Copyright ©2000-14 CRS Enterprises Ltd 1 Python Fundamentals by Chris Seddon

Python Fundamentals

Chris Seddon

Python Fundamentals1. Introduction to Python

2. Control Structures

3. Basic Data Types

4. Advanced Data Types

5. Dictionaries

6. Functions

7. Exception Handling

8. Classes and Objects

9. Files

10. Larger Programs

11. Inheritance

12. Further Topics

13. Pattern Matching

14. Unit Test

Chapter 1

Introduction to Python

IronPython

What is Python?Python is a scripting language

unlike C++, C# and Java

easy to learn

no compile step

can be run a line at a time inside an interpreter

supports dynamic execution of source (you can type in code at run time)

Supports both Object Oriented and functional styles of programmingoften described as an agile language

capable of performing a wide variety of tasks

ideal for rapid prototyping

often used as a plug-in to a C++ or Java system

Advantages of PythonPython is best used

to develop small programs and scripts

simple programs can be created very quickly

Python can be used for large-scale programming projectssophisticated module and packaging scheme

extensive object oriented support

Jython has access to all Java libraries

Python was designed to be an object oriented language from the startmore simplified and natural coding style than Perl, Rexx and VBScript

highly portable

What is Jython?An implementation of Python

fully integrated with the Java Virtual Machine

runs on any JVM

unlike a Python program

including Windows, Mac OS, most UNIX, all Linux systems, and all IBM systems

highly portable

because of the connection with Java

Jython currently supports the Python syntax at level 2.5

Jython Librariesuses Java libraries because of the JVM

NOT standard Python libraries

can be a problem sometimes

Everything is InterpretedPython is an interpreted language

no pre-compile step as in Java and C++

each time Python code is run it is interpreted afresh

code changes can be very quickly made and tested

code can also be entered interactively

can dynamically construct Python code, in the form of a string and execute it directly

JVMJVM

myJava.javamyJava.java

myJava.classmyJava.class

myPython.pymyPython.py

Target Hardware

PerformancePython is interpreted

much slower than a compiled language such as C/C++

increased design and coding flexibility more than makes up for performance loss

Python libraries usually written in C/C++a large proportion of the Python library is written in C/C++

as is the interpreter itself

hence high performance

Python has modules to measure performanceprofile, cProfile

Invoking PythonUse the Command-Line Interpreter

code is entered one line at a time

see the results immediately

ideal way to learn Python

Use Python source files complied by the Python interpreter

source files can be combined using modules for larger applications

Python plug-in for Eclipse is often a good choicePyDev is very mature

A "Hello World" ExampleThe Hello World example is a trivial one liner in Python;

you don’t even require a semi-colon!

print "Hello World!"print "Hello World!"

Further ExampleThe Hello World example is a trivial one liner in Python;

you don’t even require a semi-colon!

# this is a commentx = 100y = 200if x + y < 500: print "sum is less than 500"

indent

Chapter 2

Control StructuresStatements

if Statements

x = int(raw_input("Please enter an integer: "))

if x < 0: print 'Negative'

Please enter an integer: -5Negative

if Statements

x = int(raw_input("Please enter a positive integer: "))

if x > 0: print 'x is positive' print 'the square of x is', x * x print 'the cube of x is', x * x * x

print 'End of if-statement'

x = int(raw_input("Please enter a positive integer: "))

if x > 0: print 'x is positive' print 'the square of x is', x * x print 'the cube of x is', x * x * x

print 'End of if-statement'

Please enter a positive integer: 66x is positivethe square of x is 4356the cube of x is 287496End of if-statement

if-else Statements

if x < 0: print 'Negative'else: print 'Not negative'

Please enter an integer: 5Not negative

if-elif-else Statements

if x < 0: print 'Negative'elif x == 0: print 'Zero'elif x == 1: print 'One'else: print 'Greater than one'

Please enter an integer: -3NegativePlease enter an integer: 0ZeroPlease enter an integer: 1OnePlease enter an integer: 7Greater than one

Conditional if Statements

x = 100result = (-1 if x < 0 else 1)print result

x = -200result = (-1 if x < 0 else 1)print result

x = 100result = (-1 if x < 0 else 1)print result

x = -200result = (-1 if x < 0 else 1)print result

for Statements

for x in (10,17,24,31,38,45,52,59,66,73,80,87,94): print x,

for x in range(10,100,7): print x,

for x in (10,17,24,31,38,45,52,59,66,73,80,87,94): print x,

for x in range(10,100,7): print x,

10 17 24 31 38 45 52 59 66 73 80 87 9410 17 24 31 38 45 52 59 66 73 80 87 94

for-else Statements

for x in (1,2,3,4,5,6): print x,else: print "only get here if all iterations succeed ..."

for x in (1,2,3,4,5,6): print x, if x > 3: breakelse: print "only get here if all iterations succeed ..."

for x in (1,2,3,4,5,6): print x,else: print "only get here if all iterations succeed ..."

for x in (1,2,3,4,5,6): print x, if x > 3: breakelse: print "only get here if all iterations succeed ..."

1 2 3 4 5 6 only get here if all iterations succeed ...1 2 3 4

Using rangeuse range to iterate a fixed number of times

for x in range(1,10): print x,

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

while Statements

formula = 0x = 0

while formula < 1000: x = x + 1 formula = 2*x*(x + 1) print x, formula

formula = 0x = 0

while formula < 1000: x = x + 1 formula = 2*x*(x + 1) print x, formula

1 42 123 244 405 606 847 1128 1449 18010 22011 26412 31213 36414 42015 48016 54417 61218 68419 76020 84021 92422 1012

Chapter 3

Basic Data TypesBasic Types

boolean

complex

string

Data TypesEverything is an object

including all types discussed in this chapter

full documentation for the Java types is online

Several types are immutablestrings, tuples

Sometimes objects behave as though immutableif you attempt to modify a number, Python simply creates a new object

and marks the old object ready for garbage collection

could lead to excessive delays during the garbage collection cycle.

Built in Typesint

C long

includes Booleans

hex and octal numbers available

booleanTrue, False, and, or

floatC double type (13 sig. fig.)

longunlimited precision

e.g. 10000000000000000000000000

complexreal and imaginary parts are each implemented using Java double

e.g. (5.0+3.1j)

IntegersLimited precision

decimals, octal and hexadecimal

# integersx = 100x += 1print type(x)print x

x = 053print x

x = 0xFFprint x

# integersx = 100x += 1print type(x)print x

x = 053print x

x = 0xFFprint x

<type 'int'>10143255

BooleansValues

True, False

Operatorsand, or

x = Truey = False

z = x or yprint z

z = x and yprint zprint type(z)

x = Truey = False

z = x or yprint z

z = x and yprint zprint type(z)

False<type 'bool'>

Floating Point13 significant figures on 64 bit implementation

no exact representation

# floating pointx = 1e4 + 0.1e-4format = "%32.20g"print type(x)print (format % x)

<type 'float'> 10000.000009999999747

Complex Numbersfloating types

real and imaginary partscan be extracted separately

x = (+2.5-3.4j) - (-1.4+1.0j)print type(x)print x

print x.realprint x.imag

x = (+2.5-3.4j) - (-1.4+1.0j)print type(x)print x

print x.realprint x.imag

<type 'complex'>(3.9-4.4j)3.9-4.4

Integers are Immutablex is really an object reference (pointer)

id(x)refers to the object at the end of the pointer

x can change, but integer it points to is immutablex just points to a different object

the original object gets garbage collected

x = 100print id(x)

x = x + 1print id(x)

x = 100print id(x)

x = x + 1print id(x)

10053412

10053400

10053412

10053400

Strings ...immutable

single or double quotes

triple quoting for multi-line strings

x = 'hello'y = "from"z = """the planet earth""" print type(x)print x, y, z

phrase = x + " " + y + " " + zprint phrase.upper()

x = 'hello'y = "from"z = """the planet earth""" print type(x)print x, y, z

phrase = x + " " + y + " " + zprint phrase.upper()

<type 'str'>hello from the planet earthHELLO FROM THE PLANET EARTH

... StringsMany string manipulation methods available

original string is unchanged

new string returned

s = "---abc:XYZ:123---"t = s.lower()t = s.lstrip("-")

t = s.replace(":","@")t = s.rstrip("-")

t = s.split(":")t = s.strip("-")

t = s.swapcase()t = s.upper()

s = "---abc:XYZ:123---"t = s.lower()t = s.lstrip("-")

t = s.replace(":","@")t = s.rstrip("-")

t = s.split(":")t = s.strip("-")

t = s.swapcase()t = s.upper()

---abc:xyz:123---abc:XYZ:123---

---abc@XYZ@123------abc:XYZ:123

['---abc', 'XYZ', '123---']abc:XYZ:123

---ABC:xyz:123------ABC:XYZ:123---

---abc:xyz:123---abc:XYZ:123---

---abc@XYZ@123------abc:XYZ:123

['---abc', 'XYZ', '123---']abc:XYZ:123

---ABC:xyz:123------ABC:XYZ:123---

... StringsMore string methods ...

count(sub) number of occurrences of substring find(sub) index in the string where substring is found

isalnum() true if string is alphanumericisalpha() true if string is alphabetic

isdigit() true if string is all digits

join(seq) concatenate all the strings in the sequencepartition(sep) split the string at the first occurrence of sep and return a 3-

split(sep) return a list of the words in the string using sep as the delimiter

count(sub) number of occurrences of substring find(sub) index in the string where substring is found

isalnum() true if string is alphanumericisalpha() true if string is alphabetic

isdigit() true if string is all digits

join(seq) concatenate all the strings in the sequencepartition(sep) split the string at the first occurrence of sep and return a 3-

split(sep) return a list of the words in the string using sep as the delimiter

Chapter 4

Advanced Data TypesSequence Types

list (mutable) use [ ]

tuple (immutable) use ( )

set no duplicates

Dictionary Typesdict (mutable) use { }

List ...mutable

can be nested

x1 = [ ]x2 = [1]x3 = [1,2,3]x4 = [1, 'mixed', 2, 'list']x5 = [[1,2],[3,4]]

print type(x1)print x1, "-----", len(x1)print x2, "-----", len(x2)print x3, "-----", len(x3)print x4, "-----", len(x4)print x5, "-----", len(x5)

x1 = [ ]x2 = [1]x3 = [1,2,3]x4 = [1, 'mixed', 2, 'list']x5 = [[1,2],[3,4]]

<type 'list'>[ ] ----- 0[1] ----- 1[1, 2, 3] ----- 3[1, 'mixed', 2, 'list'] ----- 4[[1, 2], [3, 4]] ----- 2

... ListLists can be extended with

extend or append

Elements can be modifiedobject reference gets changed

Can contain immutable itemssuch as tuples

list1 = [[1,2],[3,4]]

# notation for accessing listsprint list1print list1[1]print list1[1][0]

# modifying listslist1[1][0] = 99print list1[1][0]

list1 = [[1,2],[3,4]]

# notation for accessing listsprint list1print list1[1]print list1[1][0]

# modifying listslist1[1][0] = 99print list1[1][0]

# append and extend are equivalentlist2 = [10, 20, 30]list = [ ]list.extend(list1)list.append(list2)print list

# lists can contain tupleslist3 = [(1,2), (3,4), (5,6)]print list3

# append and extend are equivalentlist2 = [10, 20, 30]list = [ ]list.extend(list1)list.append(list2)print list

# lists can contain tupleslist3 = [(1,2), (3,4), (5,6)]print list3

Tupleimmutable

can be nested

note syntax for a single item tuple

x1 = ()x2 = (1,)x3 = (1,2,3)x4 = (1, "mixed", 2, "tuple")x5 = ((1,2),(3,4))

<type 'tuple'>( ) ----- 0(1,) ----- 1(1, 2, 3) ----- 3(1, 'mixed', 2, 'tuple') ----- 4((1, 2), (3, 4)) ----- 2

Accessing Lists and Tuplesonly lists can be modified

tuples are immutable

mylist = [10, 20, 30]mytuple = (10, 20, 30)

y = mytuple[0]y = mytuple[1]y = mytuple[2]

x = mylist[0]x = mylist[1]x = mylist[2]mylist[1] = 99mylist.append(40)print mylist

mylist = [10, 20, 30]mytuple = (10, 20, 30)

y = mytuple[0]y = mytuple[1]y = mytuple[2]

x = mylist[0]x = mylist[1]x = mylist[2]mylist[1] = 99mylist.append(40)print mylist

[10, 99, 30, 40][10, 99, 30, 40]

Casting between Lists and Tuplesuse a cast to convert

tuple( ... )

list( ...)

theList = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17]myTuple = tuple(theList)myList = list(myTuple)

print myTupleprint myList

theList = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17]myTuple = tuple(theList)myList = list(myTuple)

print myTupleprint myList

(2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17)[2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17]

SlicesSequences support slicing

selects a range of elements (-1 represents the last element)

x[1:3] selects the second through third elements of x

the end index is always one past the selection

assignment slicingreplaces multiple elements

x[3:5] = (5,4)

colors = ["red", "blue", "green", "white", "black"]

print colors[1]print colors[1:3]print colors[1:]print colors[-3:-1]print colors[4:1:-1]colors[2:4] = ("purple", "cyan")print colors[0:];

colors = ["red", "blue", "green", "white", "black"]

print colors[1]print colors[1:3]print colors[1:]print colors[-3:-1]print colors[4:1:-1]colors[2:4] = ("purple", "cyan")print colors[0:];

blue['blue', 'green']['blue', 'green', 'white', 'black']['green', 'white']['black', 'white', 'green']

['red', 'blue', 'purple', 'cyan', 'black']

blue['blue', 'green']['blue', 'green', 'white', 'black']['green', 'white']['black', 'white', 'green']

['red', 'blue', 'purple', 'cyan', 'black']

Set and FrozenSetunordered collections of unique elements

Set (mutable)

FrozenSet (immutable)

myset = set(("Monday", "Tuesday"))myset.add("Wednesday")myset.add("Thursday")myset.add("Friday")print myset

if "Wednesday" in myset: print "member"myset.remove("Wednesday")if "Wednesday" not in myset: print "not a member"

myset = set(("Monday", "Tuesday"))myset.add("Wednesday")myset.add("Thursday")myset.add("Friday")print myset

if "Wednesday" in myset: print "member"myset.remove("Wednesday")if "Wednesday" not in myset: print "not a member"

set(['Friday', 'Tuesday', 'Thursday', 'Wednesday', 'Monday'])

member

not a member

set(['Friday', 'Tuesday', 'Thursday', 'Wednesday', 'Monday'])

member

not a member

Set and FrozenSetSet supports mathematical operations

union, intersection and symmetric difference

sequence1 = 1, 3, 5, 7, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1sequence2 = 2, 4, 6, 8, 6, 4, 3, 2, 1set1 = set(sequence1)set2 = set(sequence2)print(set1)print(set2)

unionSet = set1.union(set2)intersectionSet = set1.intersection(set2)differenceSet = set1.symmetric_difference(set2)print(unionSet)print(intersectionSet)print(differenceSet)

sequence1 = 1, 3, 5, 7, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1sequence2 = 2, 4, 6, 8, 6, 4, 3, 2, 1set1 = set(sequence1)set2 = set(sequence2)print(set1)print(set2)

unionSet = set1.union(set2)intersectionSet = set1.intersection(set2)differenceSet = set1.symmetric_difference(set2)print(unionSet)print(intersectionSet)print(differenceSet)

set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7])set([1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8])

set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])set([1, 2, 3, 4])set([5, 6, 7, 8])

Not Definedspecial type

NoneType

x = 120print type(x)print x

x = None # not definedprint type(x)print x

if (x == None): x = 240

print x

x = 120print type(x)print x

x = None # not definedprint type(x)print x

if (x == None): x = 240

print x

<type 'int'>120<type 'NoneType'>None240

Chapter 5

Dictionarieskeys and values

inserting, updating and deleting

common methods

Dictionarylike a database table

also called hash, associative array

key:value pairskeys usually a string

keys must be immutable

very efficient lookups

empty = { }months = {"Jan":1, "Feb":2, "May":5, "Dec":12}seasons = {"Spring":("Mar","Apr","May"), "Summer":("Jun","Jul","Aug")}

print type(empty)print months["Dec"]print seasons["Summer"]

empty = { }months = {"Jan":1, "Feb":2, "May":5, "Dec":12}seasons = {"Spring":("Mar","Apr","May"), "Summer":("Jun","Jul","Aug")}

print type(empty)print months["Dec"]print seasons["Summer"]

<type 'dict'>12('Jun', 'Jul', 'Aug')

Working with DictionariesDictionaries are mutable

modify existing entries

add new entries

Key Order is indeterminatebecause of hashing algorithm

salary = {"zak": 34000, "sara": 27000,"pedro": 52000,"jo": 12500,"zoe": 66000

}print salary["pedro"]salary["jo"] = 15000; # modify existingsalary["peter"] = 35000 # add new entry

salary = {"zak": 34000, "sara": 27000,"pedro": 52000,"jo": 12500,"zoe": 66000

}print salary["pedro"]salary["jo"] = 15000; # modify existingsalary["peter"] = 35000 # add new entry

InitializationUse { } or constructor

salary1 = {"zak": 34000, "sara": 27000,"pedro": 52000,"kilas": 12500,"zoe": 66000

salary2 = dict( zak = 34000,sara = 27000,pedro = 52000,kilas = 12500,zoe = 66000)

Inserting or UpdatingNew elements ...

are added

Existing elements ...are updated

salary["sara"] = 28000salary["sara"] = 28000

salary["sara"] = 29000salary["sara"] = 29000

Removing KeysUse del statement

Use pop

del salary["zak"]del salary["zak"]

salary.pop("zak")salary.pop("zak")

Removing ValuesAssign key to None

previous value gets garbage collected

salary["sara"] = Nonesalary["sara"] = None

Common Functions ...Extract all the keys, and all the values

# create list of keystheKeys = salary.keys()

# create list of valuestheValues = salary.values()

# create list of keystheKeys = salary.keys()

# create list of valuestheValues = salary.values()

... Common FunctionsWork with keys, values or both

# print all the keysfor key in salary.iterkeys(): print key,print

# print all the valuesfor value in salary.itervalues(): print value,print

# print all <key,value> pairsfor key, value in salary.iteritems(): print key, value

# print all the keysfor key in salary.iterkeys(): print key,print

# print all the valuesfor value in salary.itervalues(): print value,print

# print all <key,value> pairsfor key, value in salary.iteritems(): print key, value

Chapter 6

FunctionsSimple functions

Passing parameters

Returning multiple results

Pass by value

Working with lists

Pass by object reference

Object identity

Simple Functions

def square(n): print n * n

square(5)square(6)square(7)

def square(n): print n * n

square(5)square(6)square(7)

253649

return Statements

def average(a, b): return (a + b)/2.0

x = average(5, 8)print x

x = average(5.5, 7.7)print x

print average(10.5, 12.5)

def average(a, b): return (a + b)/2.0

x = average(5, 8)print x

x = average(5.5, 7.7)print x

print average(10.5, 12.5)

6.56.611.5

A swap Function

def swap(a,b): return b,a

x = 100y = 200

[x,y] = swap(x,y)print x, y

def swap(a,b): return b,a

x = 100y = 200

[x,y] = swap(x,y)print x, y

200 100200 100

How not to Swap

def no_swap(a,b): temp = a a = b b = temp

x = 100y = 200

no_swap(x,y)print x, y

def no_swap(a,b): temp = a a = b b = temp

x = 100y = 200

no_swap(x,y)print x, y

100 200100 200

Object Identity

def readIt(a): print a,"id3 =",id(a)

def modifyIt(a): a = a + 1 print a,"id4 =",id(a)

x = 100print x,"id1 =",id(x)

x = x + 1print x,"id2 =",id(x)

readIt(x)modifyIt(x)

def readIt(a): print a,"id3 =",id(a)

def modifyIt(a): a = a + 1 print a,"id4 =",id(a)

x = 100print x,"id1 =",id(x)

x = x + 1print x,"id2 =",id(x)

readIt(x)modifyIt(x)

100 id1 = 12160993101 id2 = 9774375101 id3 = 9774375102 id4 = 28991818

Object Identity with Lists

list1 = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11]list2 = [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]list3 = [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]

print "list1 id =", id(list1)print "list2 id =", id(list2)print "list3 id =", id(list3)

list1.append(13)print "list1 id =", id(list1)

list1 = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11]list2 = [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]list3 = [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]

print "list1 id =", id(list1)print "list2 id =", id(list2)print "list3 id =", id(list3)

list1.append(13)print "list1 id =", id(list1)

list1 id = 9774375list2 id = 28991818list3 id = 21579068list1 id = 9774375

Pass by Object Reference

def modifyList(mylist): del mylist[0] print id(mylist),mylist

theList = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11]print id(theList), theListmodifyList(theList)print id(theList), theList

def modifyList(mylist): del mylist[0] print id(mylist),mylist

theList = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11]print id(theList), theListmodifyList(theList)print id(theList), theList

12160993 [2, 3, 5, 7, 11]12160993 [3, 5, 7, 11]12160993 [3, 5, 7, 11]

Swapping Lists

def swap(list): list[0],list[1] = list[1],list[0]

mylist = [100,200]

swap(mylist)print mylist

def swap(list): list[0],list[1] = list[1],list[0]

mylist = [100,200]

swap(mylist)print mylist

[200, 100][200, 100]

Returning Lists

def makeList(start,end): mylist = range(start, end) mylist.insert(0, 10) mylist.append(99) return mylist

list1 = makeList(15, 25)list2 = makeList(18, 21)

print list1print list2

def makeList(start,end): mylist = range(start, end) mylist.insert(0, 10) mylist.append(99) return mylist

list1 = makeList(15, 25)list2 = makeList(18, 21)

print list1print list2

[10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 99][10, 18, 19, 20, 99]

Function Aliases

def fib(n): a, b = 0, 1 while b < n: print b, a, b = b, a+b print

fib(15000)

f = fibf(100)

def fib(n): a, b = 0, 1 while b < n: print b, a, b = b, a+b print

fib(15000)

f = fibf(100)

1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597 2584 4181 6765 109461 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89

Default Parameter Values

def Display(a, b=10, c=100): print ("a=%6.1f " % a), ("b=%6.1f " % b), ("c=%6.1f" % c)

Display(19, 6.2, 4.8)Display(17)Display(17, 21)Display(17, c=0)

def Display(a, b=10, c=100): print ("a=%6.1f " % a), ("b=%6.1f " % b), ("c=%6.1f" % c)

Display(19, 6.2, 4.8)Display(17)Display(17, 21)Display(17, c=0)

a= 19.0 b= 6.2 c= 4.8a= 17.0 b= 10.0 c= 100.0a= 17.0 b= 21.0 c= 100.0a= 17.0 b= 10.0 c= 0.0

Lambda Functions

sum = lambda x, y: x + y

print sum(1,2)print sum(5,9)print sum(10,20)

sum = lambda x, y: x + y

print sum(1,2)print sum(5,9)print sum(10,20)

Passing Tuples and Lists

def f(*args): print 'args:', args a = (3,4,7,8)b = [3,4,7,8]

f(1,3,4,7,8,9) # pass multiple argsf(1,a,9) # pass int, tuple, intf(1,b,9) # pass int, list, intf(1,*a) # treat tuple as multiple argsf(1,*b) # treat list as multiple args

def f(*args): print 'args:', args a = (3,4,7,8)b = [3,4,7,8]

f(1,3,4,7,8,9) # pass multiple argsf(1,a,9) # pass int, tuple, intf(1,b,9) # pass int, list, intf(1,*a) # treat tuple as multiple argsf(1,*b) # treat list as multiple args

args: (1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9)args: (1, (3, 4, 7, 8), 9)args: (1, [3, 4, 7, 8], 9)args: (1, 3, 4, 7, 8)args: (1, 3, 4, 7, 8)

Passing Named Parameters

def f(x,y,**params):print 'x,y:', x, yprint 'params:', params

f(13,7, Jan=1, Feb=2, May=5, Dec=12)

def f(x,y,**params):print 'x,y:', x, yprint 'params:', params

f(13,7, Jan=1, Feb=2, May=5, Dec=12)

x,y: 13 7params: {'Dec': 12, 'May': 5, 'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2}

Stub Functions

def myStub(x, y): pass

myStub(5,6)myStub(1,10)myStub(0,7)

def myStub(x, y): pass

myStub(5,6)myStub(1,10)myStub(0,7)

Chapter 7

Exception HandlingKeywords

except

finally

assert

try-except Statements

array = [1,2,3,4,5,6]

try: for x in array: print x, array[x] print "Exiting try block"

except IndexError,target: print "... entering except block" print target

array = [1,2,3,4,5,6]

try: for x in array: print x, array[x] print "Exiting try block"

except IndexError,target: print "... entering except block" print target

2 33 44 55 66 ... entering except blocklist index out of range

this is never executed

exception thrown here

exception type

object reference

try-except-else Statements

from math import sqrtx = int(raw_input("Enter positive integer: "))

try: root = sqrt(x)except: print "... entering except block"else: print "... entering else block" print root

from math import sqrtx = int(raw_input("Enter positive integer: "))

try: root = sqrt(x)except: print "... entering except block"else: print "... entering else block" print root

Enter positive integer: 25... entering else block5.0

Enter positive integer: -25... entering except block

Enter positive integer: 25... entering else block5.0

Enter positive integer: -25... entering except block

no exception

exception occurs

try-finally Statements

array = [1,2,3,4,5,6]

try: for x in array: print array[x - 1],finally: print "... entering finally block"

try: for x in array: print array[x * 2],finally: print "... entering finally block"

array = [1,2,3,4,5,6]

try: for x in array: print array[x - 1],finally: print "... entering finally block"

try: for x in array: print array[x * 2],finally: print "... entering finally block"

1 2 3 4 5 6 ... entering finally block3 5 ... entering finally blockIndexError: list index out of range

guaranteed to be calledeven if exception occurs

raise Statements

array = [1,2,3,-4,5,6]

try: for x in array: if x < 0: raise ValueError, "array index is negative!" print x,except ValueError, value: print print "... entering except block: " + str(value)

array = [1,2,3,-4,5,6]

try: for x in array: if x < 0: raise ValueError, "array index is negative!" print x,except ValueError, value: print print "... entering except block: " + str(value)

1 2 3... entering except block: array index is negative!

exception type

object reference

Unified try except finallyIn Python 2.5+ you can combine finally and except

not allowed in previous versions

try: block-1 ...except Exception1: handler-1 ...except Exception2: handler-2 ...else: else-blockfinally: final-block

Nested Exceptions

def f1(): print "Entering f1" f2() print "Leaving f1"

def f2(): print "Entering f2" f3() print "Leaving f2" def f3(): print "Entering f3" raise Exception("Some exception") print "Leaving f3" try: f1()except Exception, reason: print reason

def f1(): print "Entering f1" f2() print "Leaving f1"

def f2(): print "Entering f2" f3() print "Leaving f2" def f3(): print "Entering f3" raise Exception("Some exception") print "Leaving f3" try: f1()except Exception, reason: print reason

Entering f1Entering f2Entering f3Some exception

regarded as partof the try block

never executed

Standard ExceptionsException

StopIteration

StandardError

BufferError

ArithmeticError

FloatingPointErro

OverflowError

ZeroDivisionError

AssertionError

AttributeError

EnvironmentError

IOError

OSError

EOFError

ImportError

LookupError

IndexError

KeyError

ExceptionStopIteration

StandardError

BufferError

ArithmeticError

FloatingPointErro

OverflowError

ZeroDivisionError

AssertionError

AttributeError

EnvironmentError

IOError

OSError

EOFError

ImportError

LookupError

IndexError

KeyError

MemoryError

NameError

UnboundLocalError

ReferenceError

RuntimeError

NotImplementedError

SyntaxError

IndentationError

TabError

SystemError

TypeError

ValueError

UnicodeError

UnicodeDecodeError

UnicodeEncodeError

UnicodeTranslateError

MemoryError

NameError

UnboundLocalError

ReferenceError

RuntimeError

NotImplementedError

SyntaxError

IndentationError

TabError

SystemError

TypeError

ValueError

UnicodeError

UnicodeDecodeError

UnicodeEncodeError

UnicodeTranslateError

User Defined ExceptionsAlways subclass Exception

class MyError(Exception): def __init__(self, value): self.value = value

try: raise MyError(2*2)except MyError as e: print 'My exception occurred, value:', e.value

My exception occurred, value: 4My exception occurred, value: 4

assert Statements

def CalculateQuartile(percent): assert type(percent).__name__ == 'int' assert percent >= 0 and percent <= 100 quartile = 4 if percent > 25: quartile = 3 if percent > 50: quartile = 2 if percent > 75: quartile = 1 return quartile

print CalculateQuartile(34)print CalculateQuartile(104)

2 assert percent >= 0 and percent <= 100AssertionError

Chapter 8

Classes and Objects

Classeswhat is a class

what is an object

Methodsdefining

calling

Attributesfor objects

for classes

The Object Model

Object-oriented programming modelling real-world objects

model described by classes

model implemented by creating objects

A class definesa new data type

its operations

its state

Classes

TackTack

bearingbearing

speedspeed

DropAnchorDropAnchor

Operations

Attributes

Classes

operationsmethods class Yacht:

def __init__(self, bearing, speed): self.bearing = bearing self.speed = speed

def Display(self): print self.bearing, self.speed

class Yacht: def __init__(self, bearing, speed): self.bearing = bearing self.speed = speed

reference to self

attributes

methods are functions

attributes are object references

Objects

A class is a blueprint for building objectsAn object is an instance of a class

keyword self refers to this instance

Object 1

bearing = 30speed = 1.3

Object 2

Creating ObjectsUse the classname to create a new object

returns an object reference

the object is not directly accessible

Object destroyed by the VMwhen no references exist

oceanis1 = Yacht()oceanis2 = Yacht()mirror1 = Yacht()mirror2 = Yacht()

object reference

Initializing ObjectsClasses can define an __init__ method

method often takes parameters

defines how object will be initialized

only 1 initializer allowed

mirror1

mirror1 = Yacht(25, 1.2)mirror1 = Yacht(25, 1.2)def __init__(self, bearing, speed): self.bearing = bearing self.speed = speed

def __init__(self, bearing, speed): self.bearing = bearing self.speed = speed

Initializing Objects

oceanis1 = Yacht(25, 1.2)oceanis2 = Yacht(35, 6.0)mirror1 = Yacht(90, 3.5)mirror2 = Yacht(220, 1.6)

oceanis1.Display()oceanis2.Display()mirror1.Display()mirror2.Display()

oceanis1 = Yacht(25, 1.2)oceanis2 = Yacht(35, 6.0)mirror1 = Yacht(90, 3.5)mirror2 = Yacht(220, 1.6)

oceanis1.Display()oceanis2.Display()mirror1.Display()mirror2.Display()

25 1.235 6.090 3.5220 1.6

Assigning ReferencesAssigning references

both point to the same object

bearing = 25speed = 1.2mirror2

mirror1

mirror1 = Yacht(25, 1.2)mirror2 = mirror1

AttributesClass Attributes

shared by all objects in a class

Object Attributesunique to each object

Avoid name clashesobject attribute hides class attribute of the same name

Object AttributesObject attributes can be

defined on the flycan apply to different objectsObject b1 has

heightwidthcolor

Object b2 hasheightwidth

Use pass to define a empty classuseful for trying things out

class Box: pass

b1 = Box( )b2 = Box( )

b1.height = 100b1.width = 50b1.color = "red"

b2.height = 100b2.width = 50

class Box: pass

b1 = Box( )b2 = Box( )

b1.height = 100b1.width = 50b1.color = "red"

b2.height = 100b2.width = 50

Class AttributesShared by all objects in

class Point: count = 0 def __init__(self, x = 0, y = 0): self.x = x self.y = y Point.count = Point.count + 1

def WhereAmI(self): print "Point(%i) is at %i,%i" % (id(self), self.x, self.y)

def MoveBy(self, dx, dy): self.x += dx self.y += dy

def HowManyPoints(self): print "There are %i Point object(s)\n" % Point.count

def WhereAmI(self): print "Point(%i) is at %i,%i" % (id(self), self.x, self.y)

def HowManyPoints(self): print "There are %i Point object(s)\n" % Point.count

class attribute

object attribute

normalmethod

static(class)method

Manipulating Objects

p1 = Point(5,7)p1.WhereAmI()p1.MoveBy(1,1)p1.WhereAmI()p1.HowManyPoints()

def WhereAmI(self): print "Point(%i) is at ...

def HowManyPoints(self): print "There are ...

def WhereAmI(self): print "Point(%i) is at ...

def HowManyPoints(self): print "There are ...

Output from ExampleNote each object has a unique identifier

print id(p1)

print id(p2)

print id(p3)

Note the effect of calling p1.HowManyPoints()

Point(23107068) is at 5,7Point(23107068) is at 6,8There are 1 Point object(s)

Chapter 9

FilesOpening and closing

Reading and writing

Modesread only

read-write

append

Iterating through

Random Accessseek

File Objectsopen

creates a file object

closedestroys a file object

myFile = open('myfile.txt', 'w')myFile = open('myfile.txt', 'w')

myFile.close()myFile.close()

Iterating through a FileUse for-in statement

to process every line

loop terminates on end of file

f = open("hello.txt")for line in f: print line

Using with Statementwith statement

automatic clean up

avoid forgetting to close a file

generated codeinner try block will always close

but might throw an IOError

try: with open("data/hello.txt", "r") as f: for line in f: print line,except IOError,e: print e

try: f = open("data/hello.txt", "r") try: for line in f: print line, finally: f.close()except IOError,e: print e

generated code

Coping with ErrorsIf file I/O fails

Error obect thrown

belongs to IOError class

try: f = open("data/unknown.txt", "r+t")except IOError,error: print "File open failed!" print error

error object

error class

Read MethodsSimple to read from files

f = open('myfile.txt', 'r')f.readline()f.readline()f.readline()f.close()

read a line at a time(empty string returned on EOF)

f = open('myfile.txt', 'w')data = f.read()f.close()

read entire file

f = open('myfile.txt', 'w')data = f.read(100)f.close()

read 100 bytes from file

Write MethodsSimple to write to files

sequence = ("line 1\n", "line 2\n", "line 3\n", "line 4\n")f = open("data/out2.txt", "w")f.writelines(sequence)f.close()

write a sequence of lines

f = open("data/out1.txt", "w")f.write("line 1\nline 2\n")f.close()

write a string

File Modesread only

use "r"

read and writeuse "r+"

or "w+" to empty file on opening

write onlyuse "w"

file will be empty on opening

appendinguse "a"

binaryuse "b" for binary and "t" for text (default)

random accesschoose appropriate mode and then use seek()

Writing Binary DataOpen file with mode 'b'

myFile = open('data/myfile2.bin', 'wb')myFile.write("\x5F\x9D\x3E");myFile.close()

Reading Binary DataUse ord() and hex(ord()) for conversions

myFile = open('data/myfile2.bin', 'rb')

# read bytesch1 = myFile.read(1) # read 1 bytech2 = myFile.read(1)ch3 = myFile.read(1)# convert to ascii (decimal)d1 = ord(ch1)d2 = ord(ch2)d3 = ord(ch3)# convert to ascii (hex)h1 = hex(ord(ch1))h2 = hex(ord(ch2))h3 = hex(ord(ch3))

myFile.close()

myFile = open('data/myfile2.bin', 'rb')

# read bytesch1 = myFile.read(1) # read 1 bytech2 = myFile.read(1)ch3 = myFile.read(1)# convert to ascii (decimal)d1 = ord(ch1)d2 = ord(ch2)d3 = ord(ch3)# convert to ascii (hex)h1 = hex(ord(ch1))h2 = hex(ord(ch2))h3 = hex(ord(ch3))

myFile.close()

Random Accessseek(offset, whence)

whence = 0 => from start of file

whence = 1 => from current position

whence = 2 => from end of file

myFile = open('myfile.txt', 'w')

myFile.seek(40, 0)myFile.write("ABCDEFGH");

myFile.close()

myFile = open('myfile.txt', 'w')

myFile.close()

stdcodes = {}f = open("codes.txt", "r+t")

for line in f: [code, place] = line.rstrip().split(' ', 1) stdcodes[place] = code

placeRequested = raw_input("Enter place: ")try: print "The code for " + placeRequested + \ " is " + stdcodes[placeRequested]except KeyError: print "code not found"

Reading a File into a DictionaryYou can read an entire file into a Dictionary

and then perform lookups

Town: WashingtonThe code for Washington is 0191

read a file line by line, splitting each line and then adding to dictionary

now try searching the dictionary

list = [ ]list = stdcodes.keys()list.sort()

for place in list: print place, stdcodes[place]

list = [ ]list = stdcodes.keys()list.sort()

for place in list: print place, stdcodes[place]

Sorting a File

read a file line by line, splitting each line and then adding to dictionary

extract the keys into an array then sort the array

now step through the sorted list looking up each entry in the original dictionary

Chapter 10

Larger Programs

Modules and Packages

Importing

Symbol Tables

Installing Libraries

Modules and PackagesPrograms can be organized into modules and packages

many modules are available in the Python and Java libraries

Modulesmay be Python code files

but can be written in other languages such as C/C++

Packagescollection of modules grouped using a common package name

helps resolve namespace conflicts

A package is defined by creating a directorywith the same name as the package

place modules in this directory

can be extended to include sub-packages within sub-directories

What is a ModuleImporting a file

executes all the code in that file

often just defines functions

import myfunctions

myfunctions.f1()myfunctions.f2()myfunctions.f3()myfunctions.f4()

import myfunctions

myfunctions.f1()myfunctions.f2()myfunctions.f3()myfunctions.f4()

def f1(): pass

def f2(): pass

def f3(): pass

def f4(): pass

def f1(): pass

def f2(): pass

def f3(): pass

def f4(): pass

myfunctions.py

Module Test CodeImporting a file ...

causes all code to executed

but what about test code?

Wrap all test code ...inside a __name__ test

__name__ is only set to __main__

if we are the main program

code will not be executed via an import

def f1(): passdef f2(): passdef f3(): passdef f4(): pass

if __name__ == "__main__": f1() f2() f3() f4()

def f1(): passdef f2(): passdef f3(): passdef f4(): pass

if __name__ == "__main__": f1() f2() f3() f4()

Importing4 ways to import

import mypackage.mysubpackage.MyClass as theClassx3 = theClass()x3.f3()

import mypackage.mysubpackage.MyClassx1 = mypackage.mysubpackage.MyClass()x1.f1()

from mypackage import mysubpackagex2 = mysubpackage.MyClass()x2.f2()

from mypackage.mysubpackage import MyClass as theClassx4 = theClass()x4.f4()

public class MyClass { public MyClass() { ... } public void f1() { ... } public void f2() { ... } public void f3() { ... } public void f4() { ... }}

mypackage

mysubpackage

Packages

import syssys.path.append("lib")

# load both packages togetherimport mypackage.mysubpackage

x = mypackage.mysubpackage.ModuleA.A()x.f();x.g();x.h()

import syssys.path.append("lib")

# load both packages togetherimport mypackage.mysubpackage

x = mypackage.mysubpackage.ModuleA.A()x.f();x.g();x.h()

Import loads all modules together

executes __init__.py

for each package

loading mypackageloading mysubpackagethis is A.f() ...this is A.g() ...this is A.h() ...

mypackage/__init__.py

mysubpackage/__init__.py

ModuleA.py

Module Search PathWhen loading modules

the interpreter searches the list of directories in sys.path

first entry in sys.path can be an empty string

refers to the current working directory

other entries in sys.path may consist of

directory names, .zip archive files, and .egg files

order determines which modules are loaded

import syssys.path.append('mylib')

Displaying Symbol Tables ...To display symbol table of main program

use the global dictionary

Iterate through the dictionary using iteritems()

# use globals to get a list of symbols in main module# Jython returns a StringMap which needs to be # converted to a dictionarysymbols = dict(globals())

#print all the symbols in modulefor key, value in symbols.iteritems(): print key, value

# use globals to get a list of symbols in main module# Jython returns a StringMap which needs to be # converted to a dictionarysymbols = dict(globals())

#print all the symbols in modulefor key, value in symbols.iteritems(): print key, value

... Displaying Symbol TablesTo display symbol table of a module

use the module's dictionary

Iterate through the dictionary using iteritems()

#print all the symbols in myfunctions modulefor key, value in myfunctions.__dict__.iteritems(): print key, value

Installing Third-Party LibrariesDefinitive resource for locating third-party libraries and

extensions to Python is the Python Package Index (PyPI)

http://pypi.python.org

Installing third-party modules is usually straightforwarduse easy_install or pip

use platform-native installer

use a download a zip that comes with setup.py file

to install type

python setup.py install

Chapter 11

Inheritance and Polymorphism

Inheritancenew style classes and object

subtyping

Abstract Classesinterfaces

OO contracts

Polymorphismthe good

the bad (duck typing)

SubclassingA class can inherit methods and state from another class

the new class is called the subclass or derived class

the original class is called the superclass or base class

The subclassis a superset of the superclass

inherits all the methods and state of the superclass

can add extra methods and state of its own

cannot remove and methods and state of the superclass

methods in the superclass can be overridden by the subclass

the subclass is defined in the terms of the differences from the superclass

The Object Class

All classes have a single rootobject

only for new style classes

Object defines methods inherited by all Python

classes

EmployeeEmployee

SalesPersonSalesPerson

PersonPerson

objectobject

ConstructorsSubclass makes explicit call to CTORs in superclass

class Person(object): def __init__(self, name): self.name = name class Employee(Person): def __init__(self, name, id): Person.__init__(self, name) self.id = id class SalesPerson(Employee): def __init__(self, name, id, region): Employee.__init__(self, name, id) self.region = region p = Person("Anne")e = Employee("Beth", 7468)s = SalesPerson("Carol", 4712, "NE")

Employee IS A Person

SalesPerson IS A Employee

SalesPerson IS A Person

The Substitution RuleEmployee class

extends the Person class

SalesPerson classextends the Employee class

Employee substitutes forPerson object

SalesPerson substitutes forEmployee object

Person object

EmployeeEmployee

extends

SalesPersonSalesPerson

Superclass

Subclass

PersonPerson

extends

Inheriting Methodsclass Person(object): def Print( ): ...

class Person(object): def Print( ): ...

class Employee(Person): def GetBonus( ): ...

class Salesman(Employee): def GetBonus( ): ...

class Salesman(Employee): def GetBonus( ): ...Person p

Print( )

Employee e

Print( )

GetBonus( )

Salesman s

Print()

Employee.GetBonus( )Employee.GetBonus( )

GetBonus( )

Overriding Superclass MethodsSubclass can override any method of the superclass

superclass method hidden from client code

e = Employee("Beth", 7468)e.display()

class Employee(Person): def display(self): Person.display(self) # alternatively search super classes for display method # super(Employee, self).display() # only for new style classes print "id=", self.id,

Concrete and Abstract ClassesConcrete class

all methods are fully implemented

may have instance variables

objects can be instantiated

Abstract classsome methods are not implemented

some methods are implemented

may have instance variables

objects cannot be instantiated

Hoistingabstract classes used to hold "common" code from subclasses

A concrete subclass must implement all abstract methods of its superclass

from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod, abstractproperty

class Shape: __metaclass__ = ABCMeta

@abstractmethod def display(self): pass @abstractproperty def name(self): pass

from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod, abstractproperty

class Shape: __metaclass__ = ABCMeta

@abstractmethod def display(self): pass @abstractproperty def name(self): pass

Abstract Classes ...

... Abstract Classes

class Circle(Shape): def __init__(self, name): self.theName = name def display(self): print "Circle", self.name @property def name(self): return self.theName

class Circle(Shape): def __init__(self, name): self.theName = name def display(self): print "Circle", self.name @property def name(self): return self.theName must implement

all abstract methods

non abstract methods and instance variables automatically available

c = Circle("my-circle")print c.name c.display()

InterfacesAn interface

similar to an abstract class, but ...

all methods are abstract

no instance variables allowed

final class variables permitted (constants)

Can't be instantiated

A concrete class canimplemented multiple interfaces

multiple inheritance model

extend only one class

multiple inheritance model

Polymorphic MethodsAn (optional) abstract method

defined in interfaces and abstract classes

not appropriate for the superclass to provide an implementation

implemented by a subclasses

Implementationseach implementing subclass can provide its own implementation

there can be 'many forms' of these implementations

each implementation is called a Polymorphic method

PolymorphismPolymorphic collections

include objects of any subclass

can call any of the methods of the superclass

class Person(object): def Eat(self): pass def Drink(self): pass def Sleep(self): pass class Employee(Person): def Eat(self): pass def Drink(self): pass def Sleep(self): pass class SalesPerson(Employee): def Eat(self): pass def Drink(self): pass def Sleep(self): pass

def NightOut(p): p.Drink() p.Drink() p.Eat() p.Drink() p.Sleep()

Duck TypingPython allows polymorphic methods from classes not in

the hierarchynot really sensible

drawback of Python's weak (duck) typing

class Person(object): def Eat(self): pass def Drink(self): pass def Sleep(self): pass class Employee(Person): ...class SalesPerson(Employee): ...

p = Person()e = Employee()s = SalesPerson()

NightOut(p)NightOut(e)NightOut(s)h = Horse()NightOut(h)

p = Person()e = Employee()s = SalesPerson()

NightOut(p)NightOut(e)NightOut(s)h = Horse()NightOut(h)

class Horse: def Eat(self): pass def Drink(self): pass def Sleep(self): pass

Interfaces as ContractsInterfaces for the Class Implementor

the interface defines all the methods and signatures for which the class designer must provide implementations

Interfaces for the Class Userthe class user can write code assuming that implementations will be

provided for all the methods in the interface

The Contracteach interface defines a contract between the class user and class

implementor

separates interface from implementation

essential for good object oriented design

Chapter 12

Further Topics

Intrinsic Attributesfor classes and objects

Dynamic Statementsexec and eval

Operator Overloadingnumeric typeslist types

The 5 Intrinsic Class Attributes__name__ name of the class (read only)

__doc__ class documentation string

__module__ module in which the class is defined

__dict__ map of all class attributes

__bases__ tuple of all base classes

class Derived(Base): "This is the Derived class" def Display(self): pass

print Derived.__name__print Derived.__doc__print Derived.__module__print Derived.__dict__print Derived.__bases__

DerivedThis is the Derived class__main__{'Display': <function Display at ... (<class __main__.Base at ...

The 2 Intrinsic Object Attributes__class__ the object's class

__dict__ map of all the object's attributes

x = Derived()x.color = "red"x.width = 10print x.__class__print x.__dict__

__main__.Derived{'color': 'red', 'width': 10}

exec and eval Statements

x = 10y = 20codeFragment = raw_input("Please enter some code (e.g. 'print x + y'): ")exec codeFragment

Please enter some code (e.g. 'print x + y'): print x * y + 1201

x = 10y = 20codeFragment = str(input("Please enter an expression (e.g. 'x + y'): "))result = eval(codeFragment)print "result is: ", result

Please enter an expression (e.g. 'x + y'): x * yresult is: 200

Operator Overloading Numeric Types

class Time: def __init__(self, hrs, min): self.hrs = hrs self.min = min

def __add__(self, other): hrs = self.hrs + other.hrs min = self.min + other.min if min >= 60: hrs = hrs + 1 min = min - 60 return Time(hrs, min) def Display(self): print "Time is", self.hrs, self.min

t3 = t1 + t2t3 = t1 + t2

def __iadd__(self, other): self.hrs = self.hrs + other.hrs self.min = self.min + other.min if self.min >= 60: self.hrs = self.hrs + 1 self.min = self.min - 60 return self def Display(self): print "Time is", self.hrs, self.min

t1 += t3t1 += t3

def __add__(self, other): hrs = self.hrs + other.hrs min = self.min + other.min if min >= 60: hrs = hrs + 1 min = min - 60 return Time(hrs, min)

t1 = Time(5,30)t2 = Time(3,30)t3 = t1 + t2t3.Display()

t1 += t3t1.Display()

t1 = Time(5,30)t2 = Time(3,30)t3 = t1 + t2t3.Display()

t1 += t3t1.Display()

Time is 9 0Time is 9 0

Time is 14 30Time is 14 30

Operator Overloading other TypesEmulate other types

Built-In Objects

Sequences

Slices

Emulate Maps

Special Methods to be Writtene.g. for Maps

__len__(self)

__getitem__(self,key)

__setitem__(self,key,value)

__delitem__(self,key)

Operator Overloading List Types

class MyList: def __init__(self, p1, p2): self.theList = [ ] self.theList.append(p1) self.theList.append(p2) def __add__(self, other): result = [ ] for item in self.theList: result.append(item) for item in other.theList: result.append(item) return result

t1 = MyList(1,2)t2 = MyList(3,4)t3 = t1 + t2

t1: [1,2]t2: [3,4]t3: [1,2,3,4]

Overloading [ ] using __getitem__

class mydata: def __init__(self): self.data = "ABCDEFG" def __getitem__(self, i): return self.data[i]

object = mydata()

theChar = object[1]print theChar;

for item in object: print item,

class mydata: def __init__(self): self.data = "ABCDEFG" def __getitem__(self, i): return self.data[i]

object = mydata()

theChar = object[1]print theChar;

for item in object: print item,

BA B C D E F G

Chapter 13

Pattern MatchingPattern Matching

Splitting

Substitution

Comments

Replacement

Capture Patterns

Greedy Matching

Look Ahead

Anchors and Selectionsselection indicates which characters to match

[abc] any one character from list (a OR b OR c)

[a-m] any one character from range (a OR b OR ... OR m)

[^abc] any one character not in list (NOT a NOR b NOR c)

. any one character

\s any white space character

\S any NON white space character

\d any digit

\D any NON digit

\w any alphanumeric

\W any NON alphanumeric

anchors indicate context^ start of string

$ end of string

\b on a word boundary

\B NOT on a word boundary

Repeat Countsrepeat counts apply to the previous expression

* 0 or more repeats

+ 1 or more repeats

? 0 or 1 repeats

{n,m} n to m repeats

{n,} at least n repeats

{n}exactly n repeats

Examples

[aeiou]* 0 or more vowels[0-9]+ 1 or more digits (\d+)[0-9]{3,5} 3 to 5 digits\.? 0 or 1 periods

\. matches a periodthe backslash negates the special meaning of the pattern that follows

Pattern Matching Functionsmatch

match from the start of text

searchmatch anywhere in the text

import re

test = "-------ABC------------"pattern = r"\w+"pattern = re.compile(pattern)

match = pattern.match(test)print match

match = pattern.search(test)print match.group()

import re

test = "-------ABC------------"pattern = r"\w+"pattern = re.compile(pattern)

match = pattern.match(test)print match

match = pattern.search(test)print match.group()

['aaa', 'bbb', 'ccc', 'ddd', 'eee']['aaa', 'bbb', 'ccc', 'ddd', 'eee']

SplittingPerhaps we want to split a string using a regular

expression as a delimiterpattern.split(text)

import re

pattern = re.compile(r"\s*;\s*")text = "aaa ; bbb ;ccc ; ddd ; eee"list = pattern.split(text)print list

import re

pattern = re.compile(r"\s*;\s*")text = "aaa ; bbb ;ccc ; ddd ; eee"list = pattern.split(text)print list

aaa---bbb---ccc---ddd---eeeaaa---bbb---ccc---ddd---eee

SubstitutionPerhaps we want to substitute something for the matched

pattern? Use pattern.sub(replacement, text)

import re

pattern = re.compile(r"\s*;\s*")text = "aaa ; bbb ;ccc ; ddd ; eee"newText = pattern.sub("---", text)print newText

import re

pattern = re.compile(r"\s*;\s*")text = "aaa ; bbb ;ccc ; ddd ; eee"newText = pattern.sub("---", text)print newText

Using CommentsAlways a good idea to use comments

regular expressions are difficult to read at the best of times

import restring = "AAAA1111BBBB2222CCCC3333DDDD";pattern = r"""

^ # start of line(.*?) # 0 or more characters

# non greedy(\d+) # 1 or more digits(.*) # 0 or more characters$ # end of line

""" compiledPattern = re.compile(pattern, re.VERBOSE)result = compiledPattern.search(string)

import restring = "AAAA1111BBBB2222CCCC3333DDDD";pattern = r"""

^ # start of line(.*?) # 0 or more characters

# non greedy(\d+) # 1 or more digits(.*) # 0 or more characters$ # end of line

""" compiledPattern = re.compile(pattern, re.VERBOSE)result = compiledPattern.search(string)

More Advanced SearchesUse ( ) in pattern to capture data

import re

text = "---111122223333333333334444555566667777---"pattern = "2+(3+)4+(5+)6+"

# search for patternpattern = re.compile(pattern)result = pattern.search(text)

# print resultsprint "full match: ", result.group(0)print "capture pattern 1: ", result.group(1)print "capture pattern 2: ", result.group(2)print "all captures: ", result.groups()

import re

text = "---111122223333333333334444555566667777---"pattern = "2+(3+)4+(5+)6+"

# search for patternpattern = re.compile(pattern)result = pattern.search(text)

# print resultsprint "full match: ", result.group(0)print "capture pattern 1: ", result.group(1)print "capture pattern 2: ", result.group(2)print "all captures: ", result.groups()

Repeating PatternsUse findall() and finditer()

to repeat searches

import re

text = "AB12CD34EF56GH"pattern = r"(\d+)"

# find all occurrences of patternmatcher = re.findall(pattern, text)print matcher

# iterate through finding the patternfor matcher in re.finditer(pattern, text): print matcher.groups(0)

import re

text = "AB12CD34EF56GH"pattern = r"(\d+)"

# find all occurrences of patternmatcher = re.findall(pattern, text)print matcher

# iterate through finding the patternfor matcher in re.finditer(pattern, text): print matcher.groups(0)

['12', '34', '56']

('12',)('34',)('56',)

['12', '34', '56']

('12',)('34',)('56',)

Greedy PatternsGreedy Patterns are the default

Use ? to use non greedy matching

text = "AAAA1111BBBB2222CCCC3333DDDD"greedyPattern = r"^(.+)(\d+)(.+)$"nonGreedyPattern = r"^(.+?)(\d+)(.+)$"

^(.+)(\d+)(.+)$Greedy: <AAAA1111BBBB2222CCCC333><3><DDDD>^(.+?)(\d+)(.+)$Non-Greedy: <AAAA><1111><BBBB2222CCCC3333DDDD>

Look Ahead and Look Behind(?= ) peek ahead matching RE

(?! ) peek ahead not matching RE

(?<= ) peek behind matching RE

(?<! ) peek behind not matching RE

\w+[.](?!bat)\w+$\w+[.](?!bat)\w+$

filename.ext

not "bat"?!bat

Building PatternsTranslation patterns can be built from hashes

e.g. translate all occurrences of mon to Monday, tue to Tuesday etc

import re

def replaceGroup(matcher): key = matcher.group(1) return days[key]

days = { 'mon' : 'Monday', 'tue' : 'Tuesday', 'wed' : 'Wednesday', 'thu' : 'Thursday', 'fri' : 'Friday' }pattern = "(" + "|".join(days.keys()) + ")"compiledPattern = re.compile(pattern)print "pattern: ", patterntext = '''The course starts on mon, continues on tue, but wed is the last day'''

for matcher in re.finditer(compiledPattern, text): text = compiledPattern.sub(replaceGroup, text, 1)print text

import re

def replaceGroup(matcher): key = matcher.group(1) return days[key]

days = { 'mon' : 'Monday', 'tue' : 'Tuesday', 'wed' : 'Wednesday', 'thu' : 'Thursday', 'fri' : 'Friday' }pattern = "(" + "|".join(days.keys()) + ")"compiledPattern = re.compile(pattern)print "pattern: ", patterntext = '''The course starts on mon, continues on tue, but wed is the last day'''

for matcher in re.finditer(compiledPattern, text): text = compiledPattern.sub(replaceGroup, text, 1)print text

Chapter 14

Unit TestUnittest framework

DocTest

PyTest

Components of Unittesttest fixture

code run to prepare for one or more tests

e.g. start a server

any associate cleanup actions

test caseunit of testing

implemented as a method of test class

test suitea collection of test cases

used to aggregate tests that should be executed together.

test runnercomponent which orchestrates the execution of tests

provides output relating to the success or failure of the tests

Structure of Test Classderive from unittest.TestCase

setUp call before each test

tearDown called after each test

execute tests by callingunittest.main()

test names must begin withtest...

import unittest

class testPoint(unittest.TestCase):

def setUp(self): # called before each test executes

def testA(self): ... def testB(self): ... def testC(self): ... def testD(self): ...

if __name__ == '__main__': unittest.main()

import unittest

class testPoint(unittest.TestCase):

def setUp(self): # called before each test executes

def testA(self): ... def testB(self): ... def testC(self): ... def testD(self): ...

if __name__ == '__main__': unittest.main()

Structure of a Test CaseUse assertEqual()

to check the output of a test is correct

other functions available

def testMoveBy2(self): """moveBy test(2)""" self.point.moveBy(5, 2) self.assertEqual(self.point.display(), "8,7")

FAIL: moveBy test(2)----------------------------------------------------------------------Traceback (most recent call last): File "C:\_Eclipse\Python\Unit Test\unit-testing-1.py", line 29, in testMoveBy2 self.assertEqual(self.point.display(), "8,7")AssertionError: '8,6' != '8,7'

Test FunctionsassertEqual()

check for an expected result

assert_()verify a condition

assertRaises()verify that an expected exception gets raised

Test SuitesTests can be grouped into suites

def suite(): suite = unittest.TestSuite() suite.addTest(testPoint('testConstructor')) suite.addTest(testPoint('testMoveBy1')) suite.addTest(testPoint('testDistance1')) return suite

if __name__ == '__main__': mySuite = suite() unittest.TextTestRunner(verbosity=0).run(mySuite)

DocTestDocTest module searches for text that look like

interactive Python sessionsexecutes those sessions to verify that they work exactly as shown

Tests are embedded in codeeasy to define tests

can cause clutter

01 simple exampleUse doctest.testmod(...)

many parameters, but usually just use verbose=True

if __name__ == '__main__': import doctest doctest.testmod(verbose = True)

def cube(x): """ The cube function returns x * x * x >>> cube(3) 27 >>> cube(-1) -1 """ return x*x*x

02 formattingTests can be fuzzy

... used to omit some results

whitespace not relevant

if ELLIPIS and NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE specified

def squares(a, b): """ returns all the squares in range a..b >>> squares(1,10) # doctest:+ELLIPSIS +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE [1, 4, ..., 100] """ answer=[] for i in range(a,b+1): answer.append(i*i) return answer

03 failuresFailures reported

with line numbers

and erroneous result

Trying: sumsquares( 4 )Expecting: 30457**********************************************************************File "C:\_Eclipse\Advanced Python\src\Unit Test FrameworkFailed example: sumsquares( 4 )Expected: 30457Got: 30

def sumsquares(n): """ 1+4+9+16 = 30 (not 30457) >>> sumsquares( 4 ) 30457 """ sum = 0 for i in range(n+1): sum += square(i) return sum

04 exceptionsExceptions can be catered for in the tests

use ... to suppress unnecessary information

def square(x): """ This function squares a number >>> square(-3) 9 >>> square(16) Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: input too large """ if x > 10: raise ValueError('input too large') else: return x*x

PyTestPyTest runs as a separate program

inspects code for methods beginning with test_ and runs them

If you need to install PyTest, use:easy_install -U py

To run tests, go to a command prompt and type:py.test myExample.py

01 simple exampleAdd tests as methods in your modules

use assert statements

def square(x): return x * x

def test_squares(): assert square(6) == 36 # succeeds assert square(10) == 99 # fails

def square(x): return x * x

def test_squares(): assert square(6) == 36 # succeeds assert square(10) == 99 # fails

02 multiple testsUse iterators to create multiple tests

Use setup_class()for initial test conditions

class TestSquare: def setup_class(self): self.m = maths.Maths() def is_square(self, n, expected): self.m.setX(n) assert self.m.square() == expected def test_squares(self): # set up 5 tests (the last one fails!) inputs = ( 4, 7, 10, 20, 25) outputs = (16, 49, 100, 400, -1) for i, o in zip(inputs, outputs): yield self.is_square, i, o

Copyright ©2000-14 CRS Enterprises Ltd 1 Python Fundamentals by Chris Seddon

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