Facing up to rape in conflict.1 - - UAL Research Online

Leora Kahn and Paul Lowe "Facing up to rape in conflict: Challenging stigma through Photography" Theactofbearingwitnessisalsoagestureofdefianceandresistance:againsttheflowoftimewhichdistancesusfromwhatwentbefore,againstanabsorptioninthepresent,andagainstthedesiretoforgetorconceal.Itisanactofresistancerelatedtoanabsence,asilence,andthereforetoacertainkindofvulnerability;thatwhatisabsentwillbeforeverlost.1 TheTestimonyoftheImage

Bytheverynatureofthemedium,everyphotographbearstestimonyaboutpastevents.Thisisamultipletestimony,inthatitofferstheviewpointandexperienceofthephotographerandengageswiththeexperiencesofthesubjectphotographed,butitalsocaninvitetheviewertothemselvesparticipateinthetestimonialactthroughtheirproxywitnessingoftheimage.Theimageitselfalsohasitsowntestimonialhistory,asitiscirculatedandexchanged,publishedandpresented,andcritiquedandcommentedupon.Photographsthereforehavethepotentialtogobeyondthetestimonyofthephotographerorthesubject;theyinasenseobtaintheirownindependenttestimonialfunction.Theyprovideevidencethatsuchaneventhappenedtosuchapersonatsuchaplaceandtime,buttheycangofarbeyondthat,representinganarchetypicalevent.Theycanthusbearwitnesstoaclassofevents,suchastheplightofrefugeesworldwide,aswellastoaspecificeventitself,suchasthefallofSrebrenica.Theirtestimonyarguablytranscendstheimmediatemoment,andbecomesacommentaryonhumannatureandhistory,andaboutthepropensitytocauseharmtoothers. Withthiscontextinmind,thispaperwillexaminefourcasestudiesofhowphotographershaveworkedwithsurvivorsofrapeasaweaponofwarasawayofexploringhowthephotographicactofbearingwitnesstoatrocitycanservetoempowerthevictimtobeabletotelltheirstoryinapublicarena.Rapehasbeenusedasaweaponofwarforcenturies.Civiliansarerapedbymilitiaandgovernmentforcesasatactictodestroycommunitiesinadditiontodoinglastingphysicalandemotionalharmtothevictims.In2008theUNSecurityCouncilvotedunanimouslyforResolution1820statingthat“womenandgirlsareparticularlytargetedbytheuseofsexualviolence,includingasatacticofwartohumiliate,dominate,instillfearin,disperseand/orforciblyrelocatecivilianmembersofacommunityorethnicgroup.”Theresolutionconstitutesrapeasawarcrimeintimesofconflict. Thecasestudiesare,respectively,MarcusBleasdale’sRape:AWeaponofWarintheDRC,JonathanTorgovnik’sIntendedConsequencesinRwanda,ArminSmailovic’sBlackPortraitsinBosniaandBlakeFitch’sMyBodyisaWarZoneinColumbia.Thesefourbodiesofworkexplorehowthevisualimagecanbeused

1 JamesBooth,William.CommunitiesofMemory:OnWitness,Identity,andJustice.(Ithaca:CornellUP,)2006.

asaformofbearingwitness,allowingthesubjectstopresenttheirtestimonytotheworld.Eachphotographerdeployedadifferentaestheticstrategyincollaborationwiththewomen,allowingthemtopresentthemselvestothecamera,andthencetotheviewer,inanactofresistanceandrecognition.AsAreillaAzoulayobserves,suchapublicacknowledgementoftheirtraumaisinitselfamonumentalone,asshenoteshow‘widelyprevalenttheconceptionremainsthatrapestainsitvictimandthattalkingaboutrapeinthefirstpersonstillshouldbeanexceptionalact’.2Thecasestudiesengagewiththestrategiesofparticipatoryphotographythatgivesthesubjectavoiceintheimagemakingasanactiveprocessofempowerment.

Azoulay points out that because of the very nature of the act, images of the actual moment of abuse of rape are exceedingly rare. However, the nature of the photographic encounter as a collaborative, equal one, can give the victim a space within which to articulate their trauma via the photographer to an audience. The works thus deal with the complexities of the emotional space generated by the photographic image, by working in intimate spaces in close proximity to their subjects, the photographers challenge the violation of that private, personal space by the abuser. This echoes Azoulay’s discussion of the ‘arena of rape’, where she notes that the ‘violence creates a closed space here.3 It isolates or seeks to isolate the woman from anything or anyone who might come to her assistance and leaves her stripped of her strength, facing her assailant’.4 The intimacy of the images in each of these projects therefore challenges this violation, reclaiming that private space back for the victim. BearingWitnesstoTrauma Thephotographer,andthephotograph,canserveasavehiclethroughwhichavictimcanmakevisibletheirtestimony,actingintheroleofwhatBlusteinhasestablishedasaproxywitness;someonetowhomtherightsofthewitnesshavebeentransferredbyavictimwhoisunabletobearwitnessthemselves,orwhowishestosharetheburdenofwitnessingbydeliveringtheirtestimonytoathirdparty.Therighttopresentthetestimonyoftheprimarywitnessasauthenticvictimistransferredtotheproxy,whothusassumesthesameclaimstolegitimacyastheoriginalvictim.Thisisavitalaxisoftransferenceintermsoftheroleofthejournalistorphotographerinrepresentingtheexperiencesofothers,asitendowsuponthereporteramoralobligationandpurposetoactassuchaproxywitness,effectivelybecominga

2 AriellaAzoulay,TheCivilContractofPhotography.(NewYork:Zone,2008)page255.3Azoulay.TheCivilContractofPhotography,203.4 Azoulay.TheCivilContractofPhotography,223.

prostheticfortheactualwitness.Thisisasignificantpoint,asasubjectcanbeatonceavictimandawitnessatthesametime;theycandemandthattheirtestimonybeheard,butwithoutameanstoaddresstheexternalaudiencethisrightisnullified.Thereporterthusservesastheproxywitness,abletoaccessawideraudience,andtheyrepresentpotentiallythebestchancethatthesubjecthasfortheirtestimonytobeheardonalargerscale. Atitsheart,theactofbearingwitnesstoabusehasamoralcontentthatdifferentiatesitfromtheevidentialnatureofjudicialwitnessinginacourt;itisconcernedasmuchwithacknowledgementofthesufferingofthevictimandtheneedforjusticethanitisinnecessarilyachievingsuchjusticethroughlegalenforcement.Assuch,itisboundupwithmemory,rememberingandrespectmorethanfactualaccuracy.Itinvolvesanexchangebetweenvictim,witness,testimonyandaudiencethatimpliesademandformoralrestitution,evenifsuchrestitutionsimplyconsistsinrecognizingtheabuseinthepresent.BarbieZelizerdefinesbearingwitnessasan‘actofwitnessingthatenablespeopletotakeresponsibilityforwhattheysee’5,whilstforcommunicationstheoristCarrieRentschlerithasanalmostphysicaldimension,withwitnessingbecominga‘formofbodilyandpoliticalparticipationinwhatpeopleseeanddocument’6.Additionally,itbearsacertainmoralburdenuponthepartiesengagedintheact,forbioethicsprofessorJefferyBlusteinitisanalmostphysicaltask,a‘kindofrepairwork,arestorativelabour’7akintocarryingaheavyload.ThepsychologistandHolocaustsurvivorDoriLaub,writingofhisexperiencesinterviewingotherHolocaustvictims,concursthatbearingwitnessis,atitsessence,acollaborative,communicative,performativeact,notingthat‘Testimoniesarenotmonologues;theycannottakeplaceinsolitude.Thewitnessaretalkingtosomebody’8.Thissenseofthetestimonyneedingtobeperformedtoanaudienceisvital;theactofbearingwitnessratherthansimplywitnessingdemandsthatthewitnessenunciatestheirtestimonyoutloudinsomeway,togiveitexpressionandformsothatitcanpayhomagetothethings,peopleoreventswitnessed.Thisactofenunciationenablesthevictimtoreaffirmtheirmoralrighttoberespectedagainsttheactionsoftheperpetratortothecontrary.Blusteinarguesthatsuchabuseisanattempttovoidthesensethatthevictimhasrights, Seriousmoralwrongdoingdoesnotjustviolatetherightsofthevictimtonon-interference.Itisalsoacommunicativeactthatexpressesthis:you(thevictim)areofnoaccount,morallyspeaking,ordonotcountasmuchasIdo,andyoumaybeusedinwhateverwayIseefit.9Bearingwitnesscanthereforecounteractthisviolationbyreassigningthestatusofthevictimasamemberofsocietywithmoralrights;givingthevictimavoiceactsasarestorativeact;recognizingandacknowledgingtheirtraumabringsthembackintosociety.The 5BarbieZelizer."FindingAidstothePast:BearingPersonalWitnesstoTraumaticPublicEvents,."MediaCultureSocietyVol24(2002):page698.6,CarrieARentschler."Witnessing:USCitizenshipandtheVicariousExperienceofSuffering."Media,Culture&Society26.2(2004):296-304.,page83.7JeffreyBlustein.TheMoralDemandsofMemory.(Cambridge:CambridgeUP,2008),page86.8 ShoshanaFeldman,DoriLaub.Testimony:CrisesofWitnessinginLiterature,Psychoanalysis,andHistory.(NewYork:Routledge,1992)page68.9 Blustein,TheMoralDemandsofMemory,323.

actofbearingwitnessthusbecomesasymbolicexchangebetweenthewitnessandtheaudiencethatrestoresthevictimasworthyofattention.Indoingso,thewitnessassertstheuniversalityofvictimhood,thepossibilitythatitcouldhappentoanyoneofus.Suchwitnessinginvolvesasenseofa‘sharedhumanityandacknowledgesafundamentalhumanequalitywithrespecttosusceptibilitytopain,misery,hardship,suffering,afflictionandthelike.10’Thisprocessisoftenacomplexone,however,notleastbecausefundamentaltotheprojectofbearingwitnessisacentralparadox.Theatrocityeventresistsrepresentationinanycompleteway,andatestimonyofsufferingmustalwaysincludeanabsenceatitscore,thegapbetweentheabilityofrepresentationalformstotransmitexperience.Thelacunaoftraumacreatesaspaceofsilencewheretheabilityoflanguagefailstoexpressexperience.Thesespacesareliketopologicalfeatures,withthepeaksofrepresentationmirroredbythetroughsofitsfailure.Theroleofthewitnesswhousesformtotranslatetheirtestimonycontainsatitscoreanaestheticintervention,thewayinwhichthetestimonyisformulatedandpresented,whethertext,imageorsomeotherpresentation,directlyimpactsonhowitmightbereceivedbyanaudience.Theaestheticprocesscanfillinthesealmostinvisibleindentations,suchthattheviewer‘mightbetterthinkofthesesilencesorabsencesasasortoftopography:hollowsorindentationsleftbythepast,unannouncedandmutebutawaitingmemory’svoice,awitness,apoet,andorator,oramonument’11.Forthewitnessthen,theimperativeistofilltheselacunaewithsomething,evenifitultimatelyfailstofullyrepresenttheevent.Somerepresentationisbetterthannoneatall,asthe‘impulsetobearwitnessisintimatelyrelatedtofragility,toasilenceofmemoryandofthepast,asilencethatfuelsthewitness’ssenseoftheneedtobringthatpastbeforehiscontemporaries’12.Oncethesilencehasbeenbroken,thetestimonyhasbeenenunciated,orperformed;itmaythenimpactuponthelistenerwiththecompulsiontotakesignificantaction.AsBlusteinnotes,especiallyincasesoflarge-scalewrongdoing,theextentofwrongdoingmaybesoextremethatthosewhomerelyreadaboutitorhearaboutitdistantlyeithercannotbelieveorrefusetobelievethatitactuallyhappened.Witnessestohorrificcrimescanprovidetestimonythatshocksothersoutoftheirdenialorcomplacencyandthatgalvaniseshumanitarianinterventionandreparativeresponse.13Thisprocessmovesfromtheindividualtothecommunity,thussharingtheburdenofrespondingtotheinjuryfromthevictim,sothatbearingwitnessmoves‘individualsfromthepersonalactof“seeing”totheadoptionofapublicstancebywhichtheybecomepartofacollectiveworkingthroughtraumatogether.’14Azoulayarguesthatthe‘dutytowatchasspectatorsisatthesametimeboththedutytoresistinjurytootherswhoaregovernedandthedutytorestorethecivilianskillofspectatorship:tobeanaddresseeofthisinjury,to

10Blustein,TheMoralDemandsofMemory,332.11WilliamJamesBooth,CommunitiesofMemory:OnWitness,Identity,andJustice.(Ithaca:CornellUP,2006)page74.12Booth,CommunitiesofMemory:OnWitness,Identity,andJustice.74. 13Blustein,TheMoralDemandsofMemory,321.14 Zelizer,"FindingAidstothePast:BearingPersonalWitnesstoTraumaticPublicEvents,."698.

produceitsmeaningasinjury,andtocontinuetoaddressit.’15Thesocialactofwitnessing,andthenperformingthatwitnessingtoanaudienceservestore-suturethevictimintothesocialfabric,repairingbytheactofrecognitioninsomeformtheruptureoftheviolentact.Thetestimonythenbecomesasymbolicstatementofthewitnesses’alliancewiththemoralgoodagainsttheforcesofevil;alandmarkthatretainsitsrelevancelongaftertheatrocityhaspassedintohistory.Thephotographicimage,withitsabilitytoencompassbothreferentialandimaginativeelements,isunusuallywellsuitedtoperformsuchasymbolicrole.Itsdurable,materialpersistence,alliedwithitsmobilitythroughspaceandtime,allowsittobecomeafocalpointaroundwhichtheethicsofmemorycancoalesce. MarcusBleasdale:RapeofaNation.“Webelieveinbig,reallyreallybig.Youcannotlockthisstuffawayinaboxormakeitarcane.”LeslieThomas16 MarcusBleasdale’sassociationwithHumanRightsWatch,(HRW)MedecinssansFrontieres(MSF)andotherrelatedNGOsisavaluableexampleofhowcollaborationsbetweenaphotographerandahumanitarianorganisationaremorepowerfulthantheworkofoneagentalone,maximizingthepotentialimpactofbearingwitness.Bleasdalehasalong-termcommitmenttodocumentingthesituationintheCongo,fromthedaysofMobutotothecollapseofcivilsocietyandtheriseofthewarlordswhodominatetheDemocraticRepublicofCongo(DRC)today.Visually,hisimagesoftentaketheperspectiveofaparticipantinthesituation,situatingtheviewerwithinthescene.Heisaprimeexampleofthekindofphotographerthathasemergedfromthecomplexchangesintheindustrydrivenbythedigitalizationofimagedistributionandthedemiseofthetraditionalmagazinemarket.Heworkswithavarietyofoutletsandfunderstoenhancehisabilitytogethismessageacross,andhasaclearpersonalagendafocusedonaparticularissue.ByformingallianceswitheditorialclientssuchasTimeorNationalGeographicwhowillgiveassignments,NGOswhoworkinthefieldforlogisticalsupportandgrant-givingentitiestofundtheworkonalong-termbasis,hehasbeenabletoproducesustainedbodiesofimagesthataddresskeyissuesintheconflictintheDRC.Hisworkhasexploredtherangeofissuesthatdrivetheconflict,includingthebattleoverconflictminerals,therecruitmentofchildsoldiers,andtheuseofrapeasaweaponofwar. Bleasdaleisfullyawareofthedangersinrepresentingtheaftermathofsexualviolence,notingthatitisa“verydifficulttopictoapproachbothvisuallyandphilosophically,theconceptofidentifyandconsentissoblurredintheseareas.Historicallytherehasbeenalotofabusebyphotographersandjournalistsoftheirsubjectsintheregion”.17HethereforeworkedverycloselywithMSFandtheirteamofdoctorsandpsychologistinthefile,followingtheirstrictguidelinesoninformedconsentevenwhenworkingonhisown.Hewasveryconsciousofthepowerrelationsbetweenhimandthepotentiallyveryvulnerablewomen, 15Azoulay.TheCivilContractofPhotography343.16KassieBracken."BehindtheScenes:Suffering,WritLarge."LensBlogNewYorkTimes,Oct.19,2009,https://lens.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/10/19/behind-20/17AuthorinterviewwithMarcusBleasdale,2017.

arguingthatyouturnuptherewithapastorordoctorasawhitephotographerstampedimmediatelywiththisauthoritythatisnotlegitimate.Ifyouwalkintothewardsorroomswithpersonofauthorityyoutakeonthatauthority,andthat’sanabuseofpower,youneedtoexplainindetailwhatyouaredoing,howthosephotoswillbeused.18 Hethereforeworkedverycarefullywiththewomen,eventotheextentofshowingthemtheimagesshotonhisdigitalcameraashewasmakingthem,andgivingthemcopiesofthephotographstokeep.Heexplainedhow“whenIshowthemmycameraandIasksurvivorsifImayphotographthem,90percentsayyes.ThenIshowthemamagazineandtrytoexplainwhatwillhappentothephotograph,and90percentsaytheydonotwanttheirfacestobevisible.”Forthispartofthelargerproject,hecombinedportraitswithimagesofthelocationswheretheabusehadtakenplace.Theimages(figs1and2)areblackandwhite,withgraphicuseofdeepshadowsandshaftsoflight.Bleasdaleexplainshowtheinthe“aestheticofthewholebookshadowplaysaheavyrole,Iworkedmostlyindarkroomsshootingintothelightalot,inroomswherewomenwereinfrontofthewindowYoucanseeformandtexturebutcan’tengagewiththeidentityoftheperson.”Insomeimages,hefocusedon“legs,orarmsorhands,orusedacandletocreatecontrastinthoseportraits.”19Healsophotographedthelocationswheretheabuseshadtakenpace,accordingtothewomen’stestimony.IndoingsoheactedasaPost-Factumwitness,returningtothesceneofthecrimetoexplorehowthelatentpresenceofatrocitycanremainashistorical,metaphoricandallegoricalvisualtraces.Thelandscapethusbecomesmorethanatopography,andistransformedintoaspaceofmemoryandultimately,remembrance,actingasapalimpsest,alayeringoftimeacrossthetopographyofspace.WorkingcloselywiththepsychologistsfromMSF,Bleasdalefoundthattheexperienceofretellingtheirstorieswasoftentherapeuticforthewomen. However,Bleasdalestillhadtoexercisecautionwhensupplyinghisworktomagazinesforpublicationtoprotecttherightsofthewomen.Evenwhenworkingwithafemalephotoeditoronawomen’smagazineintheUnitedStates,herecallsthathehadtoargueaboutshowingtheidentityofthewomen.Hewouldquestiontheeditorsbyaskingthem“howwouldyoulikeitifwasyourfaceoryourmother’sfaceorsister’sface?Wouldyouhavethesameviewofanonymity?”20 Theworkwasusedinawiderangeofoutlets,includinginhis2009book,RapeofaNation,aswellasbyMSFandHRWintheirreportsonsexualviolenceintheregion.21ItalsoformedpartofalargerexhibitioncuratedbyLeslieThomasentitledCongo/Womenonsexualviolenceandwomen’srightsheldintheUSCongressin2009,wheretheimageswereblownupto7feetby10feettomaximizetheirimpact.Theexhibitionwaspartofalobbyingcampaignthatinpartledtosubstantialenhancedfundingfortheissueintheregion,and 18AuthorinterviewwithBleasdale,2017.19AuthorinterviewwithBleasdale,2017.20AuthorinterviewwithBleasdale,2017.21SeeforexampleontheMSFwebsite,Voicesfromthefield,July27,2009:DemocraticRepublicofCongo:“Nobodycouldtakeherdignityfromher”http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/news-stories/voice-field/democratic-republic-congo-nobody-could-take-her-dignity-her

contributedtothelaterDoddFrank1502actontheuseofconflictmineralsinconsumergoods. IntendedConsequences:JonathanTorgovnik “Telltheworldthattheinternationalcommunityhasadebt,becausetheydidn'tcometoourrescue.Theyshouldnowcometosupportus,aswedealwiththelegacyofgenocide.”Rosette,RwandanRapeSurvivor Duringthe1994RwandanGenocideRwandanover800,000TutsiandmoderateHutusweremurderedinaperiodof100days.TutuwomenwererapedonamassivescalebytheHutumilitia,civiliansandtheRwandanArmedForces.RapewasdeployedaspartofagovernmentstrategyasameansofstrippingTutsiwomenoftheirdignityandidentity.InadditiontosexualizedviolenceHIV/AIDSwasalsousedtoethnicallycleansetheTutus.Thenumberofwomenrapedisestimatedatbetween250,000and500,000,whilstanestimated20,000childrenwerebornasaresultoftheabuse.LaetitiaNyirazinyoyeandMaggieZralyconductedanethnographicstudyofresilienceamongthesurvivorsofgenocide-rapeinsouthernRwanda.Thestudylookedathowsocietyviewedsurvivorsofrape.Itshowedthatrapevictimshadlongbeenstigmatizedintheircommunitiesevenbeforethegenocideandseenasunfittomarry,sowhathappenedtotherapesurvivorsofgenocidelargelyfollowedexistingsocialnorms.22 In2006,theIsraeliphotographerJonathanTorgovniktravelledonassignmenttoRwandawithaneditorforNewsweekmagazinetoworkonastoryaboutthe20thanniversaryoftheadventofHIV/AIDS.TheeditorhadsetupameetingwithawomanwhotoldherstoryabouthowshecontractedthevirusafterbeingrapedbyHutumilitiaduringthe1994genocide.Torgovnikdescribedthefirsttimeheheardthestoryofrape:“Iwillneverforgotthatinterview.ItwasoneofthemosthorrificIhadinmycareer.Margaretwassixteenatthetimeofthegenocide.Shedescribedhowherwholefamilywasmurdered,shewasrapedwhilelockedintheroomfortwomonthsbyfourorfivemeneverydayuntilfinallyshewasthrownoutinthestreet.Shebecamepregnant.Shehadababyboyandmanagedtolovehimandfeedhim,despitetherejectionfromherfamily.WhenIcamebacktoNewYorkwhereIwaslivingatthetime,Margaret’sstoryhauntedme.Whileshehaddescribedherlifeandthehorrorsthatshehadgonethrough,IwasthinkingtomyselfhowmanywomenarelikethisinRwanda.”23 ForTorgovniktheprojectbecameapersonalmission.Hewasshockedbytheostracizationandrejectionofthesewomenbytheirfamiliesandthecommunities.Hisfamilywashissocialnet,thisiswhyhedidit.Thewomentoldhimthattheywantedtheirvoicestobeheardoutsidetheircommunities.Theydidnotwanttobeforgottenandwantedtheworldtoseewhathadhappenedtothemduringandafterthegenocide.Hewasdeterminedtoshowhow 22MaggieZralyandLaetitiaNyirazinyoye."Don'tLettheSufferingMakeYouFadeAway:AnEthnographicStudyofResilienceamongSurvivorsofGenocide-rapeinSouthernRwanda."SocialScience&Medicine70.10(2010):1656-664.23AuthorinterviewwithJonathanTorgovnik,2017.

widespreadthecampaignofabusehadbeen.In2006thiswasaseverelyunderreportedstory.Overthecourseofthenextthreeyears,TorgovnikwenttoRwandatomakeover40portraitsofthefamilies,slowlymeetingthewomenandphotographingthem.HeworkedwithAvega,anNGOheadquarteredinKigali,foundedin1994tohelpwidowsanddependentswithmedicalservices,psychologicalcounseling,educationandtraining,housingandlegalservicesandincome-generatingactivitiesafterthegenocide.AvegaintroducedTorgovniktothesurvivorsandhelpedhimgainthetrustheneeded.Oneofthemosttraumaticexperienceshehadwaswhenhefirstwenttohearthefirststory.“Weweresittingonthefloorandwewereallcrying.Shewastalkingaboutherfamilyandhowtheymurderedheraunt.Icouldn’ttakeanypicturesbecauseIwassotraumatized.Ihadtocomebacktopicturesthenextday.”24Torgovnikdecidedthatportraitswouldbetterconveytheissueathandthanstraightreportage.HethereforemadeenvironmentalphotoswithhismediumformatHasselbladcameraandaflash.Hewantedpeopletolookatthephotographsandgetdrawnintostartaskingquestions,maintainingthat“Iwantedthephotographstohittheviewerhard.Iwantedpeopletoseethebeautyofthewomenandtheirchildren.”Hefeltthattheinterviewswerejustasimportantasthephotos.Healsohadtofindastrategytoshowthetraumathesemothershadexperienced.Thesewomenhadn’tyetsharedtheirstorieswithanyone.Torgovnikwouldsitwiththemothersforsometimebeforetheinterviewstarted.Thechildrenwerenotpresentattheinterview.Hewantedthemunderstandthatthestorieswouldbesharedwiththeworld.Torgovniksaidthatmothersfeltitwastheirmissiontotellthestoryandlettheworldheartheirvoices.Hedecidedtodotheinterviewsfirstandthenphotographthemafter,describinghowhe“wouldcometotheirhomesandthenweeasedintotheinterview-startingwiththeirlifeandthentheywoulddescribetherape.IfeltthatIwasavehicletotellthestoryandafterawhiletheydidn’tseemethere.”25Hefelthewouldbebetterabletocaptureonfilmthefeelingsoftraumaaftertheinterviewsbecauseoftheintensityoftherawrelivedexperience.Thechildrenwerethenbroughtintobephotographedwiththeirmothers.Thestrategywastocompelviewerstoreadthestoryafterlookingatthefacesofthesefamilies.Hehadtoconveythedifferentfeelingsthatthesemothershadfortheirchildrenbornofrape.Manywomenhadissuesraisingthem(fig3).Asheexplained,thiswasacomplexsituationformanyofthemothers,IrememberwalkingintothehouseandIseeastrikinglybeautifulwomanwhohadtwodaughterswholookedthesameage.Themilitiahadkilledherhusbandandrapedherandtookherasasexslavewhenshewasninemonthspregnant.Shegavebirthand9monthlatergavebirthtotheseconddaughterwhowasaresultofrape.SheescapedandwalkedtoRwanda.Butherlovewasdivided.Thegirlsdidn’tunderstandwhytheirmothertreatedthefirstbornbetterandthesecondonesoindifferently.26 Armedwiththestoriesandphotosanddeterminedtotelllettheworldknowwhathappenedtothesewomen,TorgovnikwenttoSternmagazineinGermany.Whathappenedwassounexpected.Thestorywaspublishedand 24AuthorinterviewwithTorgovnik,2017.25AuthorinterviewwithTorgovnik,2017.26AuthorinterviewwithTorgovnik,2017.

Torgovnikmadesurethatacalltoactionwaspublishedinthepaper.Thechildrenneededfundingforaschool.Withthatonestory,Torgovnik’sworkmadeover$150,000andtodaytheprojecthasfundededucationforhundredsofchildren.Hisbook,IntendedConsequences,waspublishedbyAperture,andtheexhibition,fundedbyOpenSocietyFoundations,launchedattheAperturegalleryinNewYork,andthentraveledinternationallyinJapan,France,UK,ChinaandBurma.AseparatetravelingexhibitionalsowenttotenuniversitiesintheUS,inpartnershipwithAmnestyInternationalthatalsodevelopedaneducationguidebasedonthework.ThenonprofithefoundediscalledFoundationRwandaandcontinuestohelpthechildrentoday. ArminSmailovic:SoundsofSilence.“Iwalkwithmyheadhigh,proud.Iamfighter.Iliveon,Iwillneverletthembreakme.That’swhattheywouldwant.Onesaidthatrapeisakindofslowmurder.Ihavenotletthemkillmyspirit,andwillneverletithappen.Iwantthesameforallthewomenintheworld,andyoumusthelpmeinthat.”EnisaSalcinovic(2011) TheBosnian-GermanphotographerArminSmailovichasbeendocumentingthepost-warsituationintheBalkansforthelasttwentyyears,andhasundertakenprojectsonSrebrenicaandthecultofTito.27In2011hewascommissionedbytheUnitedNationsPopulationFund(UNFPA)toproduceabodyofworkonthevictimsofrapeasaweaponofwar.ThiswasacontinuationofUNFPA’sinformativecampaign,S.O.S.SoundofSilence,thattargetedpublicawarenessofthestatusoftheestimated20,000victimsofrapeandotherformsofsexualviolenceduringthewarinBiH.Inthewordsoftheprojectdirector,MajdaPrljaca,theconceptoftheworkwastocreate‘avisionofmakingtheunimaginableandunspeakablevisible’.Assheexplains,thewomenlivewiththeterriblelegacyoftheirabuseonadailybasisastheysufferfrompost-traumaticstressdisorder,gynaecologicalproblems,sexualdysfunction,lackofconcentration,fear,depression,andtheyhavelimitedaccesstoservicessuchashealthandsocialprotection.Themajorityofthevictimsliveinpovertyandarenotabletofindormaintainjobsduetotheirpsychologicalcondition.28 Smailovichadtofindawaytorepresentthepsychologicalstateofmindofthesurvivorswhilstnotsubjectingthemtofurthertraumathroughtheprocessofbeinginterviewedandphotographed.SmailovicwasawareoftheotherbodiesofworkonrapeasaweaponofwarfromcountrieslikeRwanda,butwantedtomakeworkthatwasmoreexpressiveandconceptual.Smailovicexplainsthedifficultyofdealingwithsuchtraumaticmemories:“Noonewhowasnotpartofthis,whodidnotexperiencethistorture,thisabuse,canunderstandwhatishappeningwiththewomen,butItriedtoshowthatthereisthishuge,darkroomaroundthemthatcannotbeerased,itcanonlybemedicatedtomakethemhaveittoooften,insteadof24/7maybe2/7or5/7,ithelpsthemtoshortenthetimesofflashbacks,ofdepression.”29

27Seehisworkonlineathttp://www.smailovic.com/Seven-States_2_0_job_0_seite_0.html28 AuthorinterviewofMajdaPrijaca.,2014.29AuthorinterviewofSmailovic,2017.

Intheprocessoftalkingtothewomenarecurrentthemeoftheirexperienceswasbeingkeptinadarkenedroom,andthenbeingtaken,oftenatnight,byflashlightbytheirSerbiancaptorstoberepeatedlyraped.Fromthis,hedevelopedtheideaofphotographingthewomenindarkrooms,againstablackbackdrop,andlightingthembytorchlight(fig4).Thisprocesswasintendedtoretelltheirstory‘visually,thoughbodylanguage,givingtestimonythroughtheirexpression,likeaflashlightonyourneighbor,yourfriend,yoursisterormother30.Inthefield,heusuallychosetoshootinbathrooms,kitchensorentrancehallswherethelightlevelswerenaturallylow.Heexplainstheprocessthus:‘Eachsessiontookamaximumofthreetofiveminutes,IexplainedtothemthatIwoulduseaflashlight,wewouldlookattheimagestogether,whethertheywouldliketobeidentifiedornotintheportrait,thenwestartedtofindasituationofaportraitinaveryquickandeasyway,tomakeitfastforthem,Isaidiftheyarenotcomfortabletotellmeinstantlytostop,ithappenedtwoorthreetimesbecauseoftheflashlight,theyhadinstantflashbacktotwentyyearsagoandIhadtostopafter30seconds,theywereokafterthat.Itwasnotwitheveryportrait,butwithsomeIhadgoosebumps,asitfeltlikeIwaswithher20yearsagointhesameroomasshewasraped’. Thereareoversixtyphotographsinthewholeproject,andthewomenwerephotographedalloverBiH,fromPrijedortoTrebinje,Tuzla,Mostar,Sarajevo,KozaracandProzor.Smailovicnotesalsothateachsessionwasaperformance,thewomenwere‘allmadeup,dressedup,theywerepreparedforaportraitsession,theydidnotcomejustlikethat,unprepared,buttheydidn’tknowwhatwillhappenorwhatitwouldlooklikeinadvance’31Awareofthepotentialproblemsthatsucharestagingoftheabusecouldentail,SmailovicandtheteamfromUNFPAwerecarefultomaketheprocessascollaborativeaspossible.Giventheconstrictingspaces,hemaderelativelytightheadshotsofthewomen,andthenexpandedthecanvasoftheimagesinPhotoshoptosituatethewomen’sfacesinaseaofdarkness.Thewomen’sfacesloomoutofthedarkness,partiallyilluminatedbythenarrowandtransientbeamoflightfromthetorch.Theseshaftsoflightactasmultiplemetaphors,fortheprocessoftheactualabuseitself,forthepsychologicalandemotionalscarsithasleftonthewomen,butalsofortheredemptivequalityofbearingwitness,ofshiningalightintodarkcornerstoilluminatethemwiththetestimonyofthesurvivors,echoingAzoulay’sclaimthat‘Rapecannotremaininthedark’32Byisolatingthefacesofthewomen,theviewerisforcedintoadirectconfrontationwiththeirsuffering.Thereisliterallynovisualspaceinwhichtohidefromtheirexpressionsandtheemotionintheireyes.Whentheworkwasshowninexhibitionsitwaspresentedwithoutanycaptionsorevensupportingtext,whichhadapowerfuleffectontheaudiences,asSmailovicexplains:‘Attheshow,itwasliketherearenoquestionsleftfromtheaudienceaboutwhothesewomenwereandwhathappenedtothem,therewerenocaptions,nonames,locationsortheirstories,eventhosewhowereopentobephotographed

30AuthorinterviewofSmailovic,2017.31AuthorinterviewofSmailovic,2017.32 Azoulay.TheCivilContractofPhotography,259.

theyaskedmenottodisclosethelocation.Butno-oneneededtoknowmore,itwasallthereintheirfaces.’ Theworkwasalsoproducedasabook,fundedbyUNFPA,whoseDeputyExecutiveDirectorAnne-Anne-BirgitteAlbrectsennotedthatitgivesvoicetothevoicelessandletstheworldknowthatthereisnoshameinhavingenduredunimaginableatrocities.Thesewomenareourmodels,oursistersandourneighbours,andtheyshouldbecelebratedfortheirstrengthandcourage.Thiscrimeisonethatthrivesinthedark,andbycomingforwardandsharingtheirimages,theyareshiningalightonwhathasbeencalledhistory’sgreatestsilence.33 Thisseriesthusdealsinanintenselyemotionalwaywithboththememoryofpastabuse,andwithitsretellingintothepresentthroughaprocessofgivingtestimonywiththebodilyexpressionofthewomen’strauma.Theirfacesformtopographiesofsuffering,withthememoryoftheirterribleexperiencesmappedineveryline.Buttheyalsostarebackattheviewer,sometimesaccusatory,sometimes,resigned,sometimescalm.AsMajdaPrljacanotes,these‘darkportraitscommunicatetheisolation,fearandpain.Releasedfromtheirsurroundings,thephotographslooklikeavisualechoofvictimsofrapecamps.Thelonelinessofwomenwiththecruellegacyofwarandoppressionandpowerlessnesstotheoutsidersareclear.’34Thelightinthegloomactsasapowerfulimaginativemetaphorthatforcestheviewertoengagewiththeexperiencesofthesewomen,andhowtheycontinuetodominatetheirlivestoday.

33NicoleFoster."SoundofSilence:DealingwiththeLegacyofSexualViolenceasaWeaponofWar."UnitedNationsPopulationFund.N.p.,17Mar.2014.34AuthorinterviewofMajdaPrljaca,2013.

MyBodyisaWarZone:BlakeFitch “IfIstarttotellmystories,thisbodythatyousee,ithasbeenabodyofmanyinstrumentsofwar.”Lucinda,rapesurvivor,Colombia BlakeFitch’sworkdocumentsthenuancesandcomplexitiesoftheemotionallivesofgirlsandyoungwomen,andtheseconcernsservedascatalystfortheworkshemadeforthe“MyBodyisaWarZone”project.TheexhibitionwascollaborationbetweenFitchandPROOF:MediaforSocialJustice,anNGOthatusesvisualstorytellingforsocialchange.Theprojectwasconceivedtogivevoicetosurvivorsofrapeorsexualviolenceinarmedconflicts.Foralmosthalfacentury,civilconflictinvolvingthestate,paramilitary,andguerrillaforceshadseizedColombia.Asaresult,almostfourmillionColombiansareconsideredinternallydisplacedwithinthecountry.Theyhavefleddiverseharm,includinggangwarfare,forcedrecruitment,extortion,socialcleansing,andsexualviolence.Bysomeestimates,gender-basedviolencewasthecausefortwooutofeverytendisplacedColombianwomen.Manywomenhaveyettoreceiveanycompensationorjustice. Theintentoftheexhibitwastoliftupthevoicesofsurvivorsofsexualviolence,andforceaccountabilityandresponsefromthecommunityandpolicymakers.Thisexhibitwasproducedbeforethepeacetalkshadconcluded.FitchphotographedtheColombiansurvivorswhoparticipatedintheexhibit. HerworkasacuratorattheGriffinMuseumofphotography,apreeminentresourcedevotedtotheexhibitionofphotographs,helpedhercreateapowerfulgroupofphotosthatwouldbeeventuallyusedforatravelingexhibit.Inadirectway,Fitch’scomfortandrapportwithvulnerableyoungwomenallowedhertoconnectwiththewomenfeaturedintheproject.ThisbecameakeyfactorinFitch'sbeautifullycraftedphotographsofrapesurvivorsinColombia.AsAndyGoldbergaptlywroteaboutherwork,“Itisrareincontemporaryphotographytoencounteraseriesofpicturesthisbeautiful,innocent,compelling,andintriguing.”FitchisanexperiencedportraitphotographerwhosecareerhasrangedfromcommercialbasedassignmentstoeditorialassignmentsinLatinAmerica.Fitchdescribedhowshe“wantedtousemyphotographyforaveryspecificproject,andthispresentedanopportunitytomakeapotentialdifferenceinthesewomen’slives.Theimagesneededtoshowthewomenfromapositionofstrength.Iwantedthemtobeviewedmoreassurvivorsandaswarriors.”35 Asawoman,Fitchwasstruckbythebraveryofthewomenshephotographed.“Attheonsetoftheproject,thehardshipandtraumathatthesewomenfacedwasevident.Icouldonlybegintograspthepaintheyhavehaddealtwith”.Atthetime,Fitchwaspregnantwithhersecondchild.Thisgaveherapersonalconnectiontohersubjects,assheexplained,“OneofthewomenhadalittlebabyandIrealizedthatbecauseI’mamom,itmademestopandthinkaboutmychildrenandnotwantinganyharmtocometothem.Butmore

35 AuthorinterviewofBlakeFitch,2017.

important,becauseIwasawoman,Icouldonlyimaginethepaintheywentthrough.” Theyunderstoodthattheexhibitwastheirwayoftellingtheircommunitytheirstories.Theleaderofthegrouphadsaidthattheirgoalwastogettheirstoriesoutandwantedtolettheworldknowwhathappenedtothemsothatthecycleofviolencewouldstop.Astheysaid“Wewantoursons,husbands,electedofficials,doctorsandthepublictohearourwordsandseewhathappenstotheirmothersanddaughters.”36Whenthinkingabouthowtophotographthewomen,Fitchhadtofindavisualstrategytoprotectthembyconcealingtheiridentities.Theperpetratorshadwarnedthesurvivorsthattheywouldkillthemandtheirfamiliesiftheytoldanyone.Oftentheabuserswouldbelivinginthesametown.Fitchwantedtoconveybeauty,strengthandsadnessintheirportraits. Becauseoftheissueofsafety,Fitchmadetwodifferentkindsofportraits.ThephotographsusedintheexhibitioninColombiacouldn’tshowthewomen’s’faces.Fitchthereforeconcentratedonthehandsofthewomen,shootinginblackandwhitesothatthelinesintheirhandswouldbemoredramatic,servingasametaphorfortheirhardlives(fig5).Sherecountedhowshe“decidedtotellthemtousetheprotectivemotionwiththeirhandupasiftofightofftheperpetrator.Youknowthereisapersonstaringoutbehindthehand,itsaysStop,stayawayfromme,Iamstrong!”37Thesecondsetofphotographswasshotforuseintheinternationalexhibition.Fitchtookverytightcloseupsoftheirfacesandeyes,concentratingonthestrengthineachofthem(fig6).Shedecidedtouseashallowthedepthoffieldinhercamerasothattheviewerwouldfocusontheeyes.Thewomen’sreturnedgazeseemstosay“Iamstrikingbackandyoucan’ttakemydignityawayfromme.”38Fitchfeltthatthewomenhadasenseofreleasebythetimetheportraitwastaken.Theyhadkepttheirguardupforsolongbynottellinganyonetheirstory,buttheprocessoftellingtheirstories,beingphotographed,andbeinglistenedtowascathartic.Itwasthefirsttimethattheyhadbeenaskediftheywantedtoparticipateinaprojectlikethis,andoncethephotographsweremade,theywerealsoinvolvedindecidinghowtousethem,givingthemarealsenseofempowerment.39Theexhibitcontinuestotravelinternationally,andlocallythewomennowfeelconfidentenoughtotalkabouttheexhibitanduseitintheirworkwithotherwomen.Theyareproudofitandfeeltheyownit.OneoftheleaderswaschosentobeadelegatetothepeaceprocessinCubaandseveralofthewomenhavebecomehumanrightsdefendersforwomenwhoaresurvivorsofsexualviolence.Theexhibitopenedthedoorforthesewomentobeabletotalkopenlyabouttheirexperiencesandhasinspiredotherstosharetheirstorieswiththepublic. Conclusion:MakingthePastvisibleWithit’sdirectaddresstothecamera,andthencetotheaudience,theportraitformatinvitestheviewertoponderthecharacter,personalityandexperiences

36Authorinterview,2012.37AuthorinterviewofBlakeFitch,2017.38 AuthorinterviewofBlakeFitch,2017.39 Authorinterviewwithparticipants,2017.

ofthesubject,whatKozloffcallsthe“TheatreoftheFace.”40Alloftheseprojectsinvolvethedirectconfrontationwiththeviewerofanidentifiableindividual,butalsopresentsaseriesofsuchindividualslinkedtogetherbyacoherent,commonaestheticthatestablishesaconnectionbetweenthemwhistretainingtheuniquenessoftheirpersonalexperience.DrawinglinksbetweentheuseofrapeasaweaponofwarinCongo,Colombia,RwandaandBosniaestablishesthatthereisapressingneedforsanctionsagainstsuchatrocitiestobedevelopedatthelevelofglobalgovernance. Theworksexploredinthispaperprojectamomentintheapparentpresentbackwardsintothepast,makingconnectionsbetweenapersonandtheirpastvisible.Theythuschallengetheconceptthattimeislinearandprogressive,suggestingthatitismorefragmentaryandcircular.Aphotographcanconnectpasttopresent,andpresenttopast.Indeed,itcanalsoconnectpresentandpasttothefuture,insuggestingwhatmightbeaswellaswhathasbeen.AsShanksnotes,photographshavethepotentialtodrawtogetherdifferenttemporalities,whathedescribesas‘memoryasactuality–thejuxtapositionofdifferenttimesinthenow,’41ThisfollowsBaer’sassertionthatphotographictemporalityisnotlinearandchronological,butrathermoreconsistsof‘singularburstsandexplosions’,42andthusofferstheviewera‘chancetoseeinaphotographnotnarrative,nothistory,butpossiblytrauma’43.Byitsverynature,thephotographcanonlybeexperiencedaftertheeventitself;assuch,thetemporalityofphotographymatchesthatoftraumaticmemory.AsCaruthexplains,traumaischaracterized,notbytheeventitself—whichmayormaynotbecatastrophic,andmaynottraumatizeeveryoneequally—norcanitbedefinedintermsofadistortion...butconsists...inthestructureofitsexperienceorreception:theeventisnotassimilatedorexperiencedfullyatthetime,butonlybelatedly,initsrepeatedpossessionoftheonewhoexperiencesit.44Photographyisthereforeavaluableformofpresentingtraumabybearingwitness,asitnecessarilyinvolvesaretellingorreinterpretationofthepastbyanengagementwiththetracesandevidenceofthatpastinthepresent,andarecognitionandinvolvementwiththehistoriesofbothpeopleandplaces.AsBoothnotes,thisisanactiveprocessofthewitnessbringingthestoryofthepastbackintothepresent,suchthatthewitness‘bringstolightandevokesthesenseofthetrace’andindoingsothey‘restore…whatisabsent…theyovercomethedistance,thetemporaldistancethatseparatesthepresentfromwhatisbeinggivenintheactofwitnessing’45.Thisintegrityofthewitnessmustbeseparatedoutfromtheconceptofthetruthfulnessofthetestimony,astruthisperhapslessimportantinthecontextofwitnesstestimonythanauthenticity.Whatcanbecalledtheauthenticityofsubjectivityoperateshere;suchthatwhatissoughtfromthewitnessisapersonalaccountofanevent.AsthephilosopherSlavoj 40MaxKozloff.TheTheatreoftheFace:PortraitPhotographysince1900.London:Phaidon,2007.41Michael Shanks. (2011) Landscape aesthetics – the politics. (Internet). Available from http://www.mshanks.com/2011/07/landscape-aesthetics-the-politics-continued/ 42UlrichBaer.SpectralEvidence:ThePhotographyofTrauma.(Cambridge,MA:MIT,2005)page7.43Baer.SpectralEvidence:ThePhotographyofTrauma.6.44CathyCaruth.Trauma:ExplorationsinMemory.(Baltimore:JohnsHopkins1995)page4.45Booth.CommunitiesofMemory:OnWitness,Identity,andJustice,86.

Žižekobserves,themoresubjectiveatestimonyis,potentiallythemorelikelyitistobeaccepted: Adistinctionneedstobemadebetween(factual)truthandtruthfulness;whatrendersareportofarapedwoman(oranyothernarrativeoftrauma)truthfulisitsveryfactualunreliability,itsconfusion,itsinconsistency.Ifthevictimwereabletoreportonherpainfulandhumiliatingexperienceinaclearmanner,withallthedataarrangedinaconsistentorder,thisveryqualitywouldmakeussuspiciousofitstruth.46 Oneofthegreatestpowersofphotographyliesinitssuggestiveness,itsabilitytoimplyorinferemotionsinascenethroughtheactivationofthephotographicimagination.Inthepowerfulseriesofimagesdiscussedinthispapertheactofbearingwitnesshasadistinctivemoralqualitythatgoesbeyondthatofsimplewitnessing,thatithasapotentialtherapeuticandvalidatingpotentialaswellasanaccusatoryordocumentaryone.Theactofbearingwitnesstoatrocitiesthushasamoralvalueinandofitselfinitsproductionofanartifactoftestimonytohonourthevictim,evenifitservesnootherpurpose.Thephotographercanactasaproxywitnessfortherestofsociety,andtheproductofthiswitnessing,thephotograph,hasaculturallyprivilegedpositioninlightoftheforegroundingofthevisualasbelievableevidence.Giventhematerialnatureofthephotograph,anditsportabilityandmobility,theactofwitnessingistransferredthenfromthephotographerasthewitnesstotheeventtothephotographitselfasthevehiclethroughwhichthisprivilegedvisualisationisdisseminated.Whenthepotentialforthephotographasacarrierofmemoryisadded,thepotentialisthengeneratedforphotographsofatrocitytobecomeencapsulatedargumentsabouttheabuseofonepersonbyanother,andthusasmarkersofwhatcouldbecalled‘moralmemory’,generatingethicalargumentsandpositionsaboutwhatisrightandwronginsocieties’responsestoconflictandsuffering.AsAzoulayforcefullyputsit,‘Rapecannotremaininthedark.Theimage-makerthusservesasaconduitbetweentheworldandtheviewer,crystallisingexperienceintoamaterialform,thatthroughitsaestheticandformalqualities,communicatesitscontenttotheaudience,andchallengesthataudiencetorespond.Assuchphotographicdiscourseformsan‘inseparablepartofanystruggleinthepoliticalarena,foritisinthevisualarena,throughandbymeansofimages,thatwomenandmentrainthemselvestofeel,see,think,judgeandact.’47Theprojectsdiscussedinthispaperthereforearmtherapesurvivorswiththeirvisualandwrittentestimonies,empoweringthemwiththetoolstostandupanddefythestigmaandpoliticalandsocialbarriersthatsurroundtheissue,enablingthemtelltheirstoriestotheworldwiththehopeofbreakingthecycleofrape.Toexpectphotographyalonetocreatesignificantsocialchangeisunrealisticandunlikely,buttakenasavitalpartofanon-goingprocessofinformationalexchangeitcanhaveasignificantroleinhumanizingtheother,andthroughimaginativeengagementincreaseempathyandthedesiretotakeaffirmativeaction.

46SlavojZ�iz�ek.ViolenceSixSidewaysReflections.(London:Profile,2009)page3.47Azoulay.TheCivilContractofPhotography,281.

Illustrations Fig1:Afiftyfour-yearoldwomanvictimwas,rapedbygovernmentsoldiersinAveba,DRCwhilefleeingfightingbetweengovernmentandmilitiaforces.2006.CopyrightMarcusBleasdale Fig2:ThechurchinAveba,DRC,wheregovernmentsoldiersroundedupmanywomenbeforetakingthemoutsideandsystematicallyrapingthem.2006.CopyrightMarcusBleasdale Fig3:Valentinewithherdaughters,AmelieandInez."IlovemyfirstdaughtermorebecauseIgavebirthtoherasaresultoflove.Herfatherwasmyhusband.Thesecondgirlisaresultofunwantedcircumstance.Ineverlovedherfather.Myloveisdivided,butslowly,Iambeginningtoappreciatethattheyoungerdaughterisinnocent.IloveheronlynowthatIambeginningtoappreciatethatsheismydaughtertoo."2006.CopyrightJonathanTorgovnik/GettyImagesReportage Fig4:BlackPortrait,2011.CopyrightArminSmailovic Fig5:FromMyBodyisaWarZone,CopyrightBlakeFitch Fig6:FromMyBodyisaWarZone,CopyrightBlakeFitch BibliographyAzoulay,Ariella.TheCivilContractofPhotography.NewYork:Zone,2008.Baer,Ulrich.SpectralEvidence:ThePhotographyofTrauma.Cambridge,MA:MIT,2005.Bleasdale,Marcus.TheRapeofaNation.Amsterdam:Mets&Schilt,2009.Blustein,Jeffrey.TheMoralDemandsofMemory.Cambridge:CambridgeUP,2008.Booth,WilliamJames.CommunitiesofMemory:OnWitness,Identity,andJustice.Ithaca:CornellUP,2006.Bracken,Kassie."BehindtheScenes:Suffering,WritLarge."TheNewYorkTimes.N.p.,19Oct.2009.Web.16Aug.2017.Bradley,MarkPhilip,andPatricePetro.TruthClaims:RepresentationandHumanRights.NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUP,2002.Caruth,Cathy.Trauma:ExplorationsinMemory.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsU,n.d.CubilieÌ,Anne.WomenWitnessingTerror:TestimonyandtheCulturalPoliticsofHumanRights.NewYork:FordhamUP,2005.Feldman,Shoshana,andDoriLaub.Testimony:CrisesofWitnessinginLiterature,Psychoanalysis,andHistory.NewYork:Routledge,1992.Foster,Nicole."SoundofSilence:DealingwiththeLegacyofSexualViolenceasaWeaponofWar."UnitedNationsPopulationFund.N.p.,17Mar.2014.

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