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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

A. English Language Teaching

English language teaching has changed for many years. Several methods

have emerged to facilitate English teaching and learning process. Richards

(2006: 6-21) divides the trends in language teaching in the last 50 years into

three phases which are traditional approaches (up to the late 1960s), classic

communicative language teaching (1970s to 1990s), and current

communicative language teaching (late 1990s to the present).

Richards describes the characteristic of traditional approaches which

existed up to the late 1960s. Traditional approaches to language teaching gave

priority to grammatical competence as the basis of language proficiency. They

were based on the belief that grammar could be learned through direct

instruction and through a methodology that made much use of repetitive

practice and drilling. The approaches to the teaching of grammar were

deductive and inductive. It was assumed that language learning meant building

up a large repertoire of sentences and grammatical patterns and learning to

produce these accurately and quickly in the appropriate situation. Once a basic

command of the language was established through oral drilling and controlled

practice, the four skills were introduced, usually in the sequence of speaking,

listening, reading and writing.

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This approach also often employed several techniques including

memorization of dialogs, question-and-answer practice, substitution drills, and

various forms of guided speaking and writing practice. Great attention to

accurate pronunciation and accurate mastery of grammar were stressed from

the very beginning stages of language learning, since it was assumed that if

students made errors, these would quickly become a permanent part of the

learner’s speech.

In the 1970s, a reaction to traditional language teaching approaches

began and soon spread around the world. The centrality of grammar in

language teaching and learning was questioned, since it was argued that

language ability involved much more than grammatical competence. Attention

shifted to the knowledge and skills which were needed to use grammar and

other aspects of language appropriately for different communicative purposes

such as making requests, giving advice, making suggestions, describing wishes

and needs, and so on. What was needed in order to use language

communicatively was communicative competence. Building on Hymes’s

theory, Canale and Swain in Richardss and Renandya (2002: 206-207) propose

that communicative competence includes grammatical, discourse,

sociolinguistic, and strategic competence. These components underlie the

effectiveness of speaking.

Since the 1990s, the communicative approach has been widely

implemented because it describes a set of very general principles grounded in

the notion of communicative competence as the goal of second and foreign

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language teaching. Current communicative language teaching (CLT) places the

students as the center of teaching and learning process, involves the real

communication, and meaningful tasks, and uses mixed syllabus (Richards,

2006:22).

B. Four Language Skills

In general, there are four language skills which the language learner

should master either through the process of learning or acquisition. They are

reading, speaking, listening and writing. Along with the development of

theories of language teaching and learning, there are several terms used for

these skills which are conventionally accepted by most of language teachers as

what Donald and Kneale (2001:14) say that:

“Language teachers conventionally distinguish between fouraspects of language which are mastered by means of the “four skills”: listening,speaking, reading, and writing. Listening and reading might be taught asprimarily ‘passive’ ‘receptive’ or ‘input’ skills, whilst speaking and writing aretheir ‘active’ ‘productive’ or ‘output’ counterparts (Donald and Kneale, 2001:14).”

In real communication, these skills are often manifested integratively.

For example, when learners listen to a lecture, they make notes. To clarify the

message they got, they read the notes again and expressed their understanding

by asking questions. The previous theory that English should be taught

integratively is supprorted by Brown (2001:232). He states:

“Despite our history of treating the four skills in separate segments of acurriculum, there is a trend toward skill integration. That is, rather thandesigning a curriculum to teach the many aspects of one skill, say, reading,curriculum designers are taking more of a whole language approach whereby

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reading skills, then, will also deal with related listening, speaking, and writingskills.”

Meanwhile in Harmer’s (2007:265) words, “it would make no sense to

teach each skill in isolation since in meaningful communication, people

employ incremental language skills not in isolation, but in tandem”. In

summary, these four language skills should be carried out in a meaningful way

and taught integratively.

C. The Nature of Speaking

1. The Definition of Speaking

Many definitions about speaking have been proposed by language

experts. According to Johnson and Morrow (1981: 70), speaking which is

popular with the term ‘oral communication’, is an activity involving two or

more people in which hearers and speakers have to react to what they hear

and make their contributions at a speed of a high level. In this definition, the

essential components mentioned to exist in speaking are the speakers, the

hearers, the message and the response. Both the speakers and the hearers

should agree on the message and/or meaning being talked through

acceptable language.

From a communicative, pragmatic view of the language classroom,

speaking and listening skills are closely intertwined. The interaction

between these two modes of performance applies especially strongly to

conversation. In a classroom, students will respond to the teacher after

listening to some information (Brown, 2001: 267). In addition, Chaney

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(1998) in Kayi (2006) adds that speaking is the process of building and

sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols in a

variety of contexts. Speaking is much more complex. It involves both a

command of certain skills and several different types of knowledge.

Canale and Swain (1980) in Richards and Renandya (2002: 206-207)

suggest that in order to be able to communicate meaningfully, speakers need

to know the knowledge of communicative competence consisting of

grammatical, discourse, strategic, and sociolinguistic competence.

Grammatical competence is an umbrella concept including grammar

(morphology, syntax), vocabulary, and mechanics. With regards to

speaking, the term mechanics refer to basic sounds of letters and syllables,

pronunciation of words, intonation, and stress. Grammatical competence

enables speaker to use and understand English-language structures

contributing to students’ fluency. Discourse competence is concerned with

speakers’ relationships, formal or informal occasion, the rules of cohesion

and coherence etc. Discourse competence contributes in turn taking in

conversation (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992 in Richards and Renandya, 2002:

207).

Brown (1994) in Richards and Renandya (2002: 207) states that

sociolinguistic competence means knowing what is expected socially and

culturally by users of target language. Learners must acquire the rules and

norms governing the appropriate timing and realization of speech acts.

Understanding the sociolinguistic side of language helps learners to know

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what comments are appropriate, how to ask questions during interaction,

and how to respond nonverbally according to the purpose of the talk.

In addition, Brown (2004: 102) also asserts that strategic competence

is the way learners manipulate language in order to meet the communicative

goals. It is perhaps the most important of all the communicative competence

elements. This argument is highlighted by Berns (1990) in Richards and

Renandya (2002: 208) who suggests that strategic competence is the ability

to compensate for imperfect knowledge of linguistic, sociolinguistic, and

discourse rules. With reference to speaking, strategic competence refers to

the ability to know when and how to take the flow, how to keep the

conversation going on, how to terminate the conversation, and how to clear

up communication breakdown as well as comprehension problems.

2. Functions of Speaking

Numerous attempts have been made to classify the functions of

speaking in human interaction. Richards (2008: 21-28) distinguishes three

functions of speaking which are different in terms of the form, function, and

teaching approaches. The functions of speaking are talk as interaction, talk

as transaction, and talk as performance.

Talk as interaction refers to conversation and describes interaction that

serves a primarily social function. Brown (2004: 142) uses a different term

to refer to talk as interaction. He uses the term of interpersonal exchange.

The main features of talk as interaction can be quoted as follows (Richards,

2008: 22)

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a. Has a primarily social functionb. Reflects role relationshipsc. Reflects speaker’s identityd. May be formal or casuale. Uses conversational conventionsf. Reflects degrees of politenessg. Employs many generic wordsh. Uses conversational registeri. Is jointly constructed

Richards also promotes some skills involved in using talk as

interaction. They are opening and closing conversations, choosing topics,

making a small talk, joking, recounting personal incidents and experiences,

turn taking, using adjacency pairs, interrupting, reacting to others, and using

an appropriate style of speaking (Richards, 2008:23). These ideas are

supported by Brown (2004: 142) saying that interpersonal exchanges can

become pragmatically complex with the need to speak in a casual register

and use colloquial language, ellipsis, slang, humor, and other sociolinguistic

conventions. Talking with some friends in a party and chatting with

companions during the coffee break are the examples of talk as interaction.

Talk as a transaction refers to situations where the focus is on what is

said or done. The message and making oneself understood is the central

focus rather than the participants and how they interact socially with each

other (Richards, 2008: 24). Meanwhile, to refer to the same thing, Brown

(2004: 142) uses another term, transactional language. He promotes that the

purpose of transactional language is to exchange specific information.

Classroom group activity and buying things in a shop are the examples of

transactional language.

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To see the differences between talk as interaction and transaction, it is

important to see the main features of talk as transaction. Talk as transaction

has a primarily information focus. It focuses on the message not the

participant. There may be frequent questions, repetitions, comprehension

checks, negotiation and digression. While the speakers are talking to get

some information or obtaining goods or services, they employ a range of

skills such as explaining a need or intention; asking questions, clarifications,

opinions; making suggestions and etc (Richards, 2008:26)

The last type of speaking functions is talk as performance. It refers to

public speaking to share the information. Audiences are the part of this talk.

It tends to be written language than conversational language since it has

recognizable format which is like monolog rather than dialog. Classroom

presentations, public announcements, and speeches are kinds of examples of

talk as performances. Some skills are involved in public speaking such as

using an appropriate format, presenting information in an appropriate

sequence, maintaining audience engagement, using an appropriate opening

and closing, and creating an effect on the audience (Richards, 2008: 28)

Another distinction of speaking has been made by Brown and Yule in

Nunan (1989:27) who consider the development of speaking skills into two

parts that are dialogue and monologue. Besides, Thornburry (2005: 14)

proposes four language features in speaking. They are interactive, non

interactive, planned and unplanned. Multy-party speeches like casual

conversation between friends or between children and their parents is

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interactive speaking or dialogue. Monologues such as news reporting on a

television, and voice-mail message are non interactive speaking. Public

speeches and business presentations are typically planned. On the other

hand, chatting with friends at the classroom and conversation at the shop are

kinds of unplanned speaking.

3. Aspects of Speaking Skills

Fluency is natural language use occurring when a speaker engages in

meaningful interaction and maintains comprehensible and ongoing

communication despite limitations in his or her communicative competence.

Accuracy means that the speakers are required to use the correct vocabulary,

grammar, and pronunciation. Fluency is developed by creating classroom

activities in which students must negotiate meaning, use communication

strategies, correct misunderstandings, and work to avoid communication

breakdowns (Richards, 2006: 14).

In addition, Nunan (1999) states that fluency means that the speakers

are required to be able to keep going when speaking spontaneously.

However, it does not mean that the speakers speak so fast because

sometimes pausing is important. That pause is an aspect of fluency which

may be long but not frequent. Moreover, when speaking fluently, speakers

should be able to get the message across with whatever resources and

abilities they have got and regardless of any grammatical and other

mistakes.

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Otherwise, Nunan (1999) also asserts that accuracy means that the

speakers are required to use the correct vocabulary, grammar, and

pronunciation. It uses correct example of language use.

The differences between activities that focus on fluency and those that

focus on accuracy can be summarized as follows.

1. Activities focusing on fluencya) Reflect natural use of languageb) Focus on achieving communicationc) Require meaningful use of languaged) Require the use of communication strategiese) Produce language that may not be predictablef) Seek to link language use to context

2. Activities focusing on accuracya) Reflect classroom use of languageb) Focus on the formation of correct examples of languagec) Practice language out of contextd) Practice small samples of languagee) Do not require meaningful communicationf) Control choice of language(Richards, 2006: 13-14).

Besides considering the importance of fluency and accuracy in

speaking, teachers should also pay attention to an essential of language

performance. Richards and Renandya (2002: 204) say that learning to speak

a foreign language is more than knowing its grammatical and semantic

rules. Learners must also acquire the knowledge of how native speakers use

the language in the context of structured interpersonal exchange in which

many factors interact.

Harmer (2001: 24-25) suggests a number of variables which govern

learners’ choice in order to meet the appropriacy during the conversation

such as setting, participants, gender, channel and topic. Setting is related to

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the place where the conversations take place. People speak differently at

office and night clubs. Participants refer to people involved in an exchange.

The language forms students use will be different when they speak with

their friends and teachers. Gender represents how women and men use

language in conversations. Women have frequently used more concessive

language than men for example, and crucially have often talked less than

men in mix-sex conversations. Channel represents how people communicate

whether they will use spoken or written grammar. Speaking face to face and

giving speech at the hall will generate different uses of language. Finally,

the topic affects the grammatical and lexical choices (Harmer, 2001: 24-25).

Furthermore, Harmer (2001: 269-270) also proposes four language

features that are necessary for spoken production. They are connected

speech, expressive devices, lexis and grammar, and negotiation meaning.

The first feature is the use of connected speech. Effective speakers of

English need to be able not only to produce the individual phoneme of

English but also to use fluent connected speech. In connected speech,

sounds are modified (assimilation), omitted (elision), added (linking verb),

or weakened (through contractions and stress patterning). Due to the

complexity of the connected speech, therefore, English teachers should

involve the students in activities which are designed to improve their

connected speech.

The second feature is the use of expressive devices. Some native

speakers of English use expressive devices in speaking through some ways,

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such as changing the pitch and stress of particular parts of utterances,

varying volume and speed, and using facial expressions. The use of these

devices can contribute to the ability to convey meanings. Therefore, in order

to be fully effective communicators, students should be able to employ

those devices.

The third feature is the use of lexis and grammar. The use of common

lexical and grammatical features can be found in spontaneous speech when

performing certain language functions.

The last feature is the use of negotiation. The negotiation is used to

seek for clarification. The speakers need to ask for clarification when they

are listening to someone else especially when they know that their talks are

not being understood. Students choose language forms provided to ask for

clarification.

4. Types of Classroom Speaking Performance

In designing speaking activities or instructional materials for second

language or foreign-language teaching, it is necessary to recognize the

different functions speaking performs in daily communication and the

different purposes for which the students need speaking skills. According to

Brown (2001: 271-274), there are five types of speaking. They are imitative,

intensive, responsive, interactive, and extensive.

In imitative speaking performance, learners imitate or parrot back a

word or phrase or possibly a sentence. The purpose of imitation is not for

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meaningful interaction but for focusing on some particular elements of

language form. Drilling is the example of imitative speaking performance.

An intensive speaking performance is related to the production of

short stretches of oral language to demonstrate the competence such as

grammatical, phrasal, lexical, or phonological relationship (prosodic

elements: intonation, stress, rhythm, juncture) (Brown, 2004: 273).

Another type of classroom speaking performance is called responsive.

Short replies are the example of speaking performance which does not

extend into dialogues, for example standard greetings, simple requests and

comments etc. The stimulus is always a spoken prompt in order to preserve

the authenticity with only one or two follow-up questions (Brown, 2004:

141).

Interactive speaking performance consists of transactional and

interpersonal dialogues. Transactional dialogue is carried out for the purpose

of conveying or exchanging information. This type of speaking performance

is an extended form of responsive language. A conversation is the example

of transactional dialogue. Another extended form of performance in

interpersonal dialogue.

Compared to the purpose of transactional language, interpersonal

(dialogue) tends to maintain social relationships better than exchange

information. Some elements may involve in a dialogue such as a casual

register, colloquial language, emotionally charged language, slang, ellipsis,

sarcasm etc.

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The last speaking performance is extensive (monologue). Extensive oral

production can be in the form of reports, summaries, and speeches. It can be

planned or impromptu.

Thornbury (2005: 89-110) suggests some activities to promote

speaking. They are discussion and debate; drama, role play, and simulation;

presentation; classroom conversation and casual chat; outside-class

speaking; and storytelling, joke, and anecdote.

Discussion and debate tend to be difficult speaking activities and

therefore they are commonly suitable for higher level students

(intermediate/advance). Many teachers would agree that discussion at class

which arise students to talk spontaneously is a good activity since it

provokes the students to exchange information. Meanwhile, Brown (2004:

175) states that discussion can promote some skills such as topic

nomination, maintenance, and termination; attention getting, interrupting,

floor holding, control; clarifying, questioning, paraphrasing, comprehension

signals; negotiating meaning; intonation patterns for pragmatic effect;

kinesics, eye contact, proxemics, body language; and politeness, formality,

and other sociolinguistic factors.

Drama, role play and simulation are other speaking activities that

activate students’ imagination. Drama allows the learners to take an

imaginative leap out of the confines of the classroom, provides a useful

springboard for real-life language use. Just in a real theatre, a preparation

stage including rehearsal is done for public performance. Role play has

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appeal for students because it allows the students to be creative and to put

themselves in another person’s place for a while. The students can play as a

customer and buyer, teacher and student etc. In a simulation, on the other

hand, the students play themselves in a simulated situation for example they

make a simulation of what students should do when an earthquake strikes.

Presentation is a planned talk that is arranged systematically. It can be

done individually or in group. It is usually followed by a question session

which is the most challenging stage of presentation.

Classroom conversation and casual chat are two different activities.

Casual chat or talk is primarily interpersonal, unplanned communication,

and tends to be natural since it is spontaneous. But, not many students can

speak spontaneously with their friends. Many teachers then make a planned

conversation called a classroom conversation to encourage the students to

speak English.

Outside-class speaking consists of some activities done outside the

classroom. These include (a) such as tape diaries which are the learners

recording their voice and submitting the recording to the teacher in order

that they can get the feedback; (b) video conferencing in which the learners

communicate via a live audio or video link over the internet; and (c) human-

computer interaction in which people talk by responding to written input

like using chat room at yahoo messenger and facebook.

The last speaking activity type includes storytelling, jokes, and

anecdotes. Storytelling is a universal function of language and one of the

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main ingredients of casual conversation. Delivering jokes and anecdotes

could be a funny rehearsal of speaking.

Harmer (2001: 88-93) gives four activities to promote the speaking

skills. The first activity is an information gap in which two speakers have

different parts of information making up a whole. The second activity is

called survey. The students can conduct questionnaires and surveys asking

some questions about certain topics. They go around the class questioning

other students and noting down what they say. The third activity is

discussion. The important things when the teacher conducts debate or

discussion are the activity should include engage, study, and activate stages

(ESA). The students should engage in the topic. Then, they might do some

studies to figure out language inputs and facts. Finally, they move quickly to

activate stage, that is discussion itself. The last activity is role play where

the students are asked to imagine what they are in different situations and

act accordingly.

5. Micro- and Macroskills of Speaking

Brown (2004: 142) distinguishes between microskills and macroskills

of speaking. The microskills refer to producing the smaller chunks of

language such as phonemes, morphemes, words, collocations, and phrasal

units. The macroskills imply the speaker’s focus on the larger elements:

fluency, discourse, function, style, cohesion, nonverbal communication, and

strategic options. Brown (2004: 142-143) continues to explain micro- and

macroskills of oral production as quoted bellow.

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a) Microskills

1. Produce differences among English phonemes and allophonicvariants.

2. Produce chunks of language of different lengths.3. Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed

positions, rhythmic structure, and intonation contours.4. Produce reduced forms of words and phrases.5. Use an adequate number of lexical units (words) to accomplish

pragmatic purposes.6. Produce fluent speech at different rates of delivery.7. Monitor one’s own oral production and use various strategic

devices− pauses, fillers, self- corrections, backtracking− to enhancethe clarity of the message.

8. Use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs etc.), system (e.g. tense,agreement, pluralization), word order, patterns, rules, and ellipticalforms.

9. Produce speech in natural constituents: in appropriate phrases, pausegroups breathe groups, and sentence constituents.

10. Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.11. Use cohesive devices in spoken discourse.

b) Macroskills

1. Appropriately accomplish communicative functions according tosituations, participants, and goals.

2. Use appropriate styles, registers, implicature, redundancies, pragmaticconventions, conversation rules, floor-keeping and floor-yielding,interrupting, and other sociolinguistic features in face-to-faceconversations.

3. Convey links and connections between events and communicate suchrelations as focal and peripheral ideas, events and feelings, new andgiven information, generalization, and exemplification.

4. Convey facial features, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbalcues along with verbal language.

5. Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizingkey words, rephrasing, providing a context for interpreting themeaning of words, appealing for help, and accurately assessing howwell your interlocutor in understanding you.

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6. The Difficulties in Speaking

Many people regard that speaking is difficult. The following eight

characteristics of spoken language are adapted from several sources.

a. Clustering. Fluent speech is phrasal not word by word. Learners can

organize their output both cognitively and physically through clustering.

b. Redundancy. The speaker has an opportunity to make meaning clearer

through the redundancy of language.

c. Reduced forms. Contractions, elisions, reduced vowels etc are special

problems in teaching spoken English. Learners who never learn

colloquial contractions sometimes speak too formal in casual context.

They become bookish and stilted.

d. Performance variables. In spoken language there is a process called

thinking time. During this thinking time, learners can employ a certain

number of performance hesitations, pauses, backtracking, and correction.

Some examples of thinking time in English such as inserting fillers like

uh, um, well, you know, I mean etc. Hesitation phenomena are the most

salient difference between native and nonnative speakers of language.

e. Colloquial language. Students should be familiar with words, idioms, and

phrases and they practice to produce these forms.

f. Rate of delivery. It is one of the characteristics of fluency. Teachers

should help learners achieve an acceptable speed along with other

attributes of fluency.

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g. Stress, rhythm, and intonation. The stress-timed rhythm of spoken

language and its intonation patterns convey important message in any

communication forms.

h. Interaction. Having no interlocutor will rob the speaking skill

components, one of them is the creativity of conversational negotiation.

(Dunkel, 19991; Richards, 1983; Ur, 1984) in Brown (2001: 270-271)

C. Teaching Speaking.

1. Principles of Language Teaching

Teachers have an important role in making the teaching and learning

process succeed. They may try to use various approaches to teach English

and then select an appropriate approach which is suitable for their classes. It

is necessary to connect teachers’ experience during the teaching and

learning process with the theory of teaching derived from research so that it

will help the teachers to comprehend when to use a certain technique, with

whom it will work, how to adapt it for the students, and how to judge its

effectiveness. Brown (2001:55-70) suggests twelve teaching principles that

must be taken into account by the teachers during the language teaching.

These twelve principles are classified into three parts as explained below.

a. Cognitive Principles

(1) Automaticity

Children acquire language subconsciously. Through an

inductive process of exposure to language input and opportunity to

experiment with output, they appear to learn languages without

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thinking about them. Barry Mclaughlin in Brown (2001:55) called this

as automatic processing with peripheral attention to language forms.

This is, in order to manage the incredible complexity and quantity of

language. Both adults and children must sooner or later move away

from processing language unit by unit, piece by piece, focusing

closely on each and ‘graduate’ to a form of high-speed, automatic

processing in which language forms (words, affixes, word order, rules

etc) are only in the periphery of attention. Over generalizing language,

thinking too much about its forms, and consciously lingering on rules

of language all tend to impede the automaticity.

(2) The anticipation of reward

According to Skinner in Brown (2001: 57-58), the anticipation

of reward is the most powerful factor in directing one’s behavior.

Everything people do is inspired and driven by a goal. During the

teaching and learning process, a reward can be in the form of praise

for a correct response e.g. very good and appropriate grades or scores

or other public recognition. However, teachers should carefully use a

reward to motivate the students. They may consider the following

things.

a. Provide an optimal degree of immediate verbal praise and

encouragement to students as a short-term reward.

b. encourage students to reward each other with compliments and

supprtive action

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c. short-term reminders of progress may help students to perceive

their development in class with low motivation.

d. Display enthusiasm and excitement during the teaching and

learning process.

e. Explain the long-term rewards in learning English such as the

academic benefits of knowing English.

(3) Meaningful learning

Meaningful learning happens when new information is linked

with the existing structures and memory systems. It creates stronger

retention than rote learning in which new information does not

connect with one’s existing cognitive. Teachers can avoid the pitfalls

of rote learning such as too much grammar explanation, abstract

principles and theories, drilling and memorization; activities whose

purposes are not clear and do not contribute to accomplishing the

goals of lesson, unit, or course; and techniques that are so mechanical

that students focus on the mechanics instead of on the language or

meanings.

(4) Intrinsic motivation

The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically

motivated within the learner. Because the behavior stems from needs,

wants, or desires within oneself, the behavior itself is self-rewarding.

Therefore, no externally administered reward is necessary. At the

class, the learners may perform the task volunteerily because the task

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is interesting, useful, or challenging and not because they anticipate

some cognitive or affective rewards from the teacher.

(5) Strategic investment

Successful mastery of the second language will be due to a large

extent to learner’s own personal investment of time, effort, and

attention to the second language. In this case, learners use various

styles and strategies in learning process. Teachers should give

attention to every student at the classroom.

b. Affective Principles

(6) Language ego

Learners learning the second language may have the second

identity, a new mode of thinking, acting, and feeling. Language ego

can be a fragility, defensiveness, and rising of inhibition. Teachers

should give much attention to students having those feelings. Teachers

can display a supportive attitude to students. They can also help their

students to understand that the confusion of developing the second

identity in the second culture is a normal and natural way. Considering

learners’ language ego help teachers to determine some aspects in the

teaching and learning process such as who to call on, who to ask to

volunteer information, when to correct a student’s speech error, how

much to explain something, how structured and planned an activity

should be, who to place in which small groups or pairs etc.

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(7) Self-confidence

Another term to refer to self-confidence is self-esteem.

Learners’ belief that they can finish the task is one of the factors in

their eventual success in attaining the task. Teachers can give ample

verbal and nonverbal assurances to students. Besides, they can

sequence techniques from easier to more difficult.

(8) Risk- taking

Successful language learners must be willing to become

‘gamblers’ in the game of language, to attempt to produce and to

interpret language that is a bit beyond their absolute certainty. Risk-

taking contributes to long-term retention and intrinsic motivation of

learners. Teachers can encourage students to try out language, to

venture response, and not to wait for someone else to volunteer

language.

(9) The language-culture connection

Teachers who teach language to students should also teach its

culture such as values, ways of thinking, feeling, acting etc as culture

and language are intricately intertwined. The language-culture

connection will affect the process of acculturation in students. For

those who can adapt with a new culture will affect their language

acquisition.

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c. Linguistic principles

(10) The native language effect

The native language of learners influences the acquisition of the

target language system. The influence of the native language can both

facilitate and interfere learners in learning the target language. But, the

interfering effects are likely to be the most salient. Teachers can give

feedback whenever students made errors by explaining the native

language cause of the error. Besides, they can persuade students to

directly think into the second language instead of making translation

words in the native language to the target language.

(11) Interlanguage

Second language learners tend to go through a systematic or

quasi-systematic developmental process as they progress to full

competence in the target language. Successful interlanguage

development is partially a result of utilizing feedback from others.

Teachers are enganged in a never- ending process of giving feedback

to students about whether or not their actual language is clear and

unambiguous.

(12) Communicative competence

Communicative competence is the goal of a language classroom.

According to Bachman (1990), Canale and Swain (1980) in Brown

(2001:68), communicative competence consists of some components.

They are organizational competence (grammatical and discourse),

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pragmatic competence (functional and sociolinguistic), strategic

competence, and psychomotor competence. Communicative goals are

best achieved by giving due attention to language use and not just

usage, to fluency not just accuracy, to authentic language and

contexts, and to students’ eventual need to apply classroom learning to

previously unrehearsed contexts in the real world.

2. Principles for Designing Speaking Techniques

Brown (2001:275-276) proposes some principles for designing

speaking techniques. These principles will help teachers to conduct the

speaking class.

a. Use techniques that cover the spectrum of learner needs, from

language- based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on

interaction, meaning and fluency. Make sure that the tasks include

techniques designed to help students to perceive and use the building

block. At the same time, do not make the students feel bored with

repetitious drills. Teachers should make any drilling as meaningful as

possible.

b. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques. Try to appeal to students’

ultimate goals and interests in their need for knowledge, for status, for

achieving competence and autonomy, and for being all that they can be.

Help them to see how the activity will benefit them.

c. Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts. It

takes energy and creativity to design authentic contexts and meaningful

36

interaction, but with the help of storehouse of teacher resource material

it can be done. Even drilling can provide a sense of authenticity.

d. Provide appropriate feedback and correction. In ESL situations,

feedback is mostly from the teacher. Feedback can be found outside of

the classroom but it is important for teachers to inject the kinds of

corrective feedback that are appropriate for the moment.

e. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening. Many

interactive techniques involving speaking will also include listening.

The two skills can reinforce each other. Skills in producing language

are often initiated through comprehension.

f. Give students opportunities to initiate oral communication. Part of oral

communication competence is the ability to initiate conversations, to

nominate topics, to ask questions, to control conversation and to change

the subject. Teachers can design speaking techniques allowing students

to initiate language.

g. Encourage the development of speaking strategies. Not all students are

aware of strategic competence. Teachers should help their students

develop strategic competence to accomplish oral communicative

purposes. The strategies are asking for clarification (What?), asking

someone to repeat something (Excuse me?), using fillers (uh, I mean,

Well), using conversation maintenance cues (Huh, Right, Yeah), getting

someone’s attention (Hey, So) and so forth.

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3. Approaches to the Teaching of Speaking

Many language experts have argued the best approach to language

learning during years. Some believe in the old approaches, some welcome the

use of current approach to improve the teaching and learning process.

According to Richards (2006: 24-25) communicative language teaching (CLT)

is a new approach used widely since the 1990s. Here are some core

assumptions of current CLT.

1. Native language is allowed as long as learners engage in interaction andmeaningful communication.

2. Learners negotiate meaning through the task, expand their languageresource, and notice how language is used.

3. Learning language is a gradual process involving creative use of languageand trial and error. The goal of learning is using the new language fluentlyand accurately.

4. Successful language learning uses communication strategies.5. The role of the teacher is a facilitator and learners learn through

collaboration and sharing.

CLT requires a syllabus that identifies all the relevant components of a

language. The first widely adopted communicative syllabus developed within

the framework of classic CLT was termed Threshold Level. It described the

level of proficiency learners need to attain to cross the threshold and begin real

communication. It consists of topics, functions, notions, situations as well as

grammar and vocabulary (Van Ek and Alexander in Richards, 2006: 10-11)

Regarding CLT, Richards also distinguishes two current methodologies

that can be described as extensions of the CLT movement. These

methodologies are also suggested by Thornburry (2005: 119-122) for teaching

speaking. They are a task-based approach and a text-based or genre approach.

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Richards (2006: 33-40) asserts that a task-based approach or task based

instruction (TBI) focus on classroom process. The interactional process in the

classroom is achieved by the use of instructional tasks. Furthermore,

Thornburry (2005: 119) states that TBI was originally motivated by the belief

that a language is best learned through using it rather than learned then used. A

task based syllabus for speaking would be based around a sequence of

integrated tasks. Speaking would not necessarily exclusive, but the task would

meet the real world uses of language identified through need analysis. Willis

(1966) in Richards (2006: 37-38 and 2008: 34-35) suggests using a cycle of

activities with task work consisting of pre-task activities, i.e. introduction to

topic and task; the task cycle comprising task, planning, and report; and the

language focus comprising analysis and practice.

On the contrary of a task-based, a text-based or genre-based approach

focuses on product. According to this view, learners in different contexts have

to master the use of the text types occurring most frequently and

communicative competence involved in different kinds of spoken and written

texts in specific contexts. Mixed syllabus is used in a text-based approach that

specifies other components of text such as vocabulary, grammar, topics,

functions. Thus, it integrates reading, writing, oral communication, and

grammar teaching through the mastery of texts rather than in isolation

(Richards, 2006: 39-45). Feez and Joyce (1998: 28-31) in Richards (2006: 42-

44 and 2008: 36-38) propose sequences of implementing a text-based lesson.

They are building the context, modeling and deconstructing the text, joint

39

construction of the text, independent construction of the text, and linking to

related texts.

4. Teaching Speaking for SMK Students

There are two goals of learning English in vocational high schools which

is developed by BSNP (2006). First, students are expected to master the

knowledge and skills of basic English to sustain their vocational competency

achievement. Second, students are expected to implement their mastery of

ability and skills of English to communicate in spoken and written forms in

intermediate level.

Acccording to Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional number 23 year

of 2006 (Permendiknas), the scope of English teaching in vocational high

schools consists of three levels: novice, elementary, and intermediate. Those

levels are designed for the first, second, and third grade of vocational high

school students. The first grade of vocational high school students have to pose

several speaking competencies in a year as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: The Standard of Competency and Basic Competency of the FirstGrade Students of Vocational High School

Standard of Competency Basic Competency

1. Communicating in English at a novice level 1.1. Understanding basic expression of socialinteraction in daily life.

1.2. Mentioning things, people, characteristics,times, dates, months, and years.

1.3. Describing things, people, characteristics,times, dates, months, and years.

1.4. Giving simple talks, using basic English.1.5. Describing an event in a simple way.1.6. Comprehending simple memos, menus,

schedules, and road signs.1.7. Writing a simple invitation.

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5. Teacher’s Roles during the Speaking Lesson

Role refers to the part that learners and teachers are expected to play in

carrying out learning tasks as well as the social and interpersonal relationships

between the participants (Nunan,1989: 79). Teachers will employ different

roles when teaching certain skills of English. Richards (2005: 4) proposes two

roles that must be played by teachers in communicative classroom: facilitator

and monitor. Meanwhile, Breen and Candlin (1980) in Nunan (2004: 67)

suggest four roles teachers should employ in communicative classroom.

Teachers should be able to act as a facilitator, a participant, an observer and a

learner.

According to Harmer (2001: 57-64), in learner-centered lessons, teachers

are appropriate to be a facilitator. A facilitator means being a prompter,

resource, and tutor. When teachers take charge to be a prompter, they

occasionally offer discrete suggestions such as words or phrases. It happens

when students lose their fluency. It will diminish the sense of frustration some

students feel when they come to a dead end of language or idea. Teachers need

to do it sensitively and sympathetically, but without losing students’ initiative.

As a resource, teachers are a place where students can ask information, but at

the same time they should resist the urge to spoon-feed students. As a tutor,

teachers are combining the roles as a prompter and resource meaning that

teachers work with individuals or small groups giving general guidance. One

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thing to consider is that teachers do not intrude too much because it can impede

learner autonomy.

Taking role as a participant means that teachers are parts of the activity

during the lesson. For example, when a discussion is carried out, teachers can

enliven inside the discussion as a member instead of always having to prompt

or organize from outside the group. Yet, the danger is that teachers can

dominate the discussion.

As an observer or monitor, teachers observe students’ performances in

order to give feedback. Teachers also judge the success of activities and

materials during the teaching and learning process so that they can make an

evaluation for the improvement.

To create a good atmosphere of teaching and learning, teachers should

try to adapt themselves with students who have been changing all the times.

The 21st century teachers play many roles during the teaching and learning

process. In a speaking class, the teacher can be an adaptor. He must be able to

adapt himself to students who have different proficiency in English. He

harnesses technology to improve students’ speaking skills. The teacher also

plays role as a visionary which means he is a crucial component of the educator

of today and tomorrow. He knows that the education will be always

developing. The teacher provides his students with appropriate material or

technology which has been developing all the times. Another important role at

the speaking class is that a teacher is a model. He does not only teach how to

speak well, but also teaches values. Students are required to speak

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appropriately with whom, when, in what situation and where

(www.charactereducation.org, accessed on January 1st, 2012).

6. Character Education in Teaching Speaking

Character education is a national movement creating schools that foster

ethical, responsible and caring young people by modeling and teaching good

character through emphasis on universal values that people all share. Good

character is not formed automatically. It is developed over time through a

sustained process of teaching, example, learning and practice. It is developed

through character education (www.character.org, accessed on January 1st,

2012).

Character values can be taught during the speaking class. Students

communicate with others are not merely for the sake of speaking, but also for

building a convenient conversation which is ethically appropriate. They should

learn pragmatic competence (functional and sociolinguistic) and strategic

competence. Students know the difference of Indonesian culture and western

culture; how to start the conversation with foreigners and how to interrupt it;

how to be a good listener; how to respect someone’s opinion and deliver it and

so forth. During the cooperative learning, character values can be conducted

when students learn how to work with different people; how to delegate duty to

friends; how to respect one another and so forth.

7. Feedback in Speaking

Most students expect their teachers to give feedback on their

performance. Consequently, teachers need to know how to deals with these

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things. According to Brown (2000: 217), errors reflect the students’

competence on the target language that is wrong or incomplete and cannot be

self-corrected, while mistakes refer to a performance error which is either a

random guess or a slip and students can correct themselves.

Both errors and mistakes are caused by interlingual transfer and

intralingual transfer. Interlingual transfer means the interference of the first

language or native language. Intralingual transfer occurs when learners have

already acquired the new system of the target language and then make

overgeneralization on it.

As teachers are people on whom students always rely on, they need to

help students to cope with errors by giving feedback. They cannot do this all

the time. Here are some basic options and possible feedback quoted from

Kathleen Bailey (1985) in Brown (2001: 291) that can be considered by

teachers during the language learning.

a. Basic options1. To treat or to ignore2. To treat immediately or to delay3. To transfer treatment or not4. To transfer to another individual, a subgroup, or the whole class5. To return, or not, to the original error maker after treatment6. To permit other learners to initiate treatment7. To test for the efficacy of the treatment

b. Possible feedback1. Fact or error indicated2. Location indicated3. Opportunity for new attempt given4. Model provided5. Error type indicated6. Remedy indicated7. Improvement indicated8. Praise indicated

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Another suggestion is also made by Harmer (2001: 104-109) in relation

to giving feedback to students. Whether the tasks require fluency or accuracy

or even both should be taken into account. When the performance emphasizes

accuracy, it is part of the teacher’s function to point out and correct the

mistakes the students are making. There are several ways to give feedback

during accuracy work.

a. Repeating the errors or mistakes made

b. Echoing like a precise way of pin-pointing error

c. Making statement or question for exanple “That’s not quite right” and so

forth

d. Hinting which is a quick way of helping students to activate rules they

already know

e. Giving a facial expression or gesture indicating there is something wrong

with the performance

f. Reformulating the sentence

Furthermore, Harmer also says that when students do fluency work

demanding communicative activities, teachers should not interrupt students in

mid-flow to point out a grammatical, lexical, or pronunciation error, since it

can breakdown the communication and drag them to study language form.

Harmer suggests some ways to offer feedback. First, a gentle correction when

the communication breakdown during a fluency activity. Second, giving

correction after students’ performance by recording them first so that teachers

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will not forget what students have said. Third, observing them while writing

down some mistakes or errors that will be explained latter.

8. Assessing Speaking

Assessing speaking is challenging because there are so many factors that

influence raters’ (teachers’) impression on how well someone can speak a

language. When teachers assess speaking it means that the teachers’ listening

skills determine the reliability and validity of an oral production test. Assigning

a score and ranging from 1 to 5 for example is not easy. The lines of

distinctions between levels are quite difficult to pinpoint. The raters can

consume much time to see the recording of speaking performance to make an

accurate assessment (Brown, 2004: 140 and Luoma, 2004: 84).

Thornburry (2005: 127-129) claims that there are two main ways to

assess speaking. They are holistic scoring and analytic scoring. Holistic scoring

uses a single score as the basis of an overall impression, while analytic scoring

uses a separate score for different aspect of the task. This holistic way has

advantages of being quick and is perhaps suitable for informally assessing

progress. By contrast, analytic scoring takes longer since it requires the teacher

to take a variety of factors into account and is probably fairer and more

reliable. It also provides information on specific weaknesses and strengths of

students. However, the disadvantage of analytic scoring is that the score may

be distracted by all categories and lose sight of the overall situation performed

by the students. Therefore, four or five categories seem to be the maximum that

can be handled at one time.

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Furthermore, Thornburry (2005: 127-129) states that based on

Cambridge Certificate in English Language Speaking Skills (CELS), four

categories must be taken into account: grammar and vocabulary, discourse

management, pronunciation, and interactive communication. When dealing

with grammar and vocabulary, students need to use appropriate syntactic forms

and vocabulary in order to meet the task requirements at each level. Discourse

management refers to the ability of students to express the ideas and opinions

coherently and convey clear information. Pronunciation refers to the ability to

use the right stress and intonation to convey the intended meaning. Finally,

interactive communication depicts the ability of test takers to respond

appropriately with interlocutors with required speed and rhythm to fulfill the

task requirements. Those four elements are similar with what Brown (2004:

172) states about the aspects of assessing speaking: grammar, vocabulary,

comprehension, fluency, pronunciation, and task.

On the other hand, Luoma (2004: 4-5) points out that a rating scale is

important in assessing students’ speaking ability since it can determine exactly

how the criteria will be applied to the performances. Scales describe what each

score means. She claims that the development and use of a the speaking test is

a cyclic process in which it begins with a need for speaking scores and ends

with the use of the scores. In addition, she states that there are two interactive

processes needed for doing speaking assessment. The first is the test

administration or test performance process where the participants (students)

interact with the examiner (teacher) or with students to show a sample of their

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speaking skills. It can be recorded. The second process is rating or evaluation

in which the rater applies the rating to the test performance that produces

scores. The scores should satisfy the need that has been identified when test

development first started.

Regarding those two ways in assessing the students’ speaking ability

proposed by Thornbury (2005) and Louma (2004), it seems that the

combination of analytic scoring and rating scale will be better than one type.

The analytic scoring can be combined with the rating scale so that it is more

detailed in giving the students’ speaking assessment while providing

descriptions on each category. The criteria or aspects of the assessment can be

the same as Thornbury’s criteria, such as grammar, vocabulary, fluency,

comprehension, and pronunciation. Meanwhile, the rating scale can be used in

each criterion so that the assessment criteria become more detailed. By

combining the analytic scoring and rating scale techniques, the process of

assessing the students’ speaking ability will be more detailed. Besides, through

the use of analytic scale, the teacher knows the students’ weaknesses so that he

or she can give some treatment to make improvement.

D. Cooperative Learning

1. The Definition of Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that

students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning

(Johnson and Johnson, 1999:9). Jacob, Power, and Loh (2002) assert that

cooperative learning comprises principles and techniques for helping students

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work together more effectively. Another definition suggested by Slavin (1995:

2) who states that cooperative learning refers to a variety of teaching methods

in which students work in small groups to help one another learn academic

content. The higher-level students will help lower-level ones to improve their

understanding of the subject. The idea behind cooperative learning is that by

giving a reward to a group rather than individual, the students will be

motivated to help one another to master academic materials. Each member of a

team is responsible not only for learning the materials but also for helping

teammates to understand the subject and complete the task given. Thus, it

creates an atmosphere of achievement.

In addition, a cooperative classroom increasingly emphasizes mediated

learning. Mediation can be defined as facilitating, modeling, and coaching.

Facilitating involves creating a rich environment and activaty for linking new

information to prior knowledge, providing opportunities for cooperative work

and problem solving, and offering students several of authentic learning tasks.

Coaching involves giving hints or clues, providing feedback, redirecting

students’ efforts and helping them in using the strategy. This is to provide them

with right amount of help when they need it.

The decision to include cooperative learning assignments in a course

should be based on a careful examination of the course goal. For example, if

students are expected to be able to apply theoretical knowledge to real world

problems, or demonstrate decision making or problem solving, then it may be

appropriate to finish it in a group work. The size of the classroom is an

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important element also that must be considered in applying cooperative

learning. The number of students in each team must enable them to participate

in their work. Individual accountability is essential to group success (Mandal,

2009).

2. The Principles and Advantages of Cooperative Learning

Many principles have been proposed for cooperative learning. Below

are some principles of cooperative learning proposed by different experts.

a. Heterogeneous grouping. This principle means that the groups in which

students do cooperative learning tasks are mixed on one or more of a

number of variables including sex, ethnicity, social class, religion,

personality, age, language proficiency, and diligence (Jacobs, 2000).

b. Collaborative skills. Collaborative skills, such as giving reasons, are

those needed to work with others. Students may lack these skills, the

language involved in using the skills, or the inclination to apply the skills

(Jacobs, 2000).

c. Group autonomy. This principle encourages students to look to

themselves for resources rather than relying solely on the teacher. When

student groups are having difficulty, it is very tempting for teachers to

intervene either in a particular group or with the entire class (Jacobs,

2000).

d. Simultaneous interaction. In classrooms in which group activities are not

used, the normal interaction pattern is that of sequential interaction, in

which one person at a time, usually the teacher speaks. In contrast, when

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group activities are used, one student per group is speaking. In a class of

40 divided into groups of four, ten students are speaking simultaneously,

i.e., 40 students divided into 4 students per group = 10 students (1 per

group) speaking at the same time (Kagan, 1994).

e. Equal participation. A frequent problem in groups is that one or two

group members dominate the group and for whatever reason, this

impedes the participation of others. Cooperative learning offers many

ways of promoting more equal participation among group members

(Kagan, 1994).

f. Individual accountability. In a classroom, the team success depends on

the individual learning of all team members. Accountability focuses the

activity of the team members on helping one another learn and making

sure that everyone in the team is ready for a quiz or any other assessment

that students take without teammate help (Slavin, 1995: 5)

g. Positive interdependence. When positive interdependence exists among

members of a group, they feel that what helps one member of the group

helps the other members and that what hurts one member of the group

hurts the other members. It is this “All for one, one for all” feeling that

leads group members to want to help one another, to see that they share a

common goal (Kagan, 1994).

h. Cooperation as a value. This principle means that rather than cooperation

being only a way to learn, i.e., the how of learning, cooperation also

becomes part of the content to be learned, i.e., the what of learning.

51

Cooperation as a value involves taking the feeling of “All for one, one

for all” (Jacobs, 2000).

i.Reward. It is very important to enhance students’ performance (Slavin,

1995).

Language experts and researchers do not only explore the principles of

cooperative learning, but also find the advantages of it. A good deal of

research has revealed a number of advantages in cooperative learning such

as increasing student talk, more varied talk, a more relaxed atmosphere,

greater motivation, more negotiation of meaning, and increasing amount of

comprehensible input (Liang, Mohan and Early, 1998; Olsen and Kagan,

1992). Other advantages of cooperative learning are described as follows:

a. Promote student learning and academic achievement

b. Increase student retention

c. Enhance students satisfaction with their learning experience

d. Help students develop skills in oral communication

e. Promote student self- esteem

f. Provide a shared cognitive set of information between students

g. Motivate students to learn the material

h. Provide formative feedback

i. Develop social and group skills necessary for success outside the

classroom

j. Promote positive interaction between members of different cultural and

socio- economic groups (Slavin, 1995; Kagan, 1994)

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3. Cooperative Learning Methods

According to Johnson, Johnson, Stanne and Geribaldi (1990),

cooperative learning is actually a generic term that refers to numerous

methods for organizing and conducting classroom instruction. Many

teachers use cooperative learning in so many different ways that the list of

methods are impossibly explained in this literature review. Here are some

class activities in cooperative learning cited from Mandal (2009)

a. Jigsaw

A group of five is set up and each member of group learns different

material. This is called as origin group. Then everybody who is from the

origin group will get together with the expert group consisting of students

who will talk the same material. After discussing with the expert group,

each member of group gets back to the origin group to teach about the

material he has been discussed with the expert group.

b. Think- Pair- Share

The teacher gives the students questions and let them think about the

answer. She then asks the students to share their ideas with a partner.

This task gives them opportunity to collect and organize their thoughts.

In the end, the pair shares their responses with other pairs.

c. Three- step interview

Students interview each other in pairs during the first step. They then

switch their roles as an interviewer and an interviewee. The final step is

53

that members share their partner’s response with the team. Interview is

used to gain competence in speaking, listening and summarizing,

d. Team- Pair- Solo

Students do problem first as a team then with a partner, and finally on

their own. It is a good design to motivate the students to solve the

problems which are beyond their ability.

e. Numbered Heads Together

A team of four is established. Each member is given numbers of 1, 2, 3,

4. Questions are asked of the group. Groups work together to answer the

question so that all can verbally answer the question. The teacher calls

out a number (two) and each two is asked to give the answer.

E. Conceptual Framework

Speaking is one of the important skills that should be acquired by

students. Ideally, in the speaking teaching and learning process, students have

to be given some opportunities to practice a target language and produce it in

the spoken form. They can practice the language in the forms of dialogs,

monologs, discussions, games, or role plays. Besides, those practices can be

given in controlled, guided, or creative. Moreover, they have to be able to not

only speak fluently in English, but also pronounce phonemes correctly, use

appropriate stress and intonation patterns, and speak in connected speech and

different genres and situations.

As has been stated in Chapter I, the tenth grade students of the tourism

program at SMKN 7 Yogyakarta have a main problem which is related to

54

speaking skills. This problem will be improved by using some methods in

cooperative learning. The actions will be carried out in the second semester.

Cooperative learning is used since the teacher seldom puts her students in some

groups during the teaching and learning process. Besides, the students enjoy

learning together as their learning can be facilitated through working in a team.

By working together, it is not only speaking skills that can be improved, but

also it will simultaneously give a positive impact to the students’ vocabulary,

self- esteem, pronunciation etc. Having a partner to work with will help the

students learn the materials . They have more chances to practice speaking with

their friends as well.These things are supported also on a research about

improving speaking skills by using cooperative learning conducted by Tamaela

in 2009.

The activities that will be used during the teaching and learning process

are communicative tasks that require students to speak up. They will be applied

in the second semester in 2012. The materials made will be a combination

between what has been explained on the standard of competency, basic

competence and tourism. Thus, the learning materials will fulfill the students’

needs at the tourism program.

According to some literature about speaking and cooperative learning, the

conceptual framework can be described as follows.

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Figure 1: The schema of the conceptual framework of the study

F. Hypothesis

Based on the conceptual framework mentioned above, the hypothesis of

this research can be formulated as follows: when the tenth grade students of the

tourism program are involved in cooperative learning, their speaking skills will

improve.

CooperativeLearning (CL) Methods of CL

Communicativetasks

Contextualmaterial

The students’speaking skills

improve