifies three types of code-switching. They are tag-switching, intersentential
switching, and intrasentential switching. Besides, Wardhaugh (2006: 110) states that
code-switching occurs because of many reasons, such as assert power, declare
solidarity, and express identity.
In the type of code-switching, although realized by the present researcher that
code-switching is significant and useful to be applied in the classroom, the lecturers
code-switch, from one language to another, spontaneously. Meaning to say, the
lecturers do not prepare to determine what type of code-switching they are going to
use. Therefore, this study is going to identify and to classify the type of code-
switching based on the lecturers’ instructions. When a lecturer says, for instance, “so,
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
3
kalau iki wes beres, we’ll move to the methodology,” it means the lecturer switches
language from English to Javanese using the intersentential switching type of code-
switching. Besides, there are many reasons of code-switching provided for the
example above. One of the reasons is the students have limited vocabulary in English.
Therefore, switching language from English to languages they are more familiar with,
in this case Javanese, will help them to understand the instructions. Moreover, the
switching can also aim to make more interesting conversation with the students. In
fact, code-switching, no matter what language is used, is needed to facilitate the
teaching-learning process.
By having this topic, it is believed that the type and the reason of code-switching
in classroom instructions spoken by the lecturers are able to be identified and
classified.
B. Problem Formulation
1. What types of code-switching are used by the lecturers in the English
students’ classrooms in Sanata Dharma University?
2. What are the reasons for using code-switching?
C. Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are formulated both to identify the types of code-
switching and to identify the reasons of using code-switching in the class room. From
the identification of the types of code-switching, the reasons of code-switching are
going to be identified, as well.
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In short, the types of code-switching used by lecturers determine the reasons of code-
switching. Therefore, in the objective of the study, the types and the reasons of code-
switching are distinct but related one another.
D. Definition of Terms
According to Wardhaugh (2006:101), the particular dialect or language that
somebody chooses to use on any occasion is called “code”, which is a system used
for communication between two or more parties. In short, in this case, code refers to a
language that somebody picks up to use in the conversational interaction with other
people.
Meanwhile, code-switching is the term used for the phenomenon of switching
one language to another language. It is mentioned by Wardhaugh (2006:101) that
code-switching occurs in conversation speakers’ turns or within a single speaker’s
turn. Meaning to say, for example, when two people have a sort of small talk and one
of them uses language that is not their mother tongue, it is called code-switching. So,
concluded by Heller (1988:1), code-switching occurs when a person mixes two
languages in a single sentence or in a conversation.
According to Poplack (1980:614) tag-switching, which is also known as
emblematic switching, is a type of code-switching that deals with inclusion of tags,
including interjections, idiomatic expressions, parenthetical, and even individual
noun switches.
In the study held by Jalil (2009:4), Poplack said that intersentential switching is a
switch of code that occurs at the phrase or sentence level, between sentences.
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Poplack’s statement is added by Hoffmann (1991:112) who said that intersentential
switching occurs between clause or sentence boundary.
Poplack (1980:614-615) mentioned that intrasentential switching occurs within a
sentence. It is also mentioned by Appel and Muysken (1987:118) that intersentential
switching is one of the three kinds of switching that occurs in the middle of a
sentence.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter provides three dominant parts of the study to be discussed. They
are: review of related studies, review of related theories, and theoretical framework.
Review of related studies elaborates the studies done by other researchers on similar
topics. The studies similar to this study are taken from Ahmad’s and Sumarsih’s
studies. Each of them is reviewed to find out the similarities and differences in order
to avoid the topics duplication. Moreover, in this chapter, some theories are reviewed
and discussed to find a solid ground on which this study is carried on. Eventually, this
chapter reviews the theoretical framework in which this part explains the contribution
of the theories and reviews in solving the problems of the study.
A. Review of Related Studies
1. Ahmad’s study “Teachers’ Code-Switching in Classroom Instructions for
Low English Proficient Learners”
Ahmad’s study discusses the perceptions of the learners about the use of code-
switching by the teachers in English Language classroom. By using questionnaire
technique that is modified to include a 5-point Likert-type scale, instead of Yes-No
answer type, Ahmad’s study is focused on finding out whether or not the use of code-
switching, by the teachers, serves various beneficial functions to support learners’
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learning success, learners’ affective support, and the future use of code-switching in
the classroom.
Although having a similarity in dealing with code-switching in the classroom
instructions, this present study has differences on the focus of the study. Ahmad
discusses 1) learners perceptions of teachers’ code-switching, 2) the relation of
teachers’ code-switching and learners’ affective support, 3) the relation of teachers’
code-switching and learners’ learning success, and 4) the identification of the future
use of code-switching in students’ learning.
Meanwhile, this present study emphasizes the types as well as the reasons of
code-switching used by the lecturers in the classroom instructions as the teaching-
learning process is underway.
2. Sumarsih’s study “Code Switching and Code Mixing in Indonesia: Study in
Sociolinguistics”
In her study, Sumarsih discusses the use of both code-switching and code-mixing
in sort of a particular conversation in everyday life. Sumarsih’s study, which took
place in North Sumatra, tends to focus on both the use and the reason of code-
switching and code-mixing. She finds out that the use of code-switching and code-
mixing are not only involving English and Indonesian languages, but also involving
North Sumatran’s local languages, Batak Mandailing and Batak Toba.
Although the reason of code-switching (and code-mixing) in her study is similar
to this present study, Sumarsih discusses code-switching and code-mixing in
everyday conversation, which involves the whole society in three places in North
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Sumatra, while this present study limits itself by only discussing lecturers’ types and
reasons of code-switching in the classroom instructions.
B. Review of Related Theories
This subchapter provides some theories to be reviewed and discussed. There are
three dominant parts related to code-switching to be reviewed and discussed in this
subchapter. They are Sociolinguistics, Code, and Code-Switching.
a. Sociolinguistics
This following section provides many ways in which language and society are
related. As a branch of Linguistics, Wardhaugh says
Sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationships between
language and society with the goal being a better understanding of the structure
of language and of how languages function in communication. (Wardhaugh,
2006:13)
In addition, Hudson (1996:4) has described Sociolinguistics as follows:
Sociolinguistics is ‘the study of language in relation to society.’ In other words,
in sociolinguistics we study language and society in order to find out as much as
we can about what kind of thing language is. (Hudson, 1996:4)
Another sociolinguist like, for example, Gumperz (1971: 223) describes that
sociolinguistics is an attempt to find correlations between social structure and
linguistic structure and to observe any changes that occur.
Chambers (2002:3), on the other hand, is even more direct by saying:
Sociolinguistics is the study of the social uses of language, and the most productive
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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studies in the four decades of sociolinguistic research have emanated from
determining the social evaluation of linguistic variants.
Meanwhile, Chaika (1982:2) says that Sociolinguistics is the study of the
ways people use language in social interaction. She adds that the sociolinguist is
concerned with the stuff of everyday life, such as, for example, how you talk to
your friends, family, and teachers, as well as to the storekeeper an-strangers-
everyone you meet in the course of a day-and why you talk as you do and they
talk as they do.
There are some definitions given by the sociolinguists to Sociolinguistics.
Trudgill (1978:11), at first, says that ‘while everybody would agree that
sociolinguistics has something to do with language and society, it is clearly also not
concerned with everything that could be considered “language and society”.’
However, Downes in Trudgill’s glossary of terms (2003:123), characterizes
sociolinguistic research as ‘work which is intended to achieve a better understanding
of the nature of human language by studying language in its social context and/or to
achieve a better understanding of the nature of the relationship and interaction
between language and society.’ (Wardhaugh, 2006:15)
Downes (1998:9) himself mentions that ‘sociolinguistics is that branch of
linguistics which studies just those properties of language and languages which
require reference to social, including contextual, factors in their explanation.’
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b. Code
The general definition of code is that it is a system of rules to convert
information, such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture, into another form or
representation, sometimes shortened or secret, for communication through a channel
or storage in a medium. (https://prezi.com/ppf0d_a787em/se/)
Meanwhile, through the perspective of sociolinguistics, Wardhaugh (2006:88)
indicates, it is possible to refer to a language or a variety of a language as a code.
Moreover, in the fifth edition of An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Wardhaugh
states
In general, however, when you open your mouth, you must choose a particular
language, dialect, style, register, or variety– that is, a particular code. The
‘neutral’ term code, taken from information theory, can be used to refer to any
kind of system that two or more people employ for communication. It can
actually be used for a system used by a single person, as when someone devises a
private code to protect certain secrets. (Wardhaugh, 2006:88)
Wardhaugh (2006:101) adds that code refers to the particular dialect or language
that a person chooses to use on any occasion, a system used for communication
between two or more parties.
These statements stated by Wardhaugh are supported by other sociolinguists.
Rahardi (2001:21-22), for example, states that code can be defined as a system of
speech that the application of the language has characteristics that are compatible
with the background of the speakers, the speakers’ relationship with the interlocutors
and the speech situation there.
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Meanwhile, Marjohan and Poedjosoedarmo have thoughts about code as well.
Poedjosoedarmo (1978:30) mentions that code usually has a form of a language
variant that is significantly used for communication. Marjohan (1988:48), on the
other hand, argues that code may be an idiolect, a dialect, a sociolect, a register or a
language.
c. Code-Switching
Code-switching as a part of sociolinguistics concerns the switching of code from
one to another in an occasion. Poplack (1980:583) states that code-switching is the
alternation of two languages within a single discourse, sentence or constituent.
Meanwhile, Duran, who supports the idea mentioned by Poplack, says that
Code-switching is probably strongly related to bilingual life and may appear
more or less concurrently in the life of the developing language bilinguals
especially when they are conscious of such behavior and then choose more or
less purposefully to use or not to use it. (Duran, 1994:3)
Another sociolinguist, Hoffmann (1991:110) argues code switching is that it
involves the alternate use of two languages or linguistics varieties within the same
utterance or during the same conversation. Meanwhile, Wardhaugh states
People, then, are usually required to select a particular code whenever they
choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to another or
to mix codes even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a
new code in a process known as code-switching. (Wardhaugh, 2006:101)
On the other hand, Suwito (1983:67) adds that code-switching is an alternation of
code from one code to another. So, when a speaker first uses code A and then
switching it for using the code B, this phenomenon of language alternation, therefore,
is called code-switching. Moreover, toward Suwito’s argument Dell Hymes
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(1972:103) says that code switching has become a common term for alternate
use of two or more language, varieties of language or even speech styles.
Therefore, according to Rahardi (2001:21), code-switching, in this study, is the
use of two or more languages alternately, the varieties of language in the same
language or perhaps the speech styles in a bilingual community.
Further, in discussing code-switching, the types and the reasons of code-
switching is about to be discussed as well. In the two sections below, the discussion is
about the types and the reasons of code-switching.
1. Types of Code-Switching
This section provides the general classification of code-switching. According to
Poplack (1980:614-615), code-switching is divided into three types: tag-switching,
intersentential switching, and intrasentential switching. Still according to Poplack
(1980:614-615), tag-switching, which is also known by the name of emblematic
switching, tends to deal with the fillers, tags, interjections, idiomatic expression, and
even individual noun switches. Besides, while intersentential switching tends to occur
at the phrase level or sentence level, between sentences, intrasentential switching
often occurs within a sentence.
Romaine (1995:122-123), who supports Poplack’s argument, says that there are
three types of code-switching identified. First of all is tag-switching, which involves
the insertion of a tag from one language into an utterance which is entirely in
the other language. For example, ‘you know’ and ‘I mean’. Tag switching is subject
to minimal syntactic restrictions; therefore, tags may be easily inserted at a number of
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points in a monolingual utterance without violating syntactic rules. Next is
intersentential switching that involves a switch at a clause or sentence boundary,
where each clause or sentence is in one language or another. Intersentential switching
can be thought of as a requiring greater fluency in both languages than tag-switching
since major portions of the utterance must conform to the rules of both languages. For
example is in the Puerto Rican bilingual Spanish-English speech given by Poplack
(1980:614-615) Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en espaňol.
‘Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish and finish it in Spanish.’ On the other
hand, intrasentential switching is the switching that occurs within the clause or
sentence boundary as in this example of Tok Pisin-English conversation What’s so
funny? Come, be good. Otherwise, yu bai go long kot. ‘What’s so funny? Come, be
good. Otherwise, you’ll go to court.’
Other sociolinguists such as Appel and Muysken (1987:118) states three different
types of code-switching:
(a) Tag-switches involve an exclamation, a tag, or a parenthetical in another
language than the rest of the sentence.
(b) Intra-sentential switches occur in the middle of a sentence.
(c) Inter-sentential switches occur between sentences, as their name indicates.
(Appel and Muysken, 1987:118)
Meanwhile, Bond (2010:134) also mentioned that code-switching is often
grouped into three major types: tag-switching, inter-sentential switching, and intra-
sentential switching. Tag-switching involves the insertion of a parenthetical
expression, such as a discourse marker or sentence adverbial, from a donor language
(say, the English you know) into an otherwise fully independent clause in the host
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language. These parenthetical or 'tag' expressions typically express speaker mood or
stance. Unlike tag-switching, intersentential switching is syntactically more restricted.
Switches between clauses occur at clausal or sentential boundaries, or utterance
boundaries in spoken discourse, with clauses from each language faithfully
conforming to the rules of their respective languages. Intra-sentential switching, also
referred to as code-mixing, involves the insertion of smaller morphosyntactic
constituents, such as words or phrases, from one language into another.
Hoffmann (1991:112), on the other hand, shows many types of code-switching,
which some of them are intersentential switching, intrasentential switching,
emblematic switching, and intra-lexical switching. According to Hoffmann
(1991:112), intersentential switching is a kind of code switching that occurs
between clause or sentence boundary, where each clause or sentence is in one
language or other, as when an adult Spanish-English bilingual says: “Tenia zapatos
blancos, un poco, they were off-white, you know.” Another is emblematic switching,
or for another name is tag switching. In this kind of code switching, tags,
exclamation and certain set phrases in one languages are inserted into an
utterance otherwise in another. Next is intrasentential switching, where Hoffmann
categorizes this kind of switching as code-mixing. This kind of switching occurs
within a phrase, a clause or a sentence boundary. Meanwhile, intra-lexical
switching tends to occur within a word boundary. Upon this intra-lexical switching,
Donald Winford (2003:126-167), added that intra-word switching occurs within a
word, such as at the morpheme boundary.
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These particular types of code-switching stated by sociolinguist above are often
found in a conversational interaction, such as in the meeting, in the discussion, and in
the classroom when teaching-learning process is ongoing. These types of code-
switching tend to explain how bilinguals differ from monolinguals in the way
languages are internalized. The use of these types of code-switching is actually
related one another to the other section which discusses the reasons of code-switching
in a conversation.
2. Reasons of Code-Switching
If the previous section discusses the types of code-switching, in this section, the
discussion is about the speaker’s motivations, or the reasons, for using code-
switching in a conversational interaction.
As Mukenge (2012:587) stated that code-switching can be employed to create
humor, Gal (1988:247) says code-switching is a conversational strategy used to
establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal
relations with their rights and obligations.
Wardhaugh (2006:110) adds that code-switching can actually allow speaker to do
many things such as assert power, declare solidarity, maintain certain neutrality when
both code are used, express identity, and so on. Further, Wardhaugh (2006:104) also
revealed that there are actually two kinds of code-switching: situational and
metaphorical.
Situational code-switching occurs when the languages used change according to
the situations in which the conversants find themselves: they speak one language
in one situation and another in a different one. No topic change is involved.
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When a change of topic requires a change in the language used we have
metaphorical code-switching. The interesting point here is that some topics may
be discussed in either code, but the choice of code adds a distinct flavor to what
is said about the topic. (Wardhaugh, 2006:104)
Wardhaugh (2006:104) says that the reasons for switching from one code to
another is actually including solidarity, accommodation to listeners, choice of topic,
and perceived social and cultural distance. The real example of the reason of code-
switching as mentioned by Wardhaugh above, about solidarity, is the use of “saya”
and “aku.” These two Indonesian terms mean “I,” in English. When an Indonesian
uses “saya,” it means that the person tends to show “power” and “distance” due to the
word that is often used in the formal situation such as in the meeting and press
conference. Otherwise, when the person uses “aku,” it means that the person tends to
show “solidarity” due to usage of the word that is often used in informal situation
such as in small talk and daily conversation. Although the word is used in a sort of
informal situation, the word is believed to familiarize each other. After all, the
motivation of the speaker is an important consideration in the choice. Moreover, such
motivation need not be at all conscious, for apparently many speakers are not aware
that they have used one particular variety of a language rather than another or
sometimes even that they have switched languages either between or within
utterances.
Mukenge (2012:586), on the other hand, in discussing on HIV and AIDS and sex
issues in the film Yellow Card, mentions that code switching is used when there is
need to avoid directly referring to the words and phrases believed to be taboo in the
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Zimbabwean society. For instance, as described above, sex is referred to as “sleeping
around”, or “pumping” and being sexually active is referred to as seeing the opposite
sex. Thus, a switch from ordinary language to euphemistic expressions within
sentences or speech events is done first of all to save the face of the listener. Code-
switching also enables the speaker to avoid using explicit and offensive language in
the face of the listening audience.
In fact, when code-switching occurs, the motivation, or the reasons of the
speaker is an important consideration in the process. Hoffmann (1991:115-116) states
that there are some reasons the speaker uses code-switching in a conversation. There
are 10 reasons stated by Hoffmann, which are:
1) Talking about particular topic
People sometimes prefer to talk about a particular topic in one language
rather than in another, for example like expressing emotional feelings.
Sometimes, people feel free and more comfortable to express their emotional
feelings in a language that is not their everyday language.
2) Quoting somebody
Sometimes, in a conversation, a speaker switches from mother-tongue into a
foreign language in order to quote a famous expression, a proverb, or a
saying of some well-known figures. The switch involves the words that the
speaker is claiming the quoted person said.
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3) Being emphatic about something (declare solidarity)
Sometimes, a speaker who is talking in a foreign language switches the
language into the native language in order to be emphatic about something,
like, for example, the interlocutor does not understand or does not speak the
foreign language as fluently as the speaker. Therefore, the speaker switches
the language into native language, rather than keep speaking in the foreign
language, in order to have a good interaction with the interlocutor.
4) Interjection (inserting sentence fillers or sentence connectors)
Interjection is words or expressions, which are inserted into a sentence
to convey surprise, strong emotion, or to gain attention. Interjection is a
short exclamation like: Darn!, Hey!, Well!, Look!, etc. They have no
grammatical value, but speaker uses them quite often, usually more in
speaking than in writing. Language switching among bilingual or
multilingual people can sometimes mark an interjection or sentence
connectors. Otherwise, it may also happen unintentionally.
5) Repetition used for clarification
Repetition used for clarification occurs, for example, when a lecturer explains
the particular material of the lecture by using language A and repeating the
explanation for the same material by using language B. Frequently, the
explanation in language A is repeated in the language B literally. A repetition
is not only served to clarify what is said, but also to amplify or emphasize the
message.
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6) Expressing Identity
Code switching can also be used to express group identity. This happens
because the way of communication of one community is different from the
people who are out of the community.
7) Intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor
According to Arimasari (2013:33) when bilingual or multilingual person
talks to another bilingual/multilingual, there will be lots of code switching
occurs. It means to make the content of his speech runs smoothly and can be
understood by the listener. A message in one code is repeated in the other
code in somewhat modified form.
8) To soften or strengthen request or command
Arimasari (2013:33) in her thesis explains that, for Indonesian people,
switching from Indonesian into English can also function as a request
because English is not their native tongue, so it does not sound as direct as
Indonesian. However, code switching can also strengthen a command since
the speaker can feel more powerful than the listener because he can use a
language that everybody cannot.
9) Because of the real lexical need
One reason for a speaker to switch language from one into another is due to
the lack of equivalent lexicon in the languages. For example, when an
English-Indonesian bilingual has a word that is lacking in English, the
speaker will find it easier to say the word in Indonesian and vice versa.
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10) To avoid other people join the conversation
Sometimes people want to communicate only with certain people or
community they belong to. Therefore, to avoid the other community or
interference objected to their communication by people, they may try to
exclude those people by using the language that nobody knows.
C. Theoretical Framework
In order to answer the problems on the problem formulation, at first the
discussion on the theory takes place in understanding the basic concept of
sociolinguistics, code, and code-switching. As known, these three dominant parts are
closely related and are the basic understanding to the topic being discussed in this
study.
Some arguments upon sociolinguistics stated by some of the sociolinguists, such
as, Wardhaugh (2006:13) and Hudson (1996:4) are used to know the definition of
sociolinguistics itself and its connection to topic of this study. Moreover, the theories
stated by Wardhaugh (2006:88), Rahardi (2001:21-22), Marjohan (1988:48), and
Poedjosoedarmo (1978:30), are needed to find out what ‘code’ actually is, in relation
to this study. After discussing the other two dominant parts related to code-switching,
the discussion comes to the topic of the study, code-switching. In discussing code-
switching, one point is taken out from most of the arguments given by sociolinguists,
such as Poplack (1980:583), Hoffmann (1993:110), Duran (1994:3), Wardhaugh
(2006:101), Suwito (1983:67), Dell Hymes (1972:103), and Rahardi (2001:21), upon
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code-switching, in which it is an alternation of code from one to another in a
conversational interaction.
Based on these arguments on code-switching stated by sociolinguists, the
discussion further continues to the problems that have to be solved. They are the
types and the reasons of code-switching. First of all, in order to answer the first
problem on problem formulation about the types of code-switching, the theory
mentioned by Poplack (1980:614-615), who categorizes the three types of code-
switching, is used. Moreover, the theories mentioned by other sociolinguists, such as
Romaine (1995: 122-123), Hoffmann (1991:112), Appel and Muysken (1987:118),
are, more or less, similar from the one proposed by Poplack. These theories then are
considered as the supporting theories for answering the first problem on the types of
code-switching.
Meanwhile, on the other hand, the theory applied for finding out the answer of
the second problem about the reasons of code-switching is the theory that is initiated
by Wardhaugh (2006:110), who says that code-switching can allow speaker to do
many things such as assert power and declare solidarity. Moreover, the theories
mentioned by other sociolinguistics such as Mukenge (2012:587), who mentions that
code-switching can be used for creating humor, Gal (1988:247), who argues that
code-switching is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group
boundaries, and Hoffmann (1991:115-116), who states 10 different reasons the
speaker uses code-switching in a conversation, are considered as the supporting
theories to the theory mentioned by Wardhaugh earlier.
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CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, the study discusses the object, the approach, and the method of
the study. In the object of the study, it puts forward code-switching used in lecturers’
classroom instructions. Meanwhile, the approach of the study introduces the
application of approach which supports the study. For the method of the study, it is
focused on discussing how the data are collected, organized, and categorized.
A. Object of the Study
As taking place in the field of linguistics, especially sociolinguistics, this study
discusses code-switching. Code-switching used by the lecturers in giving instruction
in the classroom is the object of this study. Further, this study particularly discusses
code-switching, the change of language use, which, in this case, includes three
different languages: English, Indonesian, and Javanese, in the classroom instructions
given by the lecturers.
This study limited itself in only investigating six lecturers who taught seven
different courses. In addition, one of the lecturers taught two different subjects.
Moreover, since it contained a lot of instructions, it could provide useful data.
B. Approach of the Study
In discussing code-switching, two dominant approaches of code-switching are
used in this study. They are sociolinguistic and structural approaches. These two
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approaches are considered as the most suitable approaches to answer the questions in
problem formulation.
Boztepe (2003:3), in his paper, states that the structural approach of code-
switching is primarily concerned with grammatical aspects. The focus of structural
approach is to identify syntactic and morphosyntactic constraints on the code-
switching. On the other hand, sociolinguistic approach sees code-switching as a
discourse phenomenon focusing its attention on questions such as, for example, how
social meaning is created in code-switching and what specific discourse functions it
serves.
In short, the sociolinguistic approach analyzes code-switching from the social
context, for instance, what causes code-switching to occur in a conversation. On the
other hand, the structural approach is more inclined to the grammatical aspects of
code-switching.
These two approaches are used in order to identify the objectives of the study,
which are the type of code-switching and the reason of code-switching in the
instructions given by the lecturers in the classroom when teaching-learning process is
underway.
C. Method of the Study
In this part, the methods applied in the study were the interview, recording, and
note-taking techniques. These three methods were applied for collecting data in the
form of classroom instructions expressed by the lecturers. This part covers data
collection and data analysis.
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1. Data Collection
There were six lecturers from English Department of Sanata Dharma University
Yogyakarta to be interviewed for the investigation of this study. The classroom
instructions given by the lecturers who taught particular courses were the primary
data for this study. The data were collected in the classroom when teaching-learning
process was underway by using recording techniques and notes.
For the first step, the writer attended each class, one by one, those six lecturers
gave lecture. It started from the class of “Lecturer 1” who taught Introduction to
English Test (INTET), “Lecturer 2” who taught “English Structure” after that,
“Lecturer 3” who taught Stylistics, and then “Lecturer 4” who taught two different
courses, which are Language Research Methodology and Pragmatics, followed by the
History of Modern Thought course taught by “Lecturer 5, and finally “Lecturer 6”
who taught Interpreting. The process of gathering the whole data needed a couple of
weeks because the writer had to adjust to each lecturer’s teaching schedule in class.
After finished doing the first step, which was attending each class, for the next
step, in each class where those lecturers gave the lecture, the writer used a voice
recorder on the smart phone to record the interaction, such as explanations,
instructions, or conversations, each lecturer had in the classroom. The process of
recording was done without the lecturers’ acknowledge. Besides, the writer was not
caught recording by the lecturers in the class. Therefore, the recording process went
unnoticed by the lecturers. As the recorder on the smart phone recorded each
lecturer’s interaction with the students, the writer occasionally took notes on what the
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lecturers said if there was any code-switching detected. The process of gathering the
data in each class started since the class was begun until the class was over.
Furthermore, all the interactions each lecturer had in the classroom from the voice
recorder were transformed into the script for the analysis.
As known, the process of gathering the data was not only from the classroom
instructions, but also from the interview with the lecturers. The interview was done
by using interview techniques, recordings, and notes. The process of gathering the
data from the interview was a bit different from gathering the data in the classroom
instructions, though the techniques were similar. For the first step, the writer made an
appointment with each lecturer to be interviewed. Along with that, the writer
explained the topic of this study, so the lecturers knew why they were interviewed.
As known, the interview was held mostly in the lecturers’ offices. Further, before the
interview began, the writer prepared the notes, a pen, and smart phone for recording
the interview. When the interview started, the smart phone recorded the interview.
Meanwhile, the writer took notes on the lecturers’ answers. The questions asked to
the lecturers in that interview were like, for example, “Why do you think about code-
switching in the classroom?” and “Why did you use it in class when you were
lecturing?” As the interview finished, the data, especially from the voice recorder,
were transcribed into written form, into the script, for the analysis.
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2. Data Analysis
The data on the instructions given by the lecturers in the classroom were
analyzed and the interview with the lecturers followed.
The data, from the classroom instructions, which had been transformed into the
script, were organized in the form of table. It showed the expression of code-
switching in classroom instructions given by the lecturers. After that, these data were
classified into three different parts to identify the first problem; the type of code-
switching. And then, the writer tried to identify the reason of code-switching from the
interview with the lecturers. It definitely related to the lecturers’ answers of the
interview to the theory used for this study.
After the whole data from the classroom instructions given by the lecturers had
been identified and categorized into particular groups based on the types of code-
switching, and the reasons for using code-switching had been identified from the
interview with the lecturers, the problems in the problem formulation were solved. At
the end, the final conclusion of this study was made based on the data analysis that
had been analyzed.
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CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
This chapter is divided into two main sections, which are (A) answer for the
types of using code-switching in the classroom instructions and discussion, and (B)
answer for the reasons of using code-switching in the classroom instructions and
discussion. Here the data are used for the discussion and finding out the answer of
this study. The data from classroom instruction are used in the section (A).
Meanwhile, the data from the interview with the six lecturers are used in the section
(B). Further, the theories presented in the reviews are applied in this part. The theory
stated by Poplack (1980:614-615) and the supporting theories stated by other
sociolinguists are used for the discussion and finding out the answer in the section
(A), the types of code-switching. Meanwhile, the main theory stated by Wardhaugh
(2006:110) and supporting theories stated by sociolinguists like Mukege (2012:587)
and Gal (1988:247) are used for the analysis and finding the answer in the section
(B), the reasons of code-switching.
A. Types of Using Code-Switching in the English Students’ Classrooms and
Discussion
The types of code-switching applied in the classroom instructions given by the
lecturers are divided into three parts, which are (a) tag-switching, (b) intersentential
switching, and (c) intrasentential switching.
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a. Tag-Switching
Tag-switching is one of three types of code-switching that deals with the
inclusion of a tag. Worth noting that tags in tag-switching are not only literally
dealing with tags, but also dealing with words or phrases related to tag-switching,
which includes fillers such as, actually, basically, usually, as mentioned by Poplack
(1980:614-615). Tag-switching also involves the insertion of a parenthetical
expression, such as discourse markers or sentence adverbial (Bond, 2010:134) such
as, well, so, right. Tag-switching can be found in a statement or in a question in the
initial position, as seen in the Table 1 below:
Table 1. Tag-switching in the initial position
No Expression Language Content
English Indonesian Javanese
1 Biasanya, forty people. √ √ -
2 Biasanya, penjelasan kalian tidak brief. √ √ -
3 Logikanya, it is an analogy, kan? √ √ -
4 Lanjut, number three. √ √ -
5 Kemudian, we may say there used to be a
tree.
√ √ -
6 Saya pikir, mahasiswa ini fail to understand
what is assumed.
√ √ -
7 Dengan kata lain, presupposition will be
the background.
√ √ -
8 Katanya, there is no Pragmatics test. √ √ -
9 Sementara itu, ITP adalah Institutional Test
Program.
√ √ -
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All of the data in Table 1 are the code-switching from English to Indonesian.
Moreover, each of the data in Table 1, started from number 1 to 9, is seen as tag-
switching, including certain set phrases, like in data number 6, 7, and 9. Mostly, the
data in the Table 1 are conjunctions. Take a look at data number 1 and 2, for example.
Those two are used at beginning of the sentence as sentence fillers. They are spoken
as a function to signal the students that the lecturer has paused to think but has not
even yet finished talking. In the data number 1, the lecturer said “biasanya,” as a
sentence opener while he was thinking the following words to finish the sentence.
Meanwhile, another example, in data number 4 to 7, the tags are considered as
conjunctive adverbs or conjunctions, which are parts of discourse markers. Discourse
markers are used to direct, or redirect, the flow of conversation without adding any
significant meaning to the discourse. In data number 4, for example, the lecturer said
“lanjut,” which in English is “next,” in order to sequence the content of the
conversation. By seeing the context of the sentence, it is known that the lecturer was
directing the students to continue discussing the following number, after having
finished discussing the previous number.
Another example is in data number 6 and 7. While in data number 6, the lecturer
said “saya pikir,” which in English is “I think,” to show a personal point of view on a
student that was being talked about, in data number 7, “dengan kata lain,” or “in
other words” in English, is used to explain what is being talked in a kind of different
way.
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Further, in discussing tag-switching, this type of code-switching does not only
occur at the beginning of the sentence, like in the Table 1, but it also occurs at the end
of the sentence, as seen in the Table 2 below:
Table 2. Tag-switching in the final position
No Expression Language Content
English Indonesian Javanese
10 Logikanya, it is an analogy, kan? √ √ -
11 If I’ll talk to you another time artinya I’ll
talk to you in the future, kan?
√ √ -
12 When somebody says something berarti
kita harus tahu assumption-nya, kan?
√ √ -
13 Though we are half dead, we are alive.
Tidak ada yang setengah mati dan
setengah hidup, kan?
√ √ -
14 My car ran properly, kan? √ √ -
Tag-switching is not only found at the beginning of a sentence, but also at the
end of a sentence. Each tag occurred at the end of the sentence in the Table 2 above is
also known as a question tag, in which a statement is turned into a question by adding
a question tag “kan.” By seeing data number 10 to 14 in Table 2 above, the utterance
of each tag takes place at the end of the sentence. This is done in order to ensure
whether or not what is said is right. For example, in data number 11, after giving an
explanation about the lecture, the lecturer said “kan” or “right” in English, followed
by question mark, to ask whether or not his explanation was correct. After all, the
explanation about “kan” in data number 11 applies to data number 10, 12, 13 and 14,
in which to ensure whether or not what is said is correct.
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Tag-switching tends to occur in the form of discourse markers, as well as
interjections, as seen in the Table 3 below:
Table 3. Tag-switching at discourse markers and interjection
No Expression Language Content
English Indonesian Javanese
15 Teman-teman! Is there any one of you
have ever taken a TOEFL test?
√ √ -
16 Teman-teman! If you want to take the real
TOEFL test, …
√ √ -
17 Jadi, this paper becomes your final paper. √ √ -
18 Jadi, whatever we say will lead… √ √ -
19 Jadi, harga bisa berubah. It can change. √ √ -
20 Jadi, kalian cuma prepare a scrap of paper. √ √ -
21 Some of them are facts. Jadi, kalian
jangan berspekulasi apapun.
√ √ -
22 Perhatian! To watch this video kalian
harus menggunakan loud speaker.
√ √ -
23 Halo! Ada yang tahu this one? √ √ -
While some of the data in Table 3 above occur in the form of discourse markers,
the other occurs in the form of interjection. In data number 17 to 21, for example,
“jadi” which in English is “so” is a part of discourse markers. In general, it marks the
beginning of a new part of the conversation. It is also used to refer back to statements
that have already been mentioned previously. Take a look at data number 20, for
example, “jadi” in that context is a tag that is used as a conclusion of a statement that
has just been mentioned previously. In data number 17, on the other hand, “jadi” is
used as an opener of a new conversation.
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Some of the data in Table 3 occur in the form of interjection. Interjection is also
a part of tag. Interjection is used for giving expressions to people. The data which are
categorized into interjection in the Table 3 are the data number 15, 16, 22, and 23.
In data number 15 and 16, “teman-teman”, which means “friends” or “mates”,
was uttered by the lecturer to address the students. Moreover, in data number 22 and
23, the lecturer called “halo!” and “perhatian” as well. These utterances, including
“teman-teman,” were used by the lecturers to attract the students’ attention before
giving the statements or asking questions.
Tag-switching often takes place in interjection. Interjection with its short sound,
word, or phrase is spoken suddenly to express the speaker emotion, such as surprise,
horror, or pain.
b. Intersentential Switching
As the term indicated, ntersentential switching is a type of code-switching that
the switch involves the movement from one language to another between sentences.
However, intersentential can also occur in the clause boundary. According to
Hoffmann (1991:112), intersentential switching is a kind of code switching that
occurs between clause or sentence boundary. Bond (2010:134) also added that
intersentential switching is syntactically more restricted, which occurs at clausal or
sentential boundaries. In other words, intersentential not only can occur at the
sentence boundary, but also at the clause boundary, as seen in the Table 4 below:
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Table 4. Intersentential switching at the conditional sentence
No Expression Language Content
English Indonesian Javanese
24 Kalau lagi galau, pusing, atau sakit, your
TOEFL score will not be satisfactory.
√ √ -
25 Kalau saya tiba-tiba mengulangi hal
yang sama, please remind me.
√ √ -
26 So, jika kenyataannya itu dibalik, you’ll
see the…
√ √ -
27 So, kalau iki wes beres, we’ll move to
methodology.
√ - √
28 Kalau teman-teman bertanya, Mr.
Risang, why Sanata Dharma…
√ √ -
29 For example, kalau dapat di Google, write
down the source.
√ √ -
30 Kalau tidak dibaca, we can’t even discuss
it.
√ √ -
31 Jika pertanyaannya how was the vocation,
berarti saya habis berlibur.
√ √ -
32 If we ask his name, kita tahu dia pasti
punya nama.
√ √ -
33
If we ask where he lives, pasti dia punya
rumah
√ √ -
34 Kalau dia bukan milyuner, it doesn’t
mean he’s poor.
√ √ -
35 Jika kemudian I were him, berarti
urusanku dengan dia.
√ √ -
36 So, kalau mau ke toilet, kalian harus
antri.
√ √ -
37 In fact, this guy is not friendly. Kalau
cowok ini baik hati, kooperatif,
ceweknya pasti bakal klarifikasi kalau
itu bukan anjingnya.
√ √ -
Each of the data in the Table 4, from number 24 to 37, is the intersentential
switching occurs at the conditional sentence. In the data number 24 to 35, the switch
occurs at the clause level while in the last two numbers, 36 and 37, the switch occurs
at the sentence level.
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In the data number 24 to 30, for example, the switch of code occurs at the “if
clause” of conditional sentence. In the data number 24, particularly, in a full
conditional sentence, the switch of code occurs at the clause level, which is the “if
clause,” of conditional sentence. The lecturer opened the conversation by using
Indonesian language in the “if clause” before changing into English in the main
clause of the sentence. By seeing the form of the sentence, it is known that it is the
type 1 of the conditional sentence, in which the lecturer tried to explain the possible
condition to happen to the result of TOEFL test if the students were over thinking,
worried, or sick.
Another example is in the data number 27. In the data number 27, the conditional
sentence is similar to data number 24 where the switch of code occurs in the “if
clause.” The type of the conditional is similar, as well, which is the type 1, or the first
type of conditional. It explains the possible condition to happen in the future based on
what is done in the present. However, in this case, the difference lies on the code or
the language. Meaning to say, the switch of code in this clause involves Javanese
language. The switch occurs from Javanese into English followed in the next clause.
Furthermore, in the data number 30, although the switch still occurs in the “if
clause” of conditional sentence, the type of conditional is different. In this case the
type is conditional zero. When in data number 24 and 27 explain the possible
condition that will happen in the future, the conditional zero in the data number 30,
refers to the general truth. Meaning to say, by seeing the context of the lecturer’s
instruction, “kalau tidak dibaca” or in English “if it is not read,” it is known that the
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lecturer expected the students to read the material that was given. Otherwise, they
could not discuss the material together at all.
When the switch of code in data number 24 to 30 in the Table 4 occur in the “if
clause,” otherwise, in the data number 31 to 35, the switch occurs at the main clause
of conditional sentence. Take a look at data number 31, for example. As mentioned,
the switch of code in data number 31 occurs at the main clause of conditional
sentence. The same thing happens to data number 32 and 33 as well. The form in
these three numbers is actually similar. It is the type zero of conditional sentence. In
data number 32, for example, the switch, “kita tahu dia pasti punya nama,” or “we
know he definitely has a name” in English, which occurs in the main clause is the
result of “if clause.” The same form and explanation in data number 32 also applies to
data number 33. However, in this case, the lecturer tried to explain the material by
using a different example.
While the switch of the previous numbers in the Table 4 occur at the clause level,
whether at the “if clause” or main clause, in the data number 36 and 37, the switch of
code occurs in the full conditional sentence. In data number 36, the switch of code
occurs in both “if clause” and main clause of conditional sentence. The type of
conditional sentence itself is the type zero. It gives the general truth or fact.
Therefore, in this case, as seen, in the data number 36, which is “kalau mau ke toilet,
kalian harus antri” or in English means “If you want to go to the toilet, you have to
queue,” the lecturer tried to give an explanation to the students about the fact to
happen if they leave for the restroom.
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Another example of the switch in the full conditional sentence is in the data
number 37. A little bit different from the previous data number 36, data number 37
occurs in the type 2 or the second type of conditional sentence. It can be proved by
seeing the form of the sentence, “kalau cowok ini baik hati, kooperatif, ceweknya
pasti bakal klarifikasi kalau itu bukan anjingnya” or in English would be like “if this
guy were kind, corporative, the girl would definitely clarify it is not her dog.” In the
context of the lecture, the lecturer tried to explain to the students about the possibility
that probably would happen as the result of the condition if the guy were kind.
After discussing intersentential switching that occurs at the conditional sentence,
now the discussion is about intersentential switching which occurs in a form of
questions, or particularly in interrogative sentences, as seen in the Table 5 below:
Table 5. Intersentential switching in the interrogative sentence
No Expression Language Content
English Indonesian Javanese
38 For example, apa bahasa Inggrisnya
piring, sabun, dan seterusnya?
√ √ -
39 Anything else? Ada versi lain? √ √ -
40 What’s the difference? Bedanya di mana? √ √ -
41 She asked about the vocation. Kira-kira
apa yang dia pikirkan sebelumnya?
√ √ -
42 If you see the context here, kenapa
sampai dia bisa ngomong hal itu?
√ √ -
43 I want to ask you a question. Kenapa ada
istilah wanita karier?
√ √ -
44 And then, Kenapa tidak ada istilah pria
karier?
√ √ -
45 What is the meaning of pharmacy? Kui
artinya opo?
√ - √
46 Before we continue, ada yang mau
ditanyakan?
√ √ -
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37
47 Questions? Ada pertanyaan? √ √ -
48 Are you ready? Sudah siap? √ √ -
49 Apa yang pertama kali dia ucapkan?
Does anyone know?
- √ -
50 Come on! Masih ra dong meneh? √ - √
51 What is the next information we can get?
Ada yang tahu informasi berikutnya?
√ √ -
As seen in the Table 5 above, from data number 38 to 51, the switch of code
occurs in the form of interrogative sentence. Most of the data occur from English into
Indonesian. However, there are also data, in which data number 45 and 50, which
involve Javanese language.
First of all, take a look at data number 43 and 44 that are related one another.
These two questions, in each number, actually refer to a term “karier,” or “career” in
English, which is more suitable when paired with “woman” rather than “man” in the
context of Indonesian language. Therefore, the lecturer asked the students why there
is only the term “wanita karier.”
Moreover, another example, like in data number 45, “kui artinya opo?” which
means “what does it mean?” in English, occurs in a complete interrogative sentence
in Javanese language. This kind of data, in relation to the other data, like in data
number 43, 44, 49, and 51, actually has something in common, in which the switch of
code occurs in completely different languages. Meaning to say, in each of the
sentence, the switch of code occurs in a complete sentence in Javanese language, or
in Indonesian, shift from the main language used in the classroom, English.
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38
Furthermore, take a look at data number 46. Here, the sentence is divided into
two parts. The first part is the clause that occurs in English while the other clause
occurs in Indonesian. The lecturer opened the sentence by using English in the first
clause before closing the sentence with a question, in Indonesian. The explanation
about the data number 46 also applies to the other data number 38 and 42.
Meanwhile, in the data number 41, the switch of code occurs after a sentence in
the first language, which is English, has been completed and the following sentence
starts with a new language. Meaning to say, the “kira-kira apa yang dia pikirkan
sebelumnya?” occurs after the sentence “she asked about the vocation” is completed.
In addition, in the data number 50, the switching occurs after the phrase is
uttered. Meaning to say, the interrogative sentence “masih ra dong meneh?” occurs
after the phrase “come on!” is uttered.
After discussing the data in the Table 5 above, in which intersentential switching
occurs at the interrogative sentences, in the Table 6 below, the discussion is about
intersentential switching that occurs at the clause level.
Table 6. Intersentential at the clause level
No Expression Language Content
English Indonesian Javanese
52 So, in this case, this paper becomes your
final paper, yang artinya kalian harus
mulai menulis dengan baik.
√ √ -
53 For example from the printed books, itu
berarti dimulai dari sini.
√ √ -
54 At least 37 correct numbers, saya ulangi,
37 correct numbers.
√ √ -
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39
55 Entah dia enggak punya waktu, sibuk,
atau sakit perut, that’s all speculation.
√ √ -
56 Some of them are facts. Jadi, kalian
jangan berspekulasi apapun.
√ √ -
57 When we eat, kita perlu mengunyah. √ √ -
58 For example, besok kita enggak ada
ujian.
√ √ -
59 Kita sudah buat analisis panjang lebar,
tapi conclusion-nya pake “I think”
√ √ -
60 Alright, kita sampai di situ dulu. √ √ -
61 Thematically speaking, mereka saling
melengkapi.
√ √ -
62 Tapi ada yang lebih tepat lagi, in
Javanese is gembi.
√ √ √
63 Jadi, harga bisa berubah. It can change √ √ -
64 This is super easy, kalian pasti bisa. √ √ -
65 Bisa saja dia bukan milyuner, he’s a
billionaire though.
√ √ -
66 Though we are half dead, we are alive.
Tidak ada yang setengah hidup dan
setengah mati, kan?
√ √ -
67 Sorry, saya terlambat. √ √ -
68 Kayaknya ini mudah saja, right? √ √ -
In the data number 52 to 68 in the Table 6 above, the switch of code occurs at the
clause level. Some of the switches in each of the data occur at the beginning of the
sentence as the openers. Meanwhile, the switches in the rest of the data occur at the
end of the sentence, whether after the words, phrases, or clauses.
In the data number 65, for example, the switch of code occurs at the beginning of
the sentence. The first clause of the sentence occurs in Indonesian language before it
returns into English, as the main language in the classroom, in the next clause. In
addition, the same explanation in the data number 65 also applies to the data number
55 and 59. The switch of these two data occurs in the first clause of the sentence,
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
40
although there is also a switch of code that occurs in the second clause of the data
number 59.
Another example is in the data number 68, in which it has a similarity to the data
number 65. The sentence is opened in Indonesian language and is closed by English.
However, unlike the data number 65 that the sentence contains of two clauses, in this
case, the sentence contains of a clause and a word or, a tag, which is followed by
question mark at the end of the sentence. First of all, the switch occurs at the clause
level in the beginning of the sentence, “kayaknya ini mudah saja,” or in English
“seems like this is easy,” before “right?” or in other words, “isn’t it?” said at the end
of the sentence as an utterance to ask or to ensure what is said is correct. The same
explanation on data number 65 applies to the data number 66. However, in the case of
the data number 66, the word or a tag at the end of the sentence occurs in Indonesian
language.
Moreover, in the data number 62, as same as the other data, the switch of code
occurs in the beginning of the sentence. However, unlike the previous data that in the
sentence contains of either a word or a clause, in this case, there is a phrase that
comes after the clause, which closes the sentence.
While the switch of code in the previous numbers in the Table 6 occur at the
beginning of the sentence, there are also some of the data that the switch of code
occur in the middle and in the end of the sentence. In the data number 52, for
example, the switch of code occurs at the end of the sentence. The switch, “yang
artinya kalian harus mulai menulis dengan baik” or in English means “which means
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41
you have to start writing well,” occurs after the clause “this paper becomes your final
paper.” The same explanation on the data number 52 applies to the data number 57
and 64 as well. The switch in these two data occurs after the clause in the beginning
of the sentence.
Moreover, another example is in the data number 58 and 61. After all, the
switching is similar to the data in the previous number, data number 52, in which it
occurs at the end of the sentence. However, unlike the previous data that the
switching occurs after a clause, in this case, the switching occurs after the phrase.
While in the data number 58, the switching occurs after the phrase “for example,” in
the data number 61, the switch of code occurs after the phrase “thematically
speaking” is uttered.
Furthermore, unlike the previous data that the switch of code occurs after
whether phrase or clause, in the data number 56 and 63, the switching occurs after the
word in the beginning of the sentence. In these two data, “kalian jangan berspekulasi
apapun,” which means “you do not speculate anything,” and “harga bisa berubah,”
which means “the price can change,” occur after the word “jadi,” or in other words
“so,” begins the sentence. This explanation upon the data number 56 and 63 also
applies to the other data, which are data number 60 and 67, in which these two have
similarity that the switch occurs after the word in the beginning of the sentence.
In the data number 54, on the other hand, the switch is unlike the other data that
occur at the end of the sentence. Otherwise, in this case, the switch occurs in the
middle of the sentence. First of all, the sentence is opened by the phrase “at least 37
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
42
correct numbers” said by the lecturer. And then, the switch “saya ulangi” that is “I
repeat” in English is followed, before “37 correct numbers” said at the end to close
the sentence.
On the other hand, unlike the data in the previous table that the switch of code
occurs at the clause level in a sentence, in the Table 7 below, each of the data
contains of intersentential switching that occurs at the sentence level. In general, the
intersentential switching occurs after a sentence in the first language has been
completed and the following sentence starts with a new language. This is what occurs
in each of the data in the Table 7.
Table 7. Intersentential at the sentence level
No Expression Language Content
English Indonesian Javanese
69 In reading, from fifty, you need to have, at
least, forty. Kelas ini yang paling
mengerikan.
√ √ -
70 The difference is the way they live. Cara
hidup mereka berbeda.
√ √ -
71 Ada tiga tes yang akan kita lakukan di
kelas. They are pretest, post-test itu mid-
test-nya Listening, dan complete test
adalah final test.
√ √ -
72 Informasinya tidak terlalu banyak dan
tidak terlalu sedikit. It’s enough
information.
√ √ -
73 Cowok ini sok akrab. That’s why the girl
doesn’t want to cooperate.
√ √ -
74 There are so many IBT participants.
Peserta IBT tidak pernah sedikit.
√ √ -
75 Why are you always late? Tidak hujan,
terang benderang, tapi kamu tetap saja
terlambat.
√ √ -
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76 Books are precious. Semua buku yang
berhubungan dengan kuliah ini tidak
saya buang.
√ √ -
77 Things have changed. Yang tidak bisa
dibayangkan adalah lab. jurnalistik itu
dulunya tangga ke lantai dua.
√ √ -
78 Kalian juga tidak bisa bayangkan kalau
di sana itu dulunya ada ruang-ruang
kelas. It was a hallway, long ago.
√ √ -
79 Orang-orang dulu lebih kaget lagi
ketika tahu bahwa ruang-ruang kelas
sudah berubah. They all are surprised
with the change from classrooms into
hallway.
√ √ -
80 Kalau kita mengatakan “lagi,” berarti
dulu kita pernah dan kita
menginginkannya lagi. That is its
meaning.
√ √ -
81 Anak kecil diajari untuk mengakui
kesalahan dan minta maaf. Honesty is
introduced since they are kids.
√ √ -
82 “If I were you” is clear. Itu urusannya
kamu jadi aku. Two opposite reality.
√ √ -
Take a look at data number 69 and 70. These two numbers are the exact
examples of the explanation mentioned in the previous paragraph. First of all, the
sentence is opened by using English as the main language used in the classroom.
After that, when the sentence in English has been completed, the language is
switched into a new language, which is Indonesian, in the following sentence.
Another example is in the data number 71 to 73. After the sentence in the first
language, which is English, has been completed, the language is switched into a new
language, which in this case is Indonesian, in the following sentence. And then, after
this new language has been completed, the lecturer starts to reuse the first language,
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
44
which is English, in the next sentence. This kind of explanation on the data from
number 71 to 73 also applies to the data number 82. There are three sentences in this
number, which each of them occurs in English and Indonesian. The lecturer opens the
first sentence by using English before the language is switched into Indonesian in the
next sentence. Eventually, in the last sentence in this number, the lecturer returns to
use English, which is the main language used in class.
c. Intrasentential Switching
Intrasentential switching is the type of code-switching that occurs within a
sentence. Therefore, it could occur at word, phrase, clause, or even sentence level.
Intrasentential switching occurred at the word level can be found in the Table 8
below:
Table 8. Intrasentential at the word level
No Expression Language Content
English Indonesian Javanese
83 Kalian tidak belajar itu setiap hari sampai
mata nglotok.
- √ √
84 Kalau mau ke toilet, harus antri. Ketika
yang satu ngempet sambil SMS, yang
lainnya ngempet sambil makan.
- √ √
85 IBT adalah Internet Based TOEFL √ √ -
86 You will have three skills. Listening
dulu, kemudian structure, dan reading
comprehension.
√ √ -
87 Ada tiga tes yang akan kita lakukan di
kelas. They are pretest, post-test itu mid-
test-nya Listening, dan complete test
adalah final test.
√ √ -
88 As soon as berarti upon atau on. √ √ -
89 That was past tense, ini past progressive. √ √ -
90 Alright, sekarang presupposition-nya. √ √ -
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91 Nanti means I can’t right now. √ √ -
92 By saying “katanya,” we say what
people say.
√ √ -
93 Why “I hear” bukannya “I listen”? √ √ -
94 Don’t start the conclusion dengan “I
think.”
√ √ -
95 Kita sudah buat analisis panjang lebar,
tapi conclusion-nya pakai “I think.”
√ √ -
96 Kita elaborate tomorrow. √ √ -
97 Bukan interrogation, tapi report. √ √ -
98 I know it’s lalat, right? √ √ -
99 Tapi ada yang lebih tepat lagi, in
Javanese is gembi.
√ √ √
100 The meaning of “as though” is seolah-
olah.
√ √ -
101 … two meanings or ji, ro, lu, pat, mo, or
more than one meaning.
√ - √
102 Drama is like sinetron. √ √ -
103 Chidden means menegur. √ √ -
104 Lain in this context means terbalik. √ √ -
105 Asumsi is the fact that… √ √ -
As mentioned, each of the data in the Table 8 above occurs at the word level. In
the data number 83, for example, the switch of code occurs from Indonesian language
to Javanese language. This happens to the data number 99 as well, although, in the
data number 99, the switching occurs from Indonesian to English before it ends the
sentence with Javanese language.
In the data number 84, another example, the switch of code occurs in a sentence
that contains of two clauses. Each of the switching occurs in each of the clause. In
that sentence, the first clause is uttered by using Indonesian and switched into
Javanese language before it returns to Indonesian at the end of the clause. It also
happens to the second clause, still in the same sentence.
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46
Moreover, most of the data in the Table 8 occur from English to Indonesian and
back to English. Take a look at data number 94, for example, in which the sentence is
started with English and switched into Indonesian before returning to English again.
This kind of switching, which occurs from English to Indonesian and returning into
English, mostly occur in the Table 8 such as in the data number 85 to 90, 92 to 95,
98, and 101.
Furthermore, in the Table 8, the switch of code also occurs from English to
Indonesian and vice versa. In the data number 100, for example, the sentence is
opened in English before it is switched into Indonesian language at the end of the
sentence. Otherwise, in the data number 96, the sentence is opened in Indonesian
language, by the word “kita,” which means “we” in English, and switched into
English, in the next utterance. This kind of switching, which occurs at the beginning
of the sentence, happens to the other data such as the data number 91, 97, and 105.
The sentence is opened in Indonesian and ended with English.
In addition, the switch of code in this word category occurs to the conjunction, as
well. This word that joins words, phrases or sentences occurs in some of the data,
such as in the data number 86, 87, 88, 95, and 97.
After discussing the data in the Table 8 above, in which intrasentential switching
occurred at the word level, now the discussion move on to the intrasentential
switching that can also occur at phrase level, as seen in the Table 9 below:
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47
Table 9. Intrasentential at the phrase level
No Expression Language Content
English Indonesian Javanese
106 Later on, in the end of the class, di
setengah jam terakhir, I want to give
you a pretest.
√ √ -
107 Well, for you it’s easy, but for them
mumet setengah mati.
√ √ √
108 For example, jangan hanya write down
www.google.com
√ √ -
109 If your score di bawah lima-lima puluh,
it means you need to work hard.
√ √ -
110 If you want to know, TOEIC test itu
tesnya seperti, for example, …
√ √ -
111 Overall, it will take 120 minutes, 2 jam. √ √ -
112 Structure needs 31 correct numbers,
which the score is lima-lima puluh.
√ √ -
113 Next, nomor empat. Anyone? √ √ -
114 … without any previous utterance,
kecuali judul lagunya Sheila on 7.
√ √ -
115 Going on vocation has been assumed,
hanya saja more information is needed
to strengthen the assumption.
√ √ -
116 So, dari kalimat itu we know that she or
he is not friendly.
√ √ -
117 See you another time itu fungsinya
implied on …
√ √ -
118 Now is impossible. Tidak mungkin
now.
√ √ -
119 Kata tertentu implying so many
meanings.
√ √ -
120 Saya pikir, mahasiswa ini fail to
understand what is assumed.
√ √ -
121 Kemudian menanyakan “what can I
talk to you?”
√ √ -
122 It means not too much, not too little, tapi
cukup.
√ √ -
123 In a conversation berisi jawaban dan
pertanyaan.
√ √ -
124 Whatever he wrote in the synopsis
adalah jawabannya.
√ √ -
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125 So, start a conversation dengan asumsi
yang benar.
√ √ -
126 You would never hear the term
perempuan hidung belang.
√ √ -
127 You would hear laki-laki hidung
belang.
√ √ -
128 Bagaimana cerita tersebut put the view
in the question?
√ √ -
129 Advertisement is like a song, for
example, “Dari Sabang Sampai
Merauke.”
√ √ -
130 Jadi, kalian cuma prepare a scrap of
paper.
√ √ -
131 His voice sometimes tidak begitu jelas. √ √ -
132 Lab jurnalistik used to be stairs. √ √ -
133 Well, it could be any assignment given,
atau PR, atau memang kelas kosong.
√ √ -
134 Jika kemudian I were him, berarti
urusanku dengan dia.
√ √ -
135 Kaya dan agak kaya is different. √ √ -
Each of the data mentioned in the Table 9 above is intrasentential switching that
occurs at the phrase level. In the data number 106, for example, “di setengah jam
terakhir” is the prepositional phrase in that sentence. The sentence is opened in
English before it switches into Indonesian, and returning into English at the end of
the sentence.
Another example is in the data number 120. In this case, the switching occurs to
the subject of the sentence. “Mahasiswa ini,” which in English is “this student” is
actually a phrase and is not categorized as clause because the verb of the sentence
occurs in the different language. This kind of explanation also applies to the other
data such as the data number 128 and 130. In the data number 128, the switching
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49
occurs at the beginning of the sentence. It occurs to the subject of the sentence. If
“bagaimana cerita tersebut” is translated into English, it would become “how that
story,” which exactly is a phrase. Meanwhile, in the data number 130, the switching
that is occurred in the sentence looks exactly like in the data number 120. The
sentence is started with a tag, which is in English, before it switches into Indonesian
and returning again into English at the end of the sentence.
Moreover, in the data number 107, the switch of code in the sentence occurs in
three languages at once. They are English, Javanese, and Indonesian. First of all, the
sentence begins in English, switched into Javanese, and switched into Indonesian at
the end of the sentence. This “mumet setengah mati” is a phrase that occurred in two
languages: Javanese and Indonesian. However, in this case, these two are counted as
one phrase and they cannot be subdivided into smaller parties. Further, in the context
of a conversation that is about the subject that is not easily understood by all of the
students, the lecturer says “well, for you it’s easy, but for them mumet setengah
mati.” In the translation into English, “mumet setengah mati” means “really
confusing.” Therefore, in a full sentence, the data number 107 would be like “well,
for you it’s easy, but for them it’s really confusing.”
Furthermore, take a look at the data number 129. In the data number 129, the
switching occurs at the phrase level, as well. The sentence is opened by using English
before switched into Indonesian at the end of the sentence. In fact, the switch of code
mentioned by the lecturer as an example of the advertisement at the end of the
sentence in the data number 129 is actually a title of Indonesian folk song.
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If the data in the Table 8 shows the switching at the word level and the data in
the Table 9 shows the intrasentential switching occurred at the phrase level, in this
case, in the Table 10 above, each of the data from number 136 to 167 is categorized
as intrasentential switching occurred at the clause level.
Table 10. Intrasentential at the clause level
No Expression Language Content
English Indonesian Javanese
136 Trust me itu terjadi √ √ -
137 Permasalahannya adalah three skills
bring…
√ √ √
138 Yang pertama itu five hundred, which is
B
√ √ -
139 Pertanyaannya adalah “how was it?” √ √ -
140 Jika pertanyaannya how was the
vocation, berarti saya habis berlibur.
√ √ -
141 It’s not truth about the information
anymore karena itu sudah terbukti.
√ √ -
142 Alasan yang tidak kita tahu adalah she
or he doesn’t have time.
√ √ -
143 Lalu kenapa kalimatnya future? √ √ -
144 So, the sentence means dia tidak bisa
mengomong sekarang.
√ √ -
145 When somebody says something berarti
kita harus tahu assumption-nya, kan?
√ √ -
146 From the sentence we know dia tidak
bisa bicara sekarang.
√ √ -
147 From this word kita tahu asumsinya
dia.
√ √ -
148 Silahkan berdiskusi dan pastikan the
presupposition and the structure.
√ √ -
149 Dia perlu bertanya “can I talk to you?” √ √ -
150 Jawabannya “I drop the glass.” √ √ -
151 Apapun yang saya tanyakan adalah
summary of the story.
√ √ -
152
When I ask him about the theme,
jawabannya adalah “one day.”
√
√
-
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153 Biasanya, penjelasan kalian tidak brief. √ √ -
154 You can work the assignment yang saya
berikan kemarin.
√ √ -
155 Based on the data, tahukah Anda that
most of you…
√ √ -
156 Perhatian! To watch this video kalian
harus menggunakan loud speaker.
√ √ -
157 Okay, what information yang kita
dapatkan?
√ √ -
158 As he is speaking, Anda juga taking
notes.
√ √ -
159 Halo! Ada yang tahu this one? √ √ -
160 Kalau saya katakan my car used to run
properly, it means it is running properly
now.
√ √ -
161 My car is not running properly now,
means bukan asumsi.
√ √ -
162 Kita tidak akan bilang my car used to
run properly if…
√ √ -
163 Kita bisa katakan there used to be a
tree.
√ √ -
164 Maybe you can’t imagine that meskipun
itulah kenyataannya.
√ √ -
165 Lab jurnalistik itu dulunya tidak ada but stairs.
√ √ -
166 If I were you kan urusannya jelas. √ √ -
167 Salah sendiri cowok ini berasumsi that
the dog belongs to the woman.
√ √ -
Take a look at the data number 140, for example. The reason why switching that
occurs at the beginning of the sentence is categorized as a clause, and not as a phrase,
is because it actually has auxiliary verb “adalah” that is unsaid by the lecturer. The
auxiliary verb “adalah,” or “is” in English, is supposed to be said as in the other data
such as the data number 137, 138, 139, 142, 151, and 152. The explanation in the data
number 140 is also applied to the data number 150, in which “adalah” is unsaid.
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52
Further, for the data number 138, the meaning of “itu” in “yang pertama itu,” in this
case, is not “that” or “which” in English. However, it is “adalah” or “is” in English.
Another example is in the data number 136. In the data number 136, the
switching occurs at the end of the sentence. The sentence is opened in English before
it is switched into Indonesian at the end. In fact, what happens to the data number 136
also happens to the other data, such as the data number 141, 144, 146, 147, 154, 157,
161, 164, and 166.
Meanwhile, in the data number 143, 148, and 149, unlike the data number 136
that the switching occurs at the end of the sentence, the switching in these three
numbers occur at the beginning of the sentence. The explanation upon the data
number 143, 148, and 149 applies to the other data such as the data number 159, 160,
162, 163, 165, 167, in which the sentence in each number is started by using
Indonesian language, at the clause level, before it is switched into English at the end.
If the last two paragraphs above explain about the switch of code that occurs both
at the beginning and at the end of the sentence, in this paragraph, the switch of code
occurs in the middle of the sentence. The switching that occurs in the middle of the
sentence can be found in the data number 158. In this case, the switching occurs from
English to Indonesian before it returns to English at the end of the sentence. The
explanation on the data number 158 also applies to the data number 155. Moreover,
the switching that occurs in the middle of the sentence can also be found in the data
number 145, 153, and 156. In the data number 145, the switching occurs from
English to Indonesian and back to English before the sentence is closed by using
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53
Indonesian. Meanwhile, in the data number 145 and 153, although the sentence is
opened in Indonesian, the switching occurs from English to Indonesian and back to
English.
As known, intrasentential switching can occur more than once, or more than one
utterance in a single sentence, as seen in the Table 11 below:
Table 11. Intrasentential within a sentence
No Expression Language Content
English Indonesian Javanese
168 So, you don’t actually learn from Betty
Azar, setiap hari, dari chapter one
sampai twenty.
√ √ -
169 Listen, kalau no, berarti bisa di-invert
atau tidak di-invert.
√ √ √
170 Kalau yes, langsung bisa di-invert. √ √ -
171 Makan itu butuh proses which needs
kira-kira five minutes.
√ √ -
172 Reasoned is not alasan, but akal budi. √ √ -
173 Itu karena word karier belong to man. √ √ -
174 Pharmacy’s meaning is apotek or toko
obat.
√ √ -
In the Table 11 above, the switching that is occurred in each number has more
than one utterance. Meaning to say, the switching occurs more than once in a
sentence. For example, take a look at the data number 168. In this case, the switching
occurs from English to Indonesian and returning to English. The sentence itself
contains of the switching at the phrase and word level. It is similar to the other data,
such as in the data number 172 and 174. In the data number 172, the switching occurs
from English to Indonesian, returning to English through the word “but” before it
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
54
ends the sentence in Indonesian. The sentence also contains of the switching at the
word and phrase level. The case occurred to the data number 172 also occurs to the
data number 172. It is exactly the same to the data number 172, in which the
switching occurs from English to Indonesian, returning to English, before eventually
the sentence is ended by using Indonesian.
Another example is in the data number 169 and 170. The switching in these two
numbers occurs at the word and clause level in each sentence. In the data number
169, the switching occurs from English to Indonesian and back to English.
Meanwhile in the data number 170, the switching occurs from Indonesian to English,
returning to Indonesian, before the sentence is ended by using English.
Furthermore, in the data number 171 and 173, the switching occurs at the clause
and word level. The switching in these two numbers occurs in Indonesian before
switched into English at the end of the sentence. In the data number 171, the sentence
is started in Indonesian “makan itu butuh proses” before switched into English. Then,
the language is switched into an Indonesian word “kira-kira,” or in English is
“approximately,” before finally the sentence is ended in English. Meanwhile, the
same explanation in the data number 171 is applied to the data number 173, as well.
They both the data number 171 and 173 have a similarity. In the case of the data
number 173, the sentence is opened with an Indonesian clause “Itu karena,” which in
English is “that is because.” After that, it switches into English, before switched back
again into Indonesian through the word “karier,” or “career,” in English. The
sentence is eventually ended in English.
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Table 12. Intra lexical switching
No Expression Language Content
English Indonesian Javanese
175 Listen, kalau no, berarti bisa di-invert
atau tidak di-invert.
√ √ -
176 Kalau yes, langsung bisa di-invert. √ √ -
177 When somebody says something berarti
kita harus tahu assumption-nya, kan?
√ √ -
178 Ada tiga tes yang akan kita lakukan di
kelas. They are pretest, post-test itu mid-
test-nya Listening, dan complete test
adalah final test.
√ √ -
179 Alright, sekarang presupposition-nya.
√ √ -
180 Kita sudah buat analisis panjang lebar,
tapi conclusion-nya pakai “I think.”
√ √ -
The data in each number in Table 12 above shows the switching that occurs at
the affix level. This switching is actually categorized as an intra-word switching, or in
the other term is intra-lexical switching. This switching, in fact, is not involved in the
three types of code-switching stated by Shana Poplack. Nevertheless, since this type
of switching occurs in some of the data, it is not a matter to discuss it in this study.
According to Donald Winford (2003:126-167), intra-word switching occurs
within a word, such as at the morpheme boundary. Affix, in this case, is a part of
morpheme, bound morpheme. Further, there are prefix and suffix. While prefix is the
affix added to the beginning of a word, suffix is the affix that is attached at the end of
a word.
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First of all, take a look at the data number 176, “Kalau yes, langsung bisa di-
invert,” or in English it would become “If yes, it can simply be in inverted”. Here the
switching occurs in a form of prefix “di-” that attaches into the verb “invert” to turn
the word into passive form. The same case happens to the data number 175, as well.
The switching occurred at the affix level to the data number 175 occurs more than
one utterance. However, the switching in this number occurs exactly similar to the
data number 176. Here the prefix “di-,” both in the first and second utterance,
attaches into the verb “invert” to mark the passivity.
Another example is in the data number 177 to 180. There is a similarity that
occurred in each number above. The similarity is the switching that occurred at an
Indonesian suffix “–nya,” which is attached to the English words. While in the data
177, the suffix “–nya,” is attached to the word “assumption,” in the data number 178
the suffix itself is attached to the word “mid-test.” Furthermore, in the data number
179 and 180, the switching occurs at the suffix “–nya” that is added to the word
“presupposition” and “conclusion.”
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B. Reasons of Using Code-Switching in English Students’ Classroom and
Discussion
As Wardhaugh (2006:110) mentioned that code-switching can allow speaker to
do many things such as, assert power, declare solidarity, express identity, and so on,
in this case, there are six lecturers, who taught seven different subjects, in which one
lecturer taught two subjects, from English Letters Department, which were
interviewed to find out the reasons of code-switching in the classroom.
The first lecturer, who taught Introduction to English Testing (INTET) subject,
said that code-switching is needed in situations such as, in midday lecture and when
the lecture is complicated. The lecturer found in a midday lecture, for example, the
students were easily to lose concentration because they were hungry and sleepy.
Therefore, the lecturer often told the jokes mostly in his midday lectures. The
lecturer used jokes as the ice-breaker. However, he could not tell the jokes in English.
Otherwise, the best way for him to tell jokes was by code-switching from English to
Indonesian or Javanese. It was impossible for him to tell the jokes in English because
he believed the students were not going to laugh in that kind of situation. It was not
because the jokes were not funny. It was because the students had to think twice upon
the jokes. Meaning to say, if the jokes are told by using English, the students have to
indirectly translate the jokes into language they are more familiar with, in this case is
Indonesian or Javanese, before eventually understanding the jokes.
Another reason is when the lecture is complicated. Therefore, the lecturer often
used code-switching in the classroom to avoid misunderstanding with the students.
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One example of using code-switching in a complicated lecture is when restating the
object to make it even clearer. Meaning to say, the lecturer usually used code-
switching when restating the material he had once explained. Some of the concepts or
explanations in the lecture are hard to be received or understood by the students.
Therefore, once the lecturer had explained the material in English, he would explain
the same material for the second time by using Indonesian or Javanese, if it was
necessarily.
In addition, in the classroom interaction, the lecturer preferred to use “teman-
teman”, which means “friends”, rather than “students” as seen in the Table 3, the data
number 15 and 16. The reason of this code-switching is to build a good and a close
relationship with the students. Meaning to say, lecturer prefers not to consider
learners as students, but friends. This is done in order to make the classroom
becoming a more comfortable place to study, where the students are put in an equal
position with the lecturer. Here, the lecturer explains that the students and the lecturer
are both learning in the classroom. In terms of language learning, for example, when
the students learn the language, the lecturer learns how the students learn the
language.
The second lecturer, who taught English Structure subject for senior students,
said that he often used code-switching from English to Indonesian when explaining a
material or a concept that if it was explained in English, the message would not really
be delivered because the explanation was not understood. The lecturer admitted that
sometimes the students found a difficulty in understanding the lecture that was being
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
59
taught. In relation to this matter, that is why he feels compelled to switch the
language from English to Indonesian when giving explanation on difficult material of
the lecture.
Moreover, this second lecturer found himself code-switching to either Indonesian
or Javanese every time he wanted to tell jokes for the students. He felt that jokes are
better to be told in Indonesian and Javanese rather than in English. The lecturer also
admitted that he felt more comfortable to tell jokes in his native language.
The third lecturer, who taught Stylistics subject, admitted that he mostly used
code-switching, especially switching to Javanese, when telling jokes. He thought that
Javanese language was the best language for expressing jokes that he felt no
difficulties in talking when using Javanese. Besides, he also mentioned that he quite
often told jokes in English as well. For example, when he said, “my wife is the most
beautiful woman in the world, but I wish I had another life,” everyone laughed. In
conclusion, he said that he could tell jokes in both Javanese and English. However, he
felt more comfortable when making jokes for the students using his mother tongue.
The fourth lecturer, who taught two subjects, Language Research Methodology
and Pragmatics, said that the reason for her to use code-switching is when she
observed that the students did not understand the lectures she taught. Therefore, she
admitted that when the foreign language, which is English, was not really helping
students in understanding the lecture, she would switch the language back into the
second language or first language, which in this case is Javanese or Indonesian. This
fourth lecturer added that code-switching is used when it is really needed. Otherwise,
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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she tends to keep using English for the whole lecture. However, she stated that the
use of English has to be suitable with the characteristic of the lecture and the
difficulty level of the lecture. Meaning to say, when the students are confused with
the lecture or a particular term in the lecture, the lecturer has to switch the language
into whether Indonesian or Javanese.
Next, the fifth lecturer, who taught History of Modern Thought subject, stated
that the reason why he code-switching from English to Indonesian in the classroom is
because he thought that Indonesian language was a sexist language. For example, in
the lecture he taught, which was History of Modern Thought, in the data number 43,
table 5, the reason why he preferred to say “wanita karier” rather than “career
woman,” is because, in terms of gender, Indonesian language is a sexist language,
which was even sexier than English. Another example is in the dangdut songs. This
fifth lecturer explained that if the singer was a woman, she would use particular terms
such as, “minta cerai” or “mencerai,” which in English was simply “divorce.”
Another reason this fifth lecturer code-switching in the classroom is mostly
related to the topic. Moreover, he also said that if he was being emotional in the
classroom such as, mad, sad, and so on, he would like to express his feeling in
Indonesian or Javanese. For example, when he was mad because the students came
late to the class, or when the students had not read the material that was going to be
discussed in class, he always expressed his emotion by using Indonesian or Javanese.
English, in terms of expressing feeling, for him personally, was not as emotional as
Indonesian and Javanese.
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Lastly, the sixth lecturer, who taught Interpreting subject, admitted that the
reason why she often code-switching in the class is because she wanted to be a real
example of an interpreter who was able to produce two languages, for example,
English and Indonesian, at the same time. This sixth lecturer added that code-
switching in her class is not for the understanding, otherwise for the production of the
language. Since the interpreting subject allowed both students and lecturer to speak in
two or more languages, source and target languages, it is not a surprise that the switch
from one language to another in the class occurred very often.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
Based on the analysis results and discussions in the previous chapter, this chapter
provides the conclusion of the study.
There are four types of code-switching found in the instructions given by the
lecturers in the classroom. The first three types of code-switching are the types of
code-switching that are stated by Poplack (1980). The three types of code-switching
stated by Poplack (1980) found in the lecturers’ classroom instructions are the tag-
switching, which tends to focus on the inclusion of tags, including interjections,
idiomatic expressions, parenthetical, and even individual noun switches,
intersentential switching, which occurs at the clause or sentence level, and
intrasentential switching, which occurs within a sentence or in the middle of a
sentence, or in a clause.
Meanwhile, the other type of code-switching is the one that is stated by Winford
(2003). The type of code-switching stated by Winford (2003) is the intra-word
switching, which occurs within a word, such as at the morpheme boundary. This type
of code-switching is an additional code-switching that is found in the data and is
discussed in the chapter 4.
Furthermore, for the reason of code-switching, in the interview with the lecturers,
there are nine reasons mentioned by the lecturers why they use code-switching in the
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63
classroom when teaching-learning process is underway. Those reasons mentioned by
the lecturers are: code-switching that is used as ice breaker, the use of code-
switching as the repetition used for clarification, code-switching that is used by the
lecturer to be more familiar with the students, code-switching used for explaining
difficult material, expressing particular terms, talking about particular topic,
expressing feelings, and maintaining certain neutrality when both codes are
used. Lastly, code-switching is used when the lecturer are being emphatic about
something, such as when the lecturer observes that the students does not understand
the lectures that is being taught.
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Menara by A.Fuadi. An Undergraduate Thesis. Tulungagung: State Islamic
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Publishers Inc, 1995.
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Sumarsih. “Code Switching and Code Mixing in Indonesia: Study in
Sociolinguistics”. Vol. 4. No. 1 (February 24, 2014).
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March 19, 2014.
Suwito. Berbahasa dalam Situasi Diglosik. Jakarta: Disertasi Universitas Indonesia,
1983.
Trudgill, Peter. The Social Differentiation of English in Norwich. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1974
Wardaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Fifth Edition. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2006.
Winford, Donald. “Code Switching: Linguistic Aspects.” An Introduction to Contact
Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2003. 126-167.
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Table of the Type of Code-Switching in the Lecturers’ Classroom
Instructions
No Expression Type Language Content
English Indonesian Javanese
1 Biasanya, forty people. Tag-Switching √ √ -
2 Biasanya, penjelasan kalian tidak
brief.
Tag-Switching √ √ -
3 Logikanya, it is an analogy, kan? Tag-Switching √ √ -
4 Lanjut, number three. Tag-Switching √ √ -
5 Kemudian, we may say there
used to be a tree.
Tag-Switching √ √ -
6 Saya pikir, mahasiswa ini fail to
understand what is assumed.
Tag-Switching √ √ -
7 Dengan kata lain, presupposition
will be the background.
Tag-Switching √ √ -
8 Katanya, there is no Pragmatics
test.
Tag-Switching √ √ -
9 Sementara itu, ITP adalah
Institutional Test Program.
Tag-Switching √ √ -
10 Logikanya, it is an analogy, kan? Tag-Switching √ √ -
11 If I’ll talk to you another time
artinya I’ll talk to you in the
future, kan?
Tag-Switching √ √ -
12 When somebody says something
berarti kita harus tahu
assumption-nya, kan?
Tag-Switching √ √ -
13 Though we are half dead, we are
alive. Tidak ada yang setengah
mati dan setengah hidup, kan?
Tag-Switching √ √ -
14 My car ran properly, kan? Tag-Switching √ √ -
15 Teman-teman, is there any one
of you have ever taken a TOEFL
test?
Tag-Switching √ √ -
16 Teman-teman, if you want to
take the real TOEFL test…
Tag-Switching √ √ -
17 Jadi, this paper becomes your
final paper.
Tag-Switching √ √ -
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18 Jadi, whatever we say will lead… Tag-Switching √ √ -
19 Jadi, harga bisa berubah. It can
change.
Tag-Switching √ √ -
20 Jadi, kalian cuma prepare a scrap
of paper.
Tag-Switching √ √ -
21 Some of them are facts. Jadi,
kalian jangan berspekulasi
apapun.
Tag-Switching √ √ -
22 Perhatian! To watch this video
kalian harus menggunakan loud
speaker.
Tag-Switching √ √ -
23 Halo! Ada yang tahu this one? Tag-Switching √ √ -
24 Kalau lagi galau, pusing, atau
sakit, your TOEFL score will not
be satisfactory.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
25 Kalau saya tiba-tiba
mengulangi hal yang sama, please remind me.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
26 So, jika kenyataannya itu
dibalik, you’ll see the…
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
27 So, kalau iki wes beres, we’ll
move to methodology.
Intersentential
Switching
√ - √
28 Kalau teman-teman bertanya, Mr. Risang, why Sanata
Dharma…
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
29 For example, kalau dapat di
Google, write down the source.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
30 Kalau tidak dibaca, we can’t
even discuss it.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
31 Jika pertanyaannya how was the
vocation, berarti saya habis
berlibur.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
32 If we ask his name, kita tahu dia
pasti punya nama.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
33 If we ask where he lives, pasti dia
punya rumah
Intersentential
Switching
√
√
-
34 Kalau dia bukan milyuner, it
doesn’t mean he’s poor.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
35 Jika kemudian I were him,
berarti urusanku dengan dia.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
36 So, kalau mau ke toilet, kalian
harus antri.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
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69
37 Kalau cowok ini baik hati,
kooperatif, ceweknya pasti
bakal klarifikasi kalau itu
bukan anjingnya.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
38 For example, apa bahasa
Inggrisnya piring, sabun, dan
seterusnya?
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
39 Anything else? Ada versi lain? Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
40 What’s the difference? Bedanya
di mana?
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
41 She asked about the vocation.
Kira-kira apa yang dia pikirkan
sebelumnya?
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
42 If you see the context here,
kenapa sampai dia bisa
ngomong hal itu?
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
43 I want to ask you a question.
Kenapa ada istilah wanita
karier?
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
44 And then, Kenapa tidak ada
istilah pria karier?
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
45 What is the meaning of
pharmacy? Kui artinya opo?
Intersentential
Switching √ - √
46 Before we continue, ada yang
mau ditanyakan?
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
47 Questions? Ada pertanyaan? Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
48 Are you ready? Sudah siap? Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
49 Apa yang pertama kali dia
ucapkan? Does anyone know?
Intersentential
Switching - √ -
50 Come on! Masih ra dong
meneh?
Intersentential
Switching
√ - √
51 What is the next information we
can get? Ada yang tahu
informasi berikutnya?
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
52 So, in this case, this paper
becomes your final paper, yang
artinya kalian harus mulai
menulis dengan baik.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
53 For example from the printed Intersentential √ √ -
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books, itu berarti dimulai dari
sini.
Switching
54 At least 37 correct numbers, saya
ulangi, 37 correct numbers.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
55 Entah dia enggak punya waktu,
sibuk, atau sakit perut, that’s all
speculation.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
56 Some of them are facts. Jadi,
kalian jangan berspekulasi
apapun.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
57 When we eat, kita perlu
mengunyah.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
58 For example, besok kita enggak
ada ujian.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
59 Kita sudah buat analisis
panjang lebar, tapi conclusion-
nya pake “I think”
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
60 Alright, kita sampai di situ dulu. Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
61 Thematically speaking, mereka
saling melengkapi.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
62 Tapi ada yang lebih tepat lagi, in Javanese is gembi.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ √
63 Jadi, harga bisa berubah. It can
change
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
64 This is super easy, kalian pasti
bisa.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
65 Bisa saja dia bukan milyuner,
he’s a billionaire though.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
66 Though we are half dead, we are
alive. Tidak ada yang setengah
hidup dan setengah mati, kan?
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
67 Sorry, saya terlambat. Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
68 Kayaknya ini mudah saja, right? Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
69 In reading, from fifty, you need to
have, at least, forty. Kelas ini
yang paling mengerikan.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
70 The difference is the way they
live. Cara hidup mereka
berbeda.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
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71 Ada tiga tes yang akan kita
lakukan di kelas. They are
pretest, post-test itu mid-test-nya
Listening, dan complete test
adalah final test.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
72 Informasinya tidak terlalu
banyak dan tidak terlalu
sedikit. It’s enough information.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
73 Cowok ini sok akrab. That’s
why the girl doesn’t want to
cooperate.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
74 There are so many IBT
participants. Peserta IBT tidak
pernah sedikit.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
75 Why are you always late? Tidak
hujan, terang benderang, tapi
kamu tetap saja terlambat.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
76 Books are precious. Semua buku
yang berhubungan dengan
kuliah ini tidak saya buang.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
77 Things have changed. Yang tidak
bisa dibayangkan adalah lab.
jurnalistik itu dulunya tangga
ke lantai dua.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
78 Kalian juga tidak bisa
bayangkan kalau di sana itu
dulunya ada ruang-ruang kelas.
It was a hallway, long ago.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
79 Orang-orang dulu lebih kaget
lagi ketika tahu bahwa ruang-
ruang kelas sudah berubah.
They all are surprised with the
change from classrooms into
hallway.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
80 Kalau kita mengatakan “lagi,”
berarti dulu kita pernah dan
kita menginginkannya lagi. That
is its meaning.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
81 Anak kecil diajari untuk
mengakui kesalahan dan minta
maaf. Honesty is introduced since
they are kids.
Intersentential
Switching
√ √ -
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82 “If I were you” is clear. Itu
urusannya kamu jadi aku. Two
opposite reality.
Intersentential
Switching √ √ -
83 Kalian tidak belajar itu setiap hari
sampai mata nglotok.
Intrasentential
Switching
- √ √
84 Kalau mau ke toilet, harus antri.
Ketika yang satu ngempet sambil
SMS, yang lainnya ngempet
sambil makan.
Intrasentential
Switching
- √ √
85 IBT adalah Internet Based
TOEFL
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
86 You will have three skills.
Listening dulu, kemudian
structure, dan reading
comprehension.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
87 Ada tiga tes yang akan kita
lakukan di kelas. They are pretest,
post-test itu mid-test-nya
Listening, dan complete test
adalah final test.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
88 As soon as berarti upon atau on. Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
89 That was past tense, ini past
progressive.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
90 Alright, sekarang presupposition-
nya.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
91 Nanti means I can’t right now. Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
92 By saying “katanya,” we say
what people say.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
93 Why “I hear” bukannya “I
listen”?
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
94 Don’t start the conclusion dengan
“I think.”
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
95 Kita sudah buat analisis panjang
lebar, tapi conclusion-nya pakai
“I think.”
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
96 Kita elaborate tomorrow. Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
97 Bukan interrogation, tapi report. Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
98 I know it’s lalat, right? Intrasentential √ √ -
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
73
Switching
99 Tapi ada yang lebih tepat lagi, in
Javanese is gembi.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ √
100 The meaning of “as though” is
seolah-olah.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
101 … two meanings or ji, ro, lu, pat,
mo, or more than one meaning.
Intrasentential
Switching √ - √
102 Drama is like sinetron. Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
103 Chidden means menegur. Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
104 Lain in this context means
terbalik.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
105 Asumsi is the fact that… Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
106 Later on, in the end of the class,
di setengah jam terakhir, I want
to give you a pretest.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
107 Well, for you it’s easy, but for
them mumet setengah mati.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ √
108 For example, jangan hanya write
down www.google.com
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
109 If your score di bawah lima-lima
puluh, it means you need to work
hard.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
110 If you want to know, TOEIC test
itu tesnya seperti, for example,
…
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
111 Overall, it will take 120 minutes,
2 jam.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
112 Structure needs 31 correct
numbers, which the score is lima-
lima puluh.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
113 Next, nomor empat. Anyone? Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
114 … without any previous
utterance, kecuali judul lagunya
Sheila on 7.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
115 Going on vocation has been
assumed, hanya saja more
information is needed to
strengthen the assumption.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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116 So, dari kalimat itu we know
that she or he is not friendly.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
117 See you another time itu
fungsinya implied on …
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
118 Now is impossible. Tidak
mungkin now.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
119 Kata tertentu implying so many
meanings.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
120 Saya pikir, mahasiswa ini fail to
understand what is assumed.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
121 Kemudian menanyakan “what
can I talk to you?”
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
122 It means not too much, not too
little, tapi cukup.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
123 In a conversation berisi jawaban
dan pertanyaan.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
124 Whatever he wrote in the synopsis
adalah jawabannya.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
125 So, start a conversation dengan
asumsi yang benar.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
126 You would never hear the term
perempuan hidung belang.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
127 You would hear laki-laki hidung
belang.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
128 Bagaimana cerita tersebut put
the view in the question?
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
129 Advertisement is like a song, for
example, “Dari Sabang Sampai
Merauke.”
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
130 Jadi, kalian cuma prepare a scrap
of paper.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
131 His voice sometimes tidak begitu
jelas.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
132 Lab jurnalistik used to be stairs. Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
133 Well, it could be any assignment
given, atau PR, atau memang
kelas kosong.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
134 Jika kemudian I were him,
berarti urusanku dengan dia.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
135 Kaya dan agak kaya is different. Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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136 Trust me itu terjadi Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
137 Permasalahannya adalah three
skills bring…
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ √
138 Yang pertama itu five hundred,
which is B
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
139 Pertanyaannya adalah “how
was it?”
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
140 Jika pertanyaannya how was the
vocation, berarti saya habis
berlibur.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
141 It’s not truth about the
information anymore karena itu
sudah terbukti.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
142 Alasan yang tidak kita tahu
adalah she or he doesn’t have
time.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
143 Lalu kenapa kalimatnya future? Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
144 So, the sentence means dia tidak
bisa mengomong sekarang.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
145 When somebody says something
berarti kita harus tahu
assumption-nya, kan?
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
146 From the sentence we know dia
tidak bisa bicara sekarang.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
147 From this word kita tahu
asumsinya dia.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
148 Silahkan berdiskusi dan
pastikan the presupposition and
the structure.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
149 Dia perlu bertanya “can I talk to
you?”
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
150 Jawabannya “I drop the glass.” Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
151 Apapun yang saya tanyakan
adalah summary of the story.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
152
When I ask him about the theme,
jawabannya adalah “one day.”
Intrasentential
Switching
√
√
-
153 Biasanya, penjelasan kalian
tidak brief.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
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154 You can work the assignment
yang saya berikan kemarin.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
155 Based on the data, tahukah Anda
that most of you…
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
156 Perhatian! To watch this video
kalian harus menggunakan loud
speaker.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
157 Okay, what information yang kita
dapatkan?
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
158 As he is speaking, Anda juga
taking notes.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
159 Halo! Ada yang tahu this one? Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
160 Kalau saya katakan my car used
to run properly, it means it is
running properly now.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
161 My car is not running properly
now, means bukan asumsi.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
162 Kita tidak akan bilang my car
used to run properly if…
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
163 Kita bisa katakan there used to
be a tree.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
164 Maybe you can’t imagine that
meskipun itulah kenyataannya.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
165 Lab jurnalistik itu dulunya
tidak ada but stairs.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
166 If I were you kan urusannya
jelas.
Intrasentential
Switching
√ √ -
167 Salah sendiri cowok ini
berasumsi that the dog belongs to
the woman.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
168 So, you don’t actually learn from
Betty Azar, setiap hari, dari
chapter one sampai twenty.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
169 Listen, kalau no, berarti bisa di-
invert atau tidak di-invert.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ √
170 Kalau yes, langsung bisa di-
invert.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
171 Makan itu butuh proses which
needs kira-kira five minutes.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
172 Reasoned is not alasan, but akal
budi.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
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173 Itu karena word karier belong to
man.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
174 Pharmacy’s meaning is apotek or
toko obat.
Intrasentential
Switching √ √ -
175 Listen, kalau no, berarti bisa di-
invert atau tidak di-invert.
Intra-word
Switching
√ √ -
176 Kalau yes, langsung bisa di-
invert.
Intra-word
Switching
√ √ -
177 When somebody says something
berarti kita harus tahu
assumption-nya, kan?
Intra-word
Switching
√ √ -
178 Ada tiga tes yang akan kita
lakukan di kelas. They are pretest,
post-test itu mid-test-nya
Listening, dan complete test
adalah final test.
Intra-word
Switching
√ √ -
179 Alright, sekarang presupposition-
nya.
Intra-word
Switching
√ √ -
180 Kita sudah buat analisis panjang
lebar, tapi conclusion-nya pakai
“I think.”
Intra-word
Switching
√ √ -
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
78
Appendix 2: Transcriptions of Interviews on the Lecturers’ Reasons of Code-
Switching in the Classroom Instructions
Lecturer 1
Interviewer: Why do you use code-switching in class?
Respondent: I code-switch mostly in situations such as, midday lecture and
complicated lecture. The first is, in the midday lecture, the students are
easily to lose concentration because they are hungry and sleepy. That
is why I tell jokes in that kind of situation. But I do not tell jokes in
English, otherwise, I switch to Indonesian or Javanese, so that they do
not have to get confused on the jokes I tell. The next reason is when
the class or the lecture is complicated. That is why I have to use code-
switching. For example, restating the concept. First, I state the concept
in English before I restate the same concept in Indonesian.
Interviewer: Why do you prefer to call the students “teman-teman” rather than
“students”, “friends”, or “guys”?
Respondent: I would like to have good relationship with the students. I would like
to put the students in an equal position with me. We are both learning
in the classroom. In terms of language learning, for example, when the
students learn the language, I learn how the students learn the
language.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
79
Lecturer 2
Interviewer: Why do you use code-switching in class?
Respondent: I use code-switching when explaining difficult concept that if I explain
it in English, the message is not really delivered to the students
because they, the students, do not understand it.
Lecturer 3
Interviewer: Why do you use code-switching in class?
Respondent: I code-switch only when telling jokes. That is because Javanese is the
best language for expressing jokes although I can tell jokes in English
as well. But, I feel more comfortable when making jokes for the
students using my mother tongue.
Lecturer 4
Interviewer: Why do you use code-switching in class?
Respondent: I use code-switching when I observe the students do not understand the
lectures I lecture. I prefer to switch back to first or second language
(Javanese or Indonesian) when foreign language (English) does not
help students to understand the lectures.
Lecturer 5
Interviewer: Why do you use code-switching in class?
Respondent: Three reasons. First is because Indonesian language is a sexist
language that is even sexier than English. That is why I prefer to use
“wanita karier” than “career woman”. In term of gender, as I said,
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80
Indonesian language is a sexist language, even sexier than English.
Second is mostly related to the topic of the lecture. The last one is
because, in terms of expressing feelings, like, for example, I am mad
to the students because they come late to the class, English is not as
emotional as Indonesian and Javanese.
Lecturer 6
Interviewer: Why do you use code-switching in class?
Respondent: In my interpreting class, I would like to be a real example of an
interpreter who is able to produce two languages at the same time.
That is code-switching is used for. Code-switching is not for the
understanding, but for the production of the language.
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