View
68
Download
9
Category
Tags:
Preview:
Citation preview
11
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
A. English Language Teaching
English language teaching has changed for many years. Several methods
have emerged to facilitate English teaching and learning process. Richards
(2006: 6-21) divides the trends in language teaching in the last 50 years into
three phases which are traditional approaches (up to the late 1960s), classic
communicative language teaching (1970s to 1990s), and current
communicative language teaching (late 1990s to the present).
Richards describes the characteristic of traditional approaches which
existed up to the late 1960s. Traditional approaches to language teaching gave
priority to grammatical competence as the basis of language proficiency. They
were based on the belief that grammar could be learned through direct
instruction and through a methodology that made much use of repetitive
practice and drilling. The approaches to the teaching of grammar were
deductive and inductive. It was assumed that language learning meant building
up a large repertoire of sentences and grammatical patterns and learning to
produce these accurately and quickly in the appropriate situation. Once a basic
command of the language was established through oral drilling and controlled
practice, the four skills were introduced, usually in the sequence of speaking,
listening, reading and writing.
12
This approach also often employed several techniques including
memorization of dialogs, question-and-answer practice, substitution drills, and
various forms of guided speaking and writing practice. Great attention to
accurate pronunciation and accurate mastery of grammar were stressed from
the very beginning stages of language learning, since it was assumed that if
students made errors, these would quickly become a permanent part of the
learner’s speech.
In the 1970s, a reaction to traditional language teaching approaches
began and soon spread around the world. The centrality of grammar in
language teaching and learning was questioned, since it was argued that
language ability involved much more than grammatical competence. Attention
shifted to the knowledge and skills which were needed to use grammar and
other aspects of language appropriately for different communicative purposes
such as making requests, giving advice, making suggestions, describing wishes
and needs, and so on. What was needed in order to use language
communicatively was communicative competence. Building on Hymes’s
theory, Canale and Swain in Richardss and Renandya (2002: 206-207) propose
that communicative competence includes grammatical, discourse,
sociolinguistic, and strategic competence. These components underlie the
effectiveness of speaking.
Since the 1990s, the communicative approach has been widely
implemented because it describes a set of very general principles grounded in
the notion of communicative competence as the goal of second and foreign
13
language teaching. Current communicative language teaching (CLT) places the
students as the center of teaching and learning process, involves the real
communication, and meaningful tasks, and uses mixed syllabus (Richards,
2006:22).
B. Four Language Skills
In general, there are four language skills which the language learner
should master either through the process of learning or acquisition. They are
reading, speaking, listening and writing. Along with the development of
theories of language teaching and learning, there are several terms used for
these skills which are conventionally accepted by most of language teachers as
what Donald and Kneale (2001:14) say that:
“Language teachers conventionally distinguish between fouraspects of language which are mastered by means of the “four skills”: listening,speaking, reading, and writing. Listening and reading might be taught asprimarily ‘passive’ ‘receptive’ or ‘input’ skills, whilst speaking and writing aretheir ‘active’ ‘productive’ or ‘output’ counterparts (Donald and Kneale, 2001:14).”
In real communication, these skills are often manifested integratively.
For example, when learners listen to a lecture, they make notes. To clarify the
message they got, they read the notes again and expressed their understanding
by asking questions. The previous theory that English should be taught
integratively is supprorted by Brown (2001:232). He states:
“Despite our history of treating the four skills in separate segments of acurriculum, there is a trend toward skill integration. That is, rather thandesigning a curriculum to teach the many aspects of one skill, say, reading,curriculum designers are taking more of a whole language approach whereby
14
reading skills, then, will also deal with related listening, speaking, and writingskills.”
Meanwhile in Harmer’s (2007:265) words, “it would make no sense to
teach each skill in isolation since in meaningful communication, people
employ incremental language skills not in isolation, but in tandem”. In
summary, these four language skills should be carried out in a meaningful way
and taught integratively.
C. The Nature of Speaking
1. The Definition of Speaking
Many definitions about speaking have been proposed by language
experts. According to Johnson and Morrow (1981: 70), speaking which is
popular with the term ‘oral communication’, is an activity involving two or
more people in which hearers and speakers have to react to what they hear
and make their contributions at a speed of a high level. In this definition, the
essential components mentioned to exist in speaking are the speakers, the
hearers, the message and the response. Both the speakers and the hearers
should agree on the message and/or meaning being talked through
acceptable language.
From a communicative, pragmatic view of the language classroom,
speaking and listening skills are closely intertwined. The interaction
between these two modes of performance applies especially strongly to
conversation. In a classroom, students will respond to the teacher after
listening to some information (Brown, 2001: 267). In addition, Chaney
15
(1998) in Kayi (2006) adds that speaking is the process of building and
sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols in a
variety of contexts. Speaking is much more complex. It involves both a
command of certain skills and several different types of knowledge.
Canale and Swain (1980) in Richards and Renandya (2002: 206-207)
suggest that in order to be able to communicate meaningfully, speakers need
to know the knowledge of communicative competence consisting of
grammatical, discourse, strategic, and sociolinguistic competence.
Grammatical competence is an umbrella concept including grammar
(morphology, syntax), vocabulary, and mechanics. With regards to
speaking, the term mechanics refer to basic sounds of letters and syllables,
pronunciation of words, intonation, and stress. Grammatical competence
enables speaker to use and understand English-language structures
contributing to students’ fluency. Discourse competence is concerned with
speakers’ relationships, formal or informal occasion, the rules of cohesion
and coherence etc. Discourse competence contributes in turn taking in
conversation (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992 in Richards and Renandya, 2002:
207).
Brown (1994) in Richards and Renandya (2002: 207) states that
sociolinguistic competence means knowing what is expected socially and
culturally by users of target language. Learners must acquire the rules and
norms governing the appropriate timing and realization of speech acts.
Understanding the sociolinguistic side of language helps learners to know
16
what comments are appropriate, how to ask questions during interaction,
and how to respond nonverbally according to the purpose of the talk.
In addition, Brown (2004: 102) also asserts that strategic competence
is the way learners manipulate language in order to meet the communicative
goals. It is perhaps the most important of all the communicative competence
elements. This argument is highlighted by Berns (1990) in Richards and
Renandya (2002: 208) who suggests that strategic competence is the ability
to compensate for imperfect knowledge of linguistic, sociolinguistic, and
discourse rules. With reference to speaking, strategic competence refers to
the ability to know when and how to take the flow, how to keep the
conversation going on, how to terminate the conversation, and how to clear
up communication breakdown as well as comprehension problems.
2. Functions of Speaking
Numerous attempts have been made to classify the functions of
speaking in human interaction. Richards (2008: 21-28) distinguishes three
functions of speaking which are different in terms of the form, function, and
teaching approaches. The functions of speaking are talk as interaction, talk
as transaction, and talk as performance.
Talk as interaction refers to conversation and describes interaction that
serves a primarily social function. Brown (2004: 142) uses a different term
to refer to talk as interaction. He uses the term of interpersonal exchange.
The main features of talk as interaction can be quoted as follows (Richards,
2008: 22)
17
a. Has a primarily social functionb. Reflects role relationshipsc. Reflects speaker’s identityd. May be formal or casuale. Uses conversational conventionsf. Reflects degrees of politenessg. Employs many generic wordsh. Uses conversational registeri. Is jointly constructed
Richards also promotes some skills involved in using talk as
interaction. They are opening and closing conversations, choosing topics,
making a small talk, joking, recounting personal incidents and experiences,
turn taking, using adjacency pairs, interrupting, reacting to others, and using
an appropriate style of speaking (Richards, 2008:23). These ideas are
supported by Brown (2004: 142) saying that interpersonal exchanges can
become pragmatically complex with the need to speak in a casual register
and use colloquial language, ellipsis, slang, humor, and other sociolinguistic
conventions. Talking with some friends in a party and chatting with
companions during the coffee break are the examples of talk as interaction.
Talk as a transaction refers to situations where the focus is on what is
said or done. The message and making oneself understood is the central
focus rather than the participants and how they interact socially with each
other (Richards, 2008: 24). Meanwhile, to refer to the same thing, Brown
(2004: 142) uses another term, transactional language. He promotes that the
purpose of transactional language is to exchange specific information.
Classroom group activity and buying things in a shop are the examples of
transactional language.
18
To see the differences between talk as interaction and transaction, it is
important to see the main features of talk as transaction. Talk as transaction
has a primarily information focus. It focuses on the message not the
participant. There may be frequent questions, repetitions, comprehension
checks, negotiation and digression. While the speakers are talking to get
some information or obtaining goods or services, they employ a range of
skills such as explaining a need or intention; asking questions, clarifications,
opinions; making suggestions and etc (Richards, 2008:26)
The last type of speaking functions is talk as performance. It refers to
public speaking to share the information. Audiences are the part of this talk.
It tends to be written language than conversational language since it has
recognizable format which is like monolog rather than dialog. Classroom
presentations, public announcements, and speeches are kinds of examples of
talk as performances. Some skills are involved in public speaking such as
using an appropriate format, presenting information in an appropriate
sequence, maintaining audience engagement, using an appropriate opening
and closing, and creating an effect on the audience (Richards, 2008: 28)
Another distinction of speaking has been made by Brown and Yule in
Nunan (1989:27) who consider the development of speaking skills into two
parts that are dialogue and monologue. Besides, Thornburry (2005: 14)
proposes four language features in speaking. They are interactive, non
interactive, planned and unplanned. Multy-party speeches like casual
conversation between friends or between children and their parents is
19
interactive speaking or dialogue. Monologues such as news reporting on a
television, and voice-mail message are non interactive speaking. Public
speeches and business presentations are typically planned. On the other
hand, chatting with friends at the classroom and conversation at the shop are
kinds of unplanned speaking.
3. Aspects of Speaking Skills
Fluency is natural language use occurring when a speaker engages in
meaningful interaction and maintains comprehensible and ongoing
communication despite limitations in his or her communicative competence.
Accuracy means that the speakers are required to use the correct vocabulary,
grammar, and pronunciation. Fluency is developed by creating classroom
activities in which students must negotiate meaning, use communication
strategies, correct misunderstandings, and work to avoid communication
breakdowns (Richards, 2006: 14).
In addition, Nunan (1999) states that fluency means that the speakers
are required to be able to keep going when speaking spontaneously.
However, it does not mean that the speakers speak so fast because
sometimes pausing is important. That pause is an aspect of fluency which
may be long but not frequent. Moreover, when speaking fluently, speakers
should be able to get the message across with whatever resources and
abilities they have got and regardless of any grammatical and other
mistakes.
20
Otherwise, Nunan (1999) also asserts that accuracy means that the
speakers are required to use the correct vocabulary, grammar, and
pronunciation. It uses correct example of language use.
The differences between activities that focus on fluency and those that
focus on accuracy can be summarized as follows.
1. Activities focusing on fluencya) Reflect natural use of languageb) Focus on achieving communicationc) Require meaningful use of languaged) Require the use of communication strategiese) Produce language that may not be predictablef) Seek to link language use to context
2. Activities focusing on accuracya) Reflect classroom use of languageb) Focus on the formation of correct examples of languagec) Practice language out of contextd) Practice small samples of languagee) Do not require meaningful communicationf) Control choice of language(Richards, 2006: 13-14).
Besides considering the importance of fluency and accuracy in
speaking, teachers should also pay attention to an essential of language
performance. Richards and Renandya (2002: 204) say that learning to speak
a foreign language is more than knowing its grammatical and semantic
rules. Learners must also acquire the knowledge of how native speakers use
the language in the context of structured interpersonal exchange in which
many factors interact.
Harmer (2001: 24-25) suggests a number of variables which govern
learners’ choice in order to meet the appropriacy during the conversation
such as setting, participants, gender, channel and topic. Setting is related to
21
the place where the conversations take place. People speak differently at
office and night clubs. Participants refer to people involved in an exchange.
The language forms students use will be different when they speak with
their friends and teachers. Gender represents how women and men use
language in conversations. Women have frequently used more concessive
language than men for example, and crucially have often talked less than
men in mix-sex conversations. Channel represents how people communicate
whether they will use spoken or written grammar. Speaking face to face and
giving speech at the hall will generate different uses of language. Finally,
the topic affects the grammatical and lexical choices (Harmer, 2001: 24-25).
Furthermore, Harmer (2001: 269-270) also proposes four language
features that are necessary for spoken production. They are connected
speech, expressive devices, lexis and grammar, and negotiation meaning.
The first feature is the use of connected speech. Effective speakers of
English need to be able not only to produce the individual phoneme of
English but also to use fluent connected speech. In connected speech,
sounds are modified (assimilation), omitted (elision), added (linking verb),
or weakened (through contractions and stress patterning). Due to the
complexity of the connected speech, therefore, English teachers should
involve the students in activities which are designed to improve their
connected speech.
The second feature is the use of expressive devices. Some native
speakers of English use expressive devices in speaking through some ways,
22
such as changing the pitch and stress of particular parts of utterances,
varying volume and speed, and using facial expressions. The use of these
devices can contribute to the ability to convey meanings. Therefore, in order
to be fully effective communicators, students should be able to employ
those devices.
The third feature is the use of lexis and grammar. The use of common
lexical and grammatical features can be found in spontaneous speech when
performing certain language functions.
The last feature is the use of negotiation. The negotiation is used to
seek for clarification. The speakers need to ask for clarification when they
are listening to someone else especially when they know that their talks are
not being understood. Students choose language forms provided to ask for
clarification.
4. Types of Classroom Speaking Performance
In designing speaking activities or instructional materials for second
language or foreign-language teaching, it is necessary to recognize the
different functions speaking performs in daily communication and the
different purposes for which the students need speaking skills. According to
Brown (2001: 271-274), there are five types of speaking. They are imitative,
intensive, responsive, interactive, and extensive.
In imitative speaking performance, learners imitate or parrot back a
word or phrase or possibly a sentence. The purpose of imitation is not for
23
meaningful interaction but for focusing on some particular elements of
language form. Drilling is the example of imitative speaking performance.
An intensive speaking performance is related to the production of
short stretches of oral language to demonstrate the competence such as
grammatical, phrasal, lexical, or phonological relationship (prosodic
elements: intonation, stress, rhythm, juncture) (Brown, 2004: 273).
Another type of classroom speaking performance is called responsive.
Short replies are the example of speaking performance which does not
extend into dialogues, for example standard greetings, simple requests and
comments etc. The stimulus is always a spoken prompt in order to preserve
the authenticity with only one or two follow-up questions (Brown, 2004:
141).
Interactive speaking performance consists of transactional and
interpersonal dialogues. Transactional dialogue is carried out for the purpose
of conveying or exchanging information. This type of speaking performance
is an extended form of responsive language. A conversation is the example
of transactional dialogue. Another extended form of performance in
interpersonal dialogue.
Compared to the purpose of transactional language, interpersonal
(dialogue) tends to maintain social relationships better than exchange
information. Some elements may involve in a dialogue such as a casual
register, colloquial language, emotionally charged language, slang, ellipsis,
sarcasm etc.
24
The last speaking performance is extensive (monologue). Extensive oral
production can be in the form of reports, summaries, and speeches. It can be
planned or impromptu.
Thornbury (2005: 89-110) suggests some activities to promote
speaking. They are discussion and debate; drama, role play, and simulation;
presentation; classroom conversation and casual chat; outside-class
speaking; and storytelling, joke, and anecdote.
Discussion and debate tend to be difficult speaking activities and
therefore they are commonly suitable for higher level students
(intermediate/advance). Many teachers would agree that discussion at class
which arise students to talk spontaneously is a good activity since it
provokes the students to exchange information. Meanwhile, Brown (2004:
175) states that discussion can promote some skills such as topic
nomination, maintenance, and termination; attention getting, interrupting,
floor holding, control; clarifying, questioning, paraphrasing, comprehension
signals; negotiating meaning; intonation patterns for pragmatic effect;
kinesics, eye contact, proxemics, body language; and politeness, formality,
and other sociolinguistic factors.
Drama, role play and simulation are other speaking activities that
activate students’ imagination. Drama allows the learners to take an
imaginative leap out of the confines of the classroom, provides a useful
springboard for real-life language use. Just in a real theatre, a preparation
stage including rehearsal is done for public performance. Role play has
25
appeal for students because it allows the students to be creative and to put
themselves in another person’s place for a while. The students can play as a
customer and buyer, teacher and student etc. In a simulation, on the other
hand, the students play themselves in a simulated situation for example they
make a simulation of what students should do when an earthquake strikes.
Presentation is a planned talk that is arranged systematically. It can be
done individually or in group. It is usually followed by a question session
which is the most challenging stage of presentation.
Classroom conversation and casual chat are two different activities.
Casual chat or talk is primarily interpersonal, unplanned communication,
and tends to be natural since it is spontaneous. But, not many students can
speak spontaneously with their friends. Many teachers then make a planned
conversation called a classroom conversation to encourage the students to
speak English.
Outside-class speaking consists of some activities done outside the
classroom. These include (a) such as tape diaries which are the learners
recording their voice and submitting the recording to the teacher in order
that they can get the feedback; (b) video conferencing in which the learners
communicate via a live audio or video link over the internet; and (c) human-
computer interaction in which people talk by responding to written input
like using chat room at yahoo messenger and facebook.
The last speaking activity type includes storytelling, jokes, and
anecdotes. Storytelling is a universal function of language and one of the
26
main ingredients of casual conversation. Delivering jokes and anecdotes
could be a funny rehearsal of speaking.
Harmer (2001: 88-93) gives four activities to promote the speaking
skills. The first activity is an information gap in which two speakers have
different parts of information making up a whole. The second activity is
called survey. The students can conduct questionnaires and surveys asking
some questions about certain topics. They go around the class questioning
other students and noting down what they say. The third activity is
discussion. The important things when the teacher conducts debate or
discussion are the activity should include engage, study, and activate stages
(ESA). The students should engage in the topic. Then, they might do some
studies to figure out language inputs and facts. Finally, they move quickly to
activate stage, that is discussion itself. The last activity is role play where
the students are asked to imagine what they are in different situations and
act accordingly.
5. Micro- and Macroskills of Speaking
Brown (2004: 142) distinguishes between microskills and macroskills
of speaking. The microskills refer to producing the smaller chunks of
language such as phonemes, morphemes, words, collocations, and phrasal
units. The macroskills imply the speaker’s focus on the larger elements:
fluency, discourse, function, style, cohesion, nonverbal communication, and
strategic options. Brown (2004: 142-143) continues to explain micro- and
macroskills of oral production as quoted bellow.
27
a) Microskills
1. Produce differences among English phonemes and allophonicvariants.
2. Produce chunks of language of different lengths.3. Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed
positions, rhythmic structure, and intonation contours.4. Produce reduced forms of words and phrases.5. Use an adequate number of lexical units (words) to accomplish
pragmatic purposes.6. Produce fluent speech at different rates of delivery.7. Monitor one’s own oral production and use various strategic
devices− pauses, fillers, self- corrections, backtracking− to enhancethe clarity of the message.
8. Use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs etc.), system (e.g. tense,agreement, pluralization), word order, patterns, rules, and ellipticalforms.
9. Produce speech in natural constituents: in appropriate phrases, pausegroups breathe groups, and sentence constituents.
10. Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.11. Use cohesive devices in spoken discourse.
b) Macroskills
1. Appropriately accomplish communicative functions according tosituations, participants, and goals.
2. Use appropriate styles, registers, implicature, redundancies, pragmaticconventions, conversation rules, floor-keeping and floor-yielding,interrupting, and other sociolinguistic features in face-to-faceconversations.
3. Convey links and connections between events and communicate suchrelations as focal and peripheral ideas, events and feelings, new andgiven information, generalization, and exemplification.
4. Convey facial features, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbalcues along with verbal language.
5. Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizingkey words, rephrasing, providing a context for interpreting themeaning of words, appealing for help, and accurately assessing howwell your interlocutor in understanding you.
28
6. The Difficulties in Speaking
Many people regard that speaking is difficult. The following eight
characteristics of spoken language are adapted from several sources.
a. Clustering. Fluent speech is phrasal not word by word. Learners can
organize their output both cognitively and physically through clustering.
b. Redundancy. The speaker has an opportunity to make meaning clearer
through the redundancy of language.
c. Reduced forms. Contractions, elisions, reduced vowels etc are special
problems in teaching spoken English. Learners who never learn
colloquial contractions sometimes speak too formal in casual context.
They become bookish and stilted.
d. Performance variables. In spoken language there is a process called
thinking time. During this thinking time, learners can employ a certain
number of performance hesitations, pauses, backtracking, and correction.
Some examples of thinking time in English such as inserting fillers like
uh, um, well, you know, I mean etc. Hesitation phenomena are the most
salient difference between native and nonnative speakers of language.
e. Colloquial language. Students should be familiar with words, idioms, and
phrases and they practice to produce these forms.
f. Rate of delivery. It is one of the characteristics of fluency. Teachers
should help learners achieve an acceptable speed along with other
attributes of fluency.
29
g. Stress, rhythm, and intonation. The stress-timed rhythm of spoken
language and its intonation patterns convey important message in any
communication forms.
h. Interaction. Having no interlocutor will rob the speaking skill
components, one of them is the creativity of conversational negotiation.
(Dunkel, 19991; Richards, 1983; Ur, 1984) in Brown (2001: 270-271)
C. Teaching Speaking.
1. Principles of Language Teaching
Teachers have an important role in making the teaching and learning
process succeed. They may try to use various approaches to teach English
and then select an appropriate approach which is suitable for their classes. It
is necessary to connect teachers’ experience during the teaching and
learning process with the theory of teaching derived from research so that it
will help the teachers to comprehend when to use a certain technique, with
whom it will work, how to adapt it for the students, and how to judge its
effectiveness. Brown (2001:55-70) suggests twelve teaching principles that
must be taken into account by the teachers during the language teaching.
These twelve principles are classified into three parts as explained below.
a. Cognitive Principles
(1) Automaticity
Children acquire language subconsciously. Through an
inductive process of exposure to language input and opportunity to
experiment with output, they appear to learn languages without
30
thinking about them. Barry Mclaughlin in Brown (2001:55) called this
as automatic processing with peripheral attention to language forms.
This is, in order to manage the incredible complexity and quantity of
language. Both adults and children must sooner or later move away
from processing language unit by unit, piece by piece, focusing
closely on each and ‘graduate’ to a form of high-speed, automatic
processing in which language forms (words, affixes, word order, rules
etc) are only in the periphery of attention. Over generalizing language,
thinking too much about its forms, and consciously lingering on rules
of language all tend to impede the automaticity.
(2) The anticipation of reward
According to Skinner in Brown (2001: 57-58), the anticipation
of reward is the most powerful factor in directing one’s behavior.
Everything people do is inspired and driven by a goal. During the
teaching and learning process, a reward can be in the form of praise
for a correct response e.g. very good and appropriate grades or scores
or other public recognition. However, teachers should carefully use a
reward to motivate the students. They may consider the following
things.
a. Provide an optimal degree of immediate verbal praise and
encouragement to students as a short-term reward.
b. encourage students to reward each other with compliments and
supprtive action
31
c. short-term reminders of progress may help students to perceive
their development in class with low motivation.
d. Display enthusiasm and excitement during the teaching and
learning process.
e. Explain the long-term rewards in learning English such as the
academic benefits of knowing English.
(3) Meaningful learning
Meaningful learning happens when new information is linked
with the existing structures and memory systems. It creates stronger
retention than rote learning in which new information does not
connect with one’s existing cognitive. Teachers can avoid the pitfalls
of rote learning such as too much grammar explanation, abstract
principles and theories, drilling and memorization; activities whose
purposes are not clear and do not contribute to accomplishing the
goals of lesson, unit, or course; and techniques that are so mechanical
that students focus on the mechanics instead of on the language or
meanings.
(4) Intrinsic motivation
The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically
motivated within the learner. Because the behavior stems from needs,
wants, or desires within oneself, the behavior itself is self-rewarding.
Therefore, no externally administered reward is necessary. At the
class, the learners may perform the task volunteerily because the task
32
is interesting, useful, or challenging and not because they anticipate
some cognitive or affective rewards from the teacher.
(5) Strategic investment
Successful mastery of the second language will be due to a large
extent to learner’s own personal investment of time, effort, and
attention to the second language. In this case, learners use various
styles and strategies in learning process. Teachers should give
attention to every student at the classroom.
b. Affective Principles
(6) Language ego
Learners learning the second language may have the second
identity, a new mode of thinking, acting, and feeling. Language ego
can be a fragility, defensiveness, and rising of inhibition. Teachers
should give much attention to students having those feelings. Teachers
can display a supportive attitude to students. They can also help their
students to understand that the confusion of developing the second
identity in the second culture is a normal and natural way. Considering
learners’ language ego help teachers to determine some aspects in the
teaching and learning process such as who to call on, who to ask to
volunteer information, when to correct a student’s speech error, how
much to explain something, how structured and planned an activity
should be, who to place in which small groups or pairs etc.
33
(7) Self-confidence
Another term to refer to self-confidence is self-esteem.
Learners’ belief that they can finish the task is one of the factors in
their eventual success in attaining the task. Teachers can give ample
verbal and nonverbal assurances to students. Besides, they can
sequence techniques from easier to more difficult.
(8) Risk- taking
Successful language learners must be willing to become
‘gamblers’ in the game of language, to attempt to produce and to
interpret language that is a bit beyond their absolute certainty. Risk-
taking contributes to long-term retention and intrinsic motivation of
learners. Teachers can encourage students to try out language, to
venture response, and not to wait for someone else to volunteer
language.
(9) The language-culture connection
Teachers who teach language to students should also teach its
culture such as values, ways of thinking, feeling, acting etc as culture
and language are intricately intertwined. The language-culture
connection will affect the process of acculturation in students. For
those who can adapt with a new culture will affect their language
acquisition.
34
c. Linguistic principles
(10) The native language effect
The native language of learners influences the acquisition of the
target language system. The influence of the native language can both
facilitate and interfere learners in learning the target language. But, the
interfering effects are likely to be the most salient. Teachers can give
feedback whenever students made errors by explaining the native
language cause of the error. Besides, they can persuade students to
directly think into the second language instead of making translation
words in the native language to the target language.
(11) Interlanguage
Second language learners tend to go through a systematic or
quasi-systematic developmental process as they progress to full
competence in the target language. Successful interlanguage
development is partially a result of utilizing feedback from others.
Teachers are enganged in a never- ending process of giving feedback
to students about whether or not their actual language is clear and
unambiguous.
(12) Communicative competence
Communicative competence is the goal of a language classroom.
According to Bachman (1990), Canale and Swain (1980) in Brown
(2001:68), communicative competence consists of some components.
They are organizational competence (grammatical and discourse),
35
pragmatic competence (functional and sociolinguistic), strategic
competence, and psychomotor competence. Communicative goals are
best achieved by giving due attention to language use and not just
usage, to fluency not just accuracy, to authentic language and
contexts, and to students’ eventual need to apply classroom learning to
previously unrehearsed contexts in the real world.
2. Principles for Designing Speaking Techniques
Brown (2001:275-276) proposes some principles for designing
speaking techniques. These principles will help teachers to conduct the
speaking class.
a. Use techniques that cover the spectrum of learner needs, from
language- based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on
interaction, meaning and fluency. Make sure that the tasks include
techniques designed to help students to perceive and use the building
block. At the same time, do not make the students feel bored with
repetitious drills. Teachers should make any drilling as meaningful as
possible.
b. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques. Try to appeal to students’
ultimate goals and interests in their need for knowledge, for status, for
achieving competence and autonomy, and for being all that they can be.
Help them to see how the activity will benefit them.
c. Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts. It
takes energy and creativity to design authentic contexts and meaningful
36
interaction, but with the help of storehouse of teacher resource material
it can be done. Even drilling can provide a sense of authenticity.
d. Provide appropriate feedback and correction. In ESL situations,
feedback is mostly from the teacher. Feedback can be found outside of
the classroom but it is important for teachers to inject the kinds of
corrective feedback that are appropriate for the moment.
e. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening. Many
interactive techniques involving speaking will also include listening.
The two skills can reinforce each other. Skills in producing language
are often initiated through comprehension.
f. Give students opportunities to initiate oral communication. Part of oral
communication competence is the ability to initiate conversations, to
nominate topics, to ask questions, to control conversation and to change
the subject. Teachers can design speaking techniques allowing students
to initiate language.
g. Encourage the development of speaking strategies. Not all students are
aware of strategic competence. Teachers should help their students
develop strategic competence to accomplish oral communicative
purposes. The strategies are asking for clarification (What?), asking
someone to repeat something (Excuse me?), using fillers (uh, I mean,
Well), using conversation maintenance cues (Huh, Right, Yeah), getting
someone’s attention (Hey, So) and so forth.
37
3. Approaches to the Teaching of Speaking
Many language experts have argued the best approach to language
learning during years. Some believe in the old approaches, some welcome the
use of current approach to improve the teaching and learning process.
According to Richards (2006: 24-25) communicative language teaching (CLT)
is a new approach used widely since the 1990s. Here are some core
assumptions of current CLT.
1. Native language is allowed as long as learners engage in interaction andmeaningful communication.
2. Learners negotiate meaning through the task, expand their languageresource, and notice how language is used.
3. Learning language is a gradual process involving creative use of languageand trial and error. The goal of learning is using the new language fluentlyand accurately.
4. Successful language learning uses communication strategies.5. The role of the teacher is a facilitator and learners learn through
collaboration and sharing.
CLT requires a syllabus that identifies all the relevant components of a
language. The first widely adopted communicative syllabus developed within
the framework of classic CLT was termed Threshold Level. It described the
level of proficiency learners need to attain to cross the threshold and begin real
communication. It consists of topics, functions, notions, situations as well as
grammar and vocabulary (Van Ek and Alexander in Richards, 2006: 10-11)
Regarding CLT, Richards also distinguishes two current methodologies
that can be described as extensions of the CLT movement. These
methodologies are also suggested by Thornburry (2005: 119-122) for teaching
speaking. They are a task-based approach and a text-based or genre approach.
38
Richards (2006: 33-40) asserts that a task-based approach or task based
instruction (TBI) focus on classroom process. The interactional process in the
classroom is achieved by the use of instructional tasks. Furthermore,
Thornburry (2005: 119) states that TBI was originally motivated by the belief
that a language is best learned through using it rather than learned then used. A
task based syllabus for speaking would be based around a sequence of
integrated tasks. Speaking would not necessarily exclusive, but the task would
meet the real world uses of language identified through need analysis. Willis
(1966) in Richards (2006: 37-38 and 2008: 34-35) suggests using a cycle of
activities with task work consisting of pre-task activities, i.e. introduction to
topic and task; the task cycle comprising task, planning, and report; and the
language focus comprising analysis and practice.
On the contrary of a task-based, a text-based or genre-based approach
focuses on product. According to this view, learners in different contexts have
to master the use of the text types occurring most frequently and
communicative competence involved in different kinds of spoken and written
texts in specific contexts. Mixed syllabus is used in a text-based approach that
specifies other components of text such as vocabulary, grammar, topics,
functions. Thus, it integrates reading, writing, oral communication, and
grammar teaching through the mastery of texts rather than in isolation
(Richards, 2006: 39-45). Feez and Joyce (1998: 28-31) in Richards (2006: 42-
44 and 2008: 36-38) propose sequences of implementing a text-based lesson.
They are building the context, modeling and deconstructing the text, joint
39
construction of the text, independent construction of the text, and linking to
related texts.
4. Teaching Speaking for SMK Students
There are two goals of learning English in vocational high schools which
is developed by BSNP (2006). First, students are expected to master the
knowledge and skills of basic English to sustain their vocational competency
achievement. Second, students are expected to implement their mastery of
ability and skills of English to communicate in spoken and written forms in
intermediate level.
Acccording to Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional number 23 year
of 2006 (Permendiknas), the scope of English teaching in vocational high
schools consists of three levels: novice, elementary, and intermediate. Those
levels are designed for the first, second, and third grade of vocational high
school students. The first grade of vocational high school students have to pose
several speaking competencies in a year as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: The Standard of Competency and Basic Competency of the FirstGrade Students of Vocational High School
Standard of Competency Basic Competency
1. Communicating in English at a novice level 1.1. Understanding basic expression of socialinteraction in daily life.
1.2. Mentioning things, people, characteristics,times, dates, months, and years.
1.3. Describing things, people, characteristics,times, dates, months, and years.
1.4. Giving simple talks, using basic English.1.5. Describing an event in a simple way.1.6. Comprehending simple memos, menus,
schedules, and road signs.1.7. Writing a simple invitation.
40
5. Teacher’s Roles during the Speaking Lesson
Role refers to the part that learners and teachers are expected to play in
carrying out learning tasks as well as the social and interpersonal relationships
between the participants (Nunan,1989: 79). Teachers will employ different
roles when teaching certain skills of English. Richards (2005: 4) proposes two
roles that must be played by teachers in communicative classroom: facilitator
and monitor. Meanwhile, Breen and Candlin (1980) in Nunan (2004: 67)
suggest four roles teachers should employ in communicative classroom.
Teachers should be able to act as a facilitator, a participant, an observer and a
learner.
According to Harmer (2001: 57-64), in learner-centered lessons, teachers
are appropriate to be a facilitator. A facilitator means being a prompter,
resource, and tutor. When teachers take charge to be a prompter, they
occasionally offer discrete suggestions such as words or phrases. It happens
when students lose their fluency. It will diminish the sense of frustration some
students feel when they come to a dead end of language or idea. Teachers need
to do it sensitively and sympathetically, but without losing students’ initiative.
As a resource, teachers are a place where students can ask information, but at
the same time they should resist the urge to spoon-feed students. As a tutor,
teachers are combining the roles as a prompter and resource meaning that
teachers work with individuals or small groups giving general guidance. One
41
thing to consider is that teachers do not intrude too much because it can impede
learner autonomy.
Taking role as a participant means that teachers are parts of the activity
during the lesson. For example, when a discussion is carried out, teachers can
enliven inside the discussion as a member instead of always having to prompt
or organize from outside the group. Yet, the danger is that teachers can
dominate the discussion.
As an observer or monitor, teachers observe students’ performances in
order to give feedback. Teachers also judge the success of activities and
materials during the teaching and learning process so that they can make an
evaluation for the improvement.
To create a good atmosphere of teaching and learning, teachers should
try to adapt themselves with students who have been changing all the times.
The 21st century teachers play many roles during the teaching and learning
process. In a speaking class, the teacher can be an adaptor. He must be able to
adapt himself to students who have different proficiency in English. He
harnesses technology to improve students’ speaking skills. The teacher also
plays role as a visionary which means he is a crucial component of the educator
of today and tomorrow. He knows that the education will be always
developing. The teacher provides his students with appropriate material or
technology which has been developing all the times. Another important role at
the speaking class is that a teacher is a model. He does not only teach how to
speak well, but also teaches values. Students are required to speak
42
appropriately with whom, when, in what situation and where
(www.charactereducation.org, accessed on January 1st, 2012).
6. Character Education in Teaching Speaking
Character education is a national movement creating schools that foster
ethical, responsible and caring young people by modeling and teaching good
character through emphasis on universal values that people all share. Good
character is not formed automatically. It is developed over time through a
sustained process of teaching, example, learning and practice. It is developed
through character education (www.character.org, accessed on January 1st,
2012).
Character values can be taught during the speaking class. Students
communicate with others are not merely for the sake of speaking, but also for
building a convenient conversation which is ethically appropriate. They should
learn pragmatic competence (functional and sociolinguistic) and strategic
competence. Students know the difference of Indonesian culture and western
culture; how to start the conversation with foreigners and how to interrupt it;
how to be a good listener; how to respect someone’s opinion and deliver it and
so forth. During the cooperative learning, character values can be conducted
when students learn how to work with different people; how to delegate duty to
friends; how to respect one another and so forth.
7. Feedback in Speaking
Most students expect their teachers to give feedback on their
performance. Consequently, teachers need to know how to deals with these
43
things. According to Brown (2000: 217), errors reflect the students’
competence on the target language that is wrong or incomplete and cannot be
self-corrected, while mistakes refer to a performance error which is either a
random guess or a slip and students can correct themselves.
Both errors and mistakes are caused by interlingual transfer and
intralingual transfer. Interlingual transfer means the interference of the first
language or native language. Intralingual transfer occurs when learners have
already acquired the new system of the target language and then make
overgeneralization on it.
As teachers are people on whom students always rely on, they need to
help students to cope with errors by giving feedback. They cannot do this all
the time. Here are some basic options and possible feedback quoted from
Kathleen Bailey (1985) in Brown (2001: 291) that can be considered by
teachers during the language learning.
a. Basic options1. To treat or to ignore2. To treat immediately or to delay3. To transfer treatment or not4. To transfer to another individual, a subgroup, or the whole class5. To return, or not, to the original error maker after treatment6. To permit other learners to initiate treatment7. To test for the efficacy of the treatment
b. Possible feedback1. Fact or error indicated2. Location indicated3. Opportunity for new attempt given4. Model provided5. Error type indicated6. Remedy indicated7. Improvement indicated8. Praise indicated
44
Another suggestion is also made by Harmer (2001: 104-109) in relation
to giving feedback to students. Whether the tasks require fluency or accuracy
or even both should be taken into account. When the performance emphasizes
accuracy, it is part of the teacher’s function to point out and correct the
mistakes the students are making. There are several ways to give feedback
during accuracy work.
a. Repeating the errors or mistakes made
b. Echoing like a precise way of pin-pointing error
c. Making statement or question for exanple “That’s not quite right” and so
forth
d. Hinting which is a quick way of helping students to activate rules they
already know
e. Giving a facial expression or gesture indicating there is something wrong
with the performance
f. Reformulating the sentence
Furthermore, Harmer also says that when students do fluency work
demanding communicative activities, teachers should not interrupt students in
mid-flow to point out a grammatical, lexical, or pronunciation error, since it
can breakdown the communication and drag them to study language form.
Harmer suggests some ways to offer feedback. First, a gentle correction when
the communication breakdown during a fluency activity. Second, giving
correction after students’ performance by recording them first so that teachers
45
will not forget what students have said. Third, observing them while writing
down some mistakes or errors that will be explained latter.
8. Assessing Speaking
Assessing speaking is challenging because there are so many factors that
influence raters’ (teachers’) impression on how well someone can speak a
language. When teachers assess speaking it means that the teachers’ listening
skills determine the reliability and validity of an oral production test. Assigning
a score and ranging from 1 to 5 for example is not easy. The lines of
distinctions between levels are quite difficult to pinpoint. The raters can
consume much time to see the recording of speaking performance to make an
accurate assessment (Brown, 2004: 140 and Luoma, 2004: 84).
Thornburry (2005: 127-129) claims that there are two main ways to
assess speaking. They are holistic scoring and analytic scoring. Holistic scoring
uses a single score as the basis of an overall impression, while analytic scoring
uses a separate score for different aspect of the task. This holistic way has
advantages of being quick and is perhaps suitable for informally assessing
progress. By contrast, analytic scoring takes longer since it requires the teacher
to take a variety of factors into account and is probably fairer and more
reliable. It also provides information on specific weaknesses and strengths of
students. However, the disadvantage of analytic scoring is that the score may
be distracted by all categories and lose sight of the overall situation performed
by the students. Therefore, four or five categories seem to be the maximum that
can be handled at one time.
46
Furthermore, Thornburry (2005: 127-129) states that based on
Cambridge Certificate in English Language Speaking Skills (CELS), four
categories must be taken into account: grammar and vocabulary, discourse
management, pronunciation, and interactive communication. When dealing
with grammar and vocabulary, students need to use appropriate syntactic forms
and vocabulary in order to meet the task requirements at each level. Discourse
management refers to the ability of students to express the ideas and opinions
coherently and convey clear information. Pronunciation refers to the ability to
use the right stress and intonation to convey the intended meaning. Finally,
interactive communication depicts the ability of test takers to respond
appropriately with interlocutors with required speed and rhythm to fulfill the
task requirements. Those four elements are similar with what Brown (2004:
172) states about the aspects of assessing speaking: grammar, vocabulary,
comprehension, fluency, pronunciation, and task.
On the other hand, Luoma (2004: 4-5) points out that a rating scale is
important in assessing students’ speaking ability since it can determine exactly
how the criteria will be applied to the performances. Scales describe what each
score means. She claims that the development and use of a the speaking test is
a cyclic process in which it begins with a need for speaking scores and ends
with the use of the scores. In addition, she states that there are two interactive
processes needed for doing speaking assessment. The first is the test
administration or test performance process where the participants (students)
interact with the examiner (teacher) or with students to show a sample of their
47
speaking skills. It can be recorded. The second process is rating or evaluation
in which the rater applies the rating to the test performance that produces
scores. The scores should satisfy the need that has been identified when test
development first started.
Regarding those two ways in assessing the students’ speaking ability
proposed by Thornbury (2005) and Louma (2004), it seems that the
combination of analytic scoring and rating scale will be better than one type.
The analytic scoring can be combined with the rating scale so that it is more
detailed in giving the students’ speaking assessment while providing
descriptions on each category. The criteria or aspects of the assessment can be
the same as Thornbury’s criteria, such as grammar, vocabulary, fluency,
comprehension, and pronunciation. Meanwhile, the rating scale can be used in
each criterion so that the assessment criteria become more detailed. By
combining the analytic scoring and rating scale techniques, the process of
assessing the students’ speaking ability will be more detailed. Besides, through
the use of analytic scale, the teacher knows the students’ weaknesses so that he
or she can give some treatment to make improvement.
D. Cooperative Learning
1. The Definition of Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that
students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning
(Johnson and Johnson, 1999:9). Jacob, Power, and Loh (2002) assert that
cooperative learning comprises principles and techniques for helping students
48
work together more effectively. Another definition suggested by Slavin (1995:
2) who states that cooperative learning refers to a variety of teaching methods
in which students work in small groups to help one another learn academic
content. The higher-level students will help lower-level ones to improve their
understanding of the subject. The idea behind cooperative learning is that by
giving a reward to a group rather than individual, the students will be
motivated to help one another to master academic materials. Each member of a
team is responsible not only for learning the materials but also for helping
teammates to understand the subject and complete the task given. Thus, it
creates an atmosphere of achievement.
In addition, a cooperative classroom increasingly emphasizes mediated
learning. Mediation can be defined as facilitating, modeling, and coaching.
Facilitating involves creating a rich environment and activaty for linking new
information to prior knowledge, providing opportunities for cooperative work
and problem solving, and offering students several of authentic learning tasks.
Coaching involves giving hints or clues, providing feedback, redirecting
students’ efforts and helping them in using the strategy. This is to provide them
with right amount of help when they need it.
The decision to include cooperative learning assignments in a course
should be based on a careful examination of the course goal. For example, if
students are expected to be able to apply theoretical knowledge to real world
problems, or demonstrate decision making or problem solving, then it may be
appropriate to finish it in a group work. The size of the classroom is an
49
important element also that must be considered in applying cooperative
learning. The number of students in each team must enable them to participate
in their work. Individual accountability is essential to group success (Mandal,
2009).
2. The Principles and Advantages of Cooperative Learning
Many principles have been proposed for cooperative learning. Below
are some principles of cooperative learning proposed by different experts.
a. Heterogeneous grouping. This principle means that the groups in which
students do cooperative learning tasks are mixed on one or more of a
number of variables including sex, ethnicity, social class, religion,
personality, age, language proficiency, and diligence (Jacobs, 2000).
b. Collaborative skills. Collaborative skills, such as giving reasons, are
those needed to work with others. Students may lack these skills, the
language involved in using the skills, or the inclination to apply the skills
(Jacobs, 2000).
c. Group autonomy. This principle encourages students to look to
themselves for resources rather than relying solely on the teacher. When
student groups are having difficulty, it is very tempting for teachers to
intervene either in a particular group or with the entire class (Jacobs,
2000).
d. Simultaneous interaction. In classrooms in which group activities are not
used, the normal interaction pattern is that of sequential interaction, in
which one person at a time, usually the teacher speaks. In contrast, when
50
group activities are used, one student per group is speaking. In a class of
40 divided into groups of four, ten students are speaking simultaneously,
i.e., 40 students divided into 4 students per group = 10 students (1 per
group) speaking at the same time (Kagan, 1994).
e. Equal participation. A frequent problem in groups is that one or two
group members dominate the group and for whatever reason, this
impedes the participation of others. Cooperative learning offers many
ways of promoting more equal participation among group members
(Kagan, 1994).
f. Individual accountability. In a classroom, the team success depends on
the individual learning of all team members. Accountability focuses the
activity of the team members on helping one another learn and making
sure that everyone in the team is ready for a quiz or any other assessment
that students take without teammate help (Slavin, 1995: 5)
g. Positive interdependence. When positive interdependence exists among
members of a group, they feel that what helps one member of the group
helps the other members and that what hurts one member of the group
hurts the other members. It is this “All for one, one for all” feeling that
leads group members to want to help one another, to see that they share a
common goal (Kagan, 1994).
h. Cooperation as a value. This principle means that rather than cooperation
being only a way to learn, i.e., the how of learning, cooperation also
becomes part of the content to be learned, i.e., the what of learning.
51
Cooperation as a value involves taking the feeling of “All for one, one
for all” (Jacobs, 2000).
i.Reward. It is very important to enhance students’ performance (Slavin,
1995).
Language experts and researchers do not only explore the principles of
cooperative learning, but also find the advantages of it. A good deal of
research has revealed a number of advantages in cooperative learning such
as increasing student talk, more varied talk, a more relaxed atmosphere,
greater motivation, more negotiation of meaning, and increasing amount of
comprehensible input (Liang, Mohan and Early, 1998; Olsen and Kagan,
1992). Other advantages of cooperative learning are described as follows:
a. Promote student learning and academic achievement
b. Increase student retention
c. Enhance students satisfaction with their learning experience
d. Help students develop skills in oral communication
e. Promote student self- esteem
f. Provide a shared cognitive set of information between students
g. Motivate students to learn the material
h. Provide formative feedback
i. Develop social and group skills necessary for success outside the
classroom
j. Promote positive interaction between members of different cultural and
socio- economic groups (Slavin, 1995; Kagan, 1994)
52
3. Cooperative Learning Methods
According to Johnson, Johnson, Stanne and Geribaldi (1990),
cooperative learning is actually a generic term that refers to numerous
methods for organizing and conducting classroom instruction. Many
teachers use cooperative learning in so many different ways that the list of
methods are impossibly explained in this literature review. Here are some
class activities in cooperative learning cited from Mandal (2009)
a. Jigsaw
A group of five is set up and each member of group learns different
material. This is called as origin group. Then everybody who is from the
origin group will get together with the expert group consisting of students
who will talk the same material. After discussing with the expert group,
each member of group gets back to the origin group to teach about the
material he has been discussed with the expert group.
b. Think- Pair- Share
The teacher gives the students questions and let them think about the
answer. She then asks the students to share their ideas with a partner.
This task gives them opportunity to collect and organize their thoughts.
In the end, the pair shares their responses with other pairs.
c. Three- step interview
Students interview each other in pairs during the first step. They then
switch their roles as an interviewer and an interviewee. The final step is
53
that members share their partner’s response with the team. Interview is
used to gain competence in speaking, listening and summarizing,
d. Team- Pair- Solo
Students do problem first as a team then with a partner, and finally on
their own. It is a good design to motivate the students to solve the
problems which are beyond their ability.
e. Numbered Heads Together
A team of four is established. Each member is given numbers of 1, 2, 3,
4. Questions are asked of the group. Groups work together to answer the
question so that all can verbally answer the question. The teacher calls
out a number (two) and each two is asked to give the answer.
E. Conceptual Framework
Speaking is one of the important skills that should be acquired by
students. Ideally, in the speaking teaching and learning process, students have
to be given some opportunities to practice a target language and produce it in
the spoken form. They can practice the language in the forms of dialogs,
monologs, discussions, games, or role plays. Besides, those practices can be
given in controlled, guided, or creative. Moreover, they have to be able to not
only speak fluently in English, but also pronounce phonemes correctly, use
appropriate stress and intonation patterns, and speak in connected speech and
different genres and situations.
As has been stated in Chapter I, the tenth grade students of the tourism
program at SMKN 7 Yogyakarta have a main problem which is related to
54
speaking skills. This problem will be improved by using some methods in
cooperative learning. The actions will be carried out in the second semester.
Cooperative learning is used since the teacher seldom puts her students in some
groups during the teaching and learning process. Besides, the students enjoy
learning together as their learning can be facilitated through working in a team.
By working together, it is not only speaking skills that can be improved, but
also it will simultaneously give a positive impact to the students’ vocabulary,
self- esteem, pronunciation etc. Having a partner to work with will help the
students learn the materials . They have more chances to practice speaking with
their friends as well.These things are supported also on a research about
improving speaking skills by using cooperative learning conducted by Tamaela
in 2009.
The activities that will be used during the teaching and learning process
are communicative tasks that require students to speak up. They will be applied
in the second semester in 2012. The materials made will be a combination
between what has been explained on the standard of competency, basic
competence and tourism. Thus, the learning materials will fulfill the students’
needs at the tourism program.
According to some literature about speaking and cooperative learning, the
conceptual framework can be described as follows.
55
Figure 1: The schema of the conceptual framework of the study
F. Hypothesis
Based on the conceptual framework mentioned above, the hypothesis of
this research can be formulated as follows: when the tenth grade students of the
tourism program are involved in cooperative learning, their speaking skills will
improve.
CooperativeLearning (CL) Methods of CL
Communicativetasks
Contextualmaterial
The students’speaking skills
improve
Recommended