Introduction to Qualitative Methods PSY440 May 22, 2008

Introduction to Qualitative MethodsIntroduction to Qualitative Methods

PSY440

May 22, 2008

Definitions:Definitions:

Consider each of the following terms and generate a definition for each:

• Research

• Empirical

• Data

• Experiment

• Qualitative Research

DefinitionsDefinitions

Research

1. Scholarly or scientific investigation or inquiry

2. Close and careful study (American Heritage Dictionary)

3. Systematic (step-by-step)

4. Purposeful (identify, describe, explain, predict)

DefinitionsDefinitions

Empirical:Relying upon or derived from observation or experiment; capable of proof or verification by means of observation or experiment. (American Heritage Dictionary)

Data: Information; esp. information organized for analysis or used as the basis of a decision. (American Heritage Dictionary)

Experiment:A method of testing an hypothesized causal relationship between two variables by manipulating one variable and observing the effect of the manipulation on the second variable.

DefinitionsDefinitions

Qualitative Research

“An umbrella concept covering several forms of inquiry that help us understand and explain the meaning of social phenomena with as little disruption of the natural setting as possible (Merriam, 2001, p. 5).”

DefinitionsDefinitions

Characteristics of qualitative research (Merriam, 2001)

1. Focus on understanding constructed meaning

2. Researcher as instrument

3. Fieldwork

4. Inductive

5. Rich description

Types of Qualitative ResearchTypes of Qualitative Research

Basic or Generic

Ethnography

Phenomenology

Grounded Theory

Case Study

(Merriam, 1998)

Generating Research QuestionsGenerating Research Questions

The QUESTION and the questions.

1. What is the main (big) thing you/your collaborators are curious about?

“What are the research team’s understandings of the existing family-school relationships?”

“How are the services perceived by the families who use them?”

2. What are some specific questions whose answers would shed light on the big question?

Generating Research QuestionsGenerating Research Questions

The QUESTION and the questions.

2. What are some specific questions whose answers would shed light on the big question?

To what extent (and in what ways) do parents feel the program has helped them cope with and/or reduce stress?

What influence have the programs had upon interpersonal relationships within adoptive families (particularly parent-child relationships)?

What influence have the programs had upon the interpersonal relationships between adoptive families (particularly among parents)?

Use of qualitative research methodsUse of qualitative research methods

Nastasi & Schensul (2004)

A. Basis of intervention– Empirical– Theoretical– Ecological Validity– Relevance

B. Appropriateness of design to the research questions

Use of qualitative research methodsUse of qualitative research methods

Nastasi & Schensul (2004)

C. Data collection methods– Explicit– Appropriate– Operationalization– Triangulation– Cultural-contextual sensitivity– Extent of engagement

Use of qualitative research methodsUse of qualitative research methods

Nastasi & Schensul (2004)

D. Data Analysis– Coding (systematic, clearly articulated)

• Linked to theoretical-empirical basis

• Consistency

• Progression (abstract to empirical)

– Interactive process– Negotiated interpretation

Qualitative Research and ESTQualitative Research and EST

“Even if an intervention has been shown to work in several empirical demonstrations, there is no guarantee that it can be successfully transported to a new setting with different clients, different treatment providers, and different contextual circumstances. Qualitative research can help fill this gap by answering questions about social validity, transportability, and cultural factors.”

(Meyers & Sylvester, 2006)

Social ValiditySocial Validity

Need to elucidate participants’ subjectiveperspectives about treatments• Lyst et al (2005): early intervention

program. Disruptions teachers experienced and ways to minimize these

• Crescenzo (2007): Perspectives about treatment effectiveness among adults who received therapy as children

TransportabilityTransportability

What happens when pracitioners implement “efficacious” interventions without intensive training and ongoing feedback?• Siegal (2005): Two-year ethnographic study of

teachers implementing cooperative learning intervention.– All teachers implemented most techniques– Some omitted social skills/group process techniques– Experience level and conceptual understanding

interacted with implementation

Culture SpecificityCulture Specificity

• Nastasi and colleagues have used a combination of participatory action research and ethnography to develop, implement, and evaluate culture specific school-based mental health services in Sri Lanka.

• “Culture specificity implies that critical elements of the intervention (e.g., intervention strategies and targeted competencies) are relevant to the targeted culture, make use of the language of the population, and reflect the values and beliefs of the members of the culture” (Nastasi, 1998)

Participatory Action ResearchParticipatory Action Research

Action Research (Participatory Action Research, Practitioner Research) is:

“a process in which researchers operate as full collaborators with members of an organization (stakeholders) in linking theory and research to acceptable and effective practice (Ho, 2002, p. 106)”

Phases of Action Research (Ho, 2002)Phases of Action Research (Ho, 2002)

1. Forming collaborations with key stakeholders

2. Problem identification for action research3. Data collection and analysis4. Data synthesis and generation of

recommendations5. Design of data-driven action / intervention6. Evaluation of interventions

Reliability & ValidityReliability & Validity (Webster-Stratton & Spitzer, 1996)(Webster-Stratton & Spitzer, 1996)

Credibility: Do you have confidence in the truth of the findings?

Transferability: To what degree are the results context-bound?

Dependability: How reliable is the coding?

Confirmability: Could a reviewer conduct a formal “audit” of the procedures?

Interviews (Merriam, 2001)Interviews (Merriam, 2001)

One-on-one or focus group

Interview Guide (Questions & Probes)• Avoid multiple, leading and closed-ended questions• Use hypothetical, devil’s advocate, ideal position,

interpretive questions• Developing rapport• Recording responses

Sample focus group interview guideSample focus group interview guide

1. We'd like to begin with brief introductions. Going around the table please tell us something about you and your family. For example, if you are comfortable you could tell us your first name, the number and ages of the children in your family, including your adopted children, and anything else that you think will help us understand how you and your family have experienced the adoptive family services. Please do let us know which service(s) you have used or which events you have attended this past year.

2. How have these services influenced your relationship with your adopted child(ren)?

Sample focus group interview guideSample focus group interview guide

3. How do the services and programs offered through this agency compare to other services or agencies that have worked with your family?

4. We all know that parenting can be stressful! We are interested in learning what impact (if any) these services have had on your level of stress.

5. Please tell us about your relationships with other adoptive families who utilize these programs.

6. Other than what you have already told us, what do you see as the major strengths of these programs?

7. What are some of the weaknesses in these programs? How could the services be improved to better meet the needs of adoptive families?

Conducting ObservationsConducting Observations

What to observe?

• Physical setting

• Participants

• Activities and interactions

• Conversation

• Subtle factors• Your own behavior (Merriam, 1998)

Overview of Data SourcesOverview of Data Sources

Brainstorm data sources that may be available for use in qualitative research studies.

Data SourcesData Sources

• Direct observations– Behavioral observations– Setting characteristics

• Field notes• Interviews

– Focus group– Individual

• Archival records– Organizational (meeting minutes, policies)– Public records (memos, newsletters)– Private records (journals, field notes)

Coding/Analyzing Qualitative DataCoding/Analyzing Qualitative Data

Grounded theory approach (Webster-Stratton & Spitzer, 1996)

Level I: Open Coding (break data into small, meaningful units, often based on informant’s own words)

Level II: Axial Coding (group codes into categories, develop & validate categories)

Level III: Selective Coding (explore relationships among core categories, collect additional data to fill in gaps)

Coding/Analyzing Qualitative DataCoding/Analyzing Qualitative DataWhat level one code(s) might you apply to the following excerpt?

“Before this service, we were mostly a homebound family. I mean about the only times we’d go out, or do anything functional, was to church, or, you know, maybe some family event, which was few and far between. . . But now that we’ve been out there and met other families that are going through the same issues as us and uh it takes away that stress. We know that there are others out there. We know we’re not the only ones going through this. We know there’s a light at the end of the tunnel cause maybe another family that’s had the same issues we’re going through now has conquered that. Or if they haven’t conquered it have found a way to deal with it in a positive manner to where it doesn’t make it so stressful on the rest of the family.”

Coding/Analyzing Qualitative DataCoding/Analyzing Qualitative Data

What level one code(s) might you apply to the following excerpt?

“With all our friends, every friend that I had had dropped us as a friend because we had children, and they-they think we’re crazy. And I that’s what we let them think that, but I’m doing what I need to do in my life to fulfill it. But they don’t understand that. So we have lost every friend. . . We can’t wait for that letter to come in the mail. Where we get to go for the next month or a little retreat or. . . . That’s what that’s our that’s what we like to

do. . . It’s the only thing we get to do.”

Coding/Analyzing Qualitative DataCoding/Analyzing Qualitative Data

What level one code(s) might you apply to the following excerpt?

“Even to go to my own parents. My mom and dad who are in their 80s. I’m not comfortable taking my entire family because of where they are in their stage of life. These are adopted – they’re wonderful to my children – don’t get me wrong – but they can only tolerate so much and I also don’t want to bring their – some of their – my children’s dysfunction or whatever and chaos into my parents’ life. It’s not necessary at this point in their life.”

Coding/Analyzing Qualitative DataCoding/Analyzing Qualitative Data

What Level II codes (categories) are beginning to emerge from the open codes applied to the last three excerpts?

School Psychologists as School Psychologists as ResearchersResearchers

There are many parallels between the skills and methods needed to conduct high-quality research and the skills and qualities needed to function effectively as an applied (school/clinical/counseling) psychologist.

Skills for qualitative researchSkills for qualitative research

• Developing and evaluating hypotheses

• Reviewing documents

• Interviewing

• Behavioral observation

• Personal characteristics– Flexibility, stress resistant, warmth/empathy,

tolerance for ambiguity