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CHAPTER-02
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Wide array of environmental issues confronting the world today and impacting the
varied ecosystems, now calls for developing mitigation measures through site specific
strategies. To mitigate one such issue is the assessment of present status and
prioritization of floristic diversity in view of its expected loss mainly due to the rapid
changes in land-use system through host of biotic and abiotic interferences including
impact of climate change. (Anton et al., 2010; Barnosky et al., 2011; MacDonald et
al., 2008). However, to reach at the adequate level of priorities and to implement the
realistic conservancy efforts in nature, we certainly require a range of methods to
understand how these processes impact the biodiversity (Dawson et al., 2011). In
view of the fact that ecosystem responses may normally occur or reflect over decades
or centuries, hence, making them difficult to observe, therefore, botanical and
ecological records may provide important basic information about the past responses
relevant to the on-going and future changes in vegetation and biodiversity (Haslett et
al., 2010; Jackson and Hobbs, 2009; Willis and Bhagwat, 2010; Willis et al., 2010).
Hence, it will not be out of place to mention over here that for the sake of
conservation and sustainable management of any forest, it essentially requires a
holistic approach and good knowledge of its biodiversity (Mulchand, 2013).
Importance of “Old wisdom and good knowledge on biodiversity” was also discussed
and stressed upon recently during the International Symposium on “Transforming
Mountain Forestry” organized by International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD) in collaboration with Forest Research Institute (FRI),
Dehradun. It was emphasized that replacing “greed” with “need” for managing forests
for biodiversity conservation is essentially required in view of the fact that large
section of society still subsists on forest resources for daily needs. The inadequate
knowledge of forest botany amongst the foresters and other professionals leading to
the plantations of wrong species is adding to the existing vow. Extensive research on
the impacts of non-native species on the ecology of native vegetation was also
emphasized upon in this symposium. (ICIMOD, 2015). Accordingly, it becomes
imperative to review the studies those have been made in the past on the lines similar
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to the objectives identified so as to analyze and correlate the same with present day
scenario.
When talking specifically about the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), it supports a
representative, natural, unique and socio-economically important biodiversity and
accordingly, attracts ecologists, taxonomists, naturalists and also the conservationists
not only from India but also from abroad for exploring, identifying and assessing its
complex biological heritage. Some studies covering multi-dimensional scientific
aspects though had already been carried out in the IHR yet, additional efforts towards
in-depth assessment of biodiversity have been attempted through the present study
titled “Ecological Assessment and Prioritization of Floristic Diversity: Developing
Conservation Strategies for Shimla Water Catchment Sanctuary, Himachal
Pradesh”. The study was undertaken continuously for over a period of two years i.e
2011 to 2013 with an objective to further strengthen the earlier efforts in the direction
and accordingly, a critical review of existing literature on the related aspects like
floral diversity, ecology, nativity, endemism, rarity, prioritization of species, habitats
and communities for their conservation was carried out and has been detailed under
the following sub-heads;
2.1. Floristic Study-A Historical Perspective
Biological diversity in-fact is the central tenant of nature and is one of its key defining
features. Accordingly, nature of a plant community at a place in general, is
determined by the species that grow and develop in such environment (Billings and
Bliss, 1962). It is usually observed that large variations in populations of a species are
usually found in nature mainly because of the fact that each of the constituent species
has not only its own ecological amplitudes but also its particular relationship to the
environment and also to the associate species as well. As effects of discontinuities of
environment on the vegetation often on a large scale are obvious as change of floristic
composition hence, Danseareau (1960) considered floristic composition as one of the
major distinguishing feature of a community or of an ecosystem as well. Such causes
and effects then automatically necessitate carrying out the floristic assessments
especially of ecologically relevant and important areas by conducting their surveys so
as to understand the complete and complex diversity of a particular ecosystem.
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It is beyond any doubt that the ancient Indian literature is also full of references where
lot of importance had been attached to the plants and the respect they upheld since,
they met/are meeting the myriad of survival needs and livelihood securities of the
people belonging to various boxes of life (Kapoor et al., 2005). Earliest records of
expeditions mainly aiming at plant collections dates back to 1495 BC when Queen
Hatsheput of Egypt sent a team from her country to Somalia in search of the trees
yielding precious Frankincense- the fragrant resin (Coats,1969). Beginning of plant
exploration work on scientific lines in India however, dates back to Gracia da Orta, a
great pharmacist from Portugal whose knowledge on the plant wealth has been
recorded in his book ‘Os Coloquios’ published in 1565 (Burkill, 1935a, 1935b). It
was however, Heinrich Van Rheede, the governor of Dutch possession in Malabar
who in 1667-68, made first real attempt to explore systematically the plant wealth
(Manilal, 1980). His monumental book ‘Hortus Malabaricus’ as published in 12
volumes from Amsterdam is still regarded as an important contribution to the
floristics in India.
Botanical studies in ancient India touched their high standard mainly during the Vedic
and Pre-christian era which also proved a good help to the students of medicine of
that period. Atharva Veda and Susruta Samhita-important documents of Vedic times
were written before the Christian era and these compilations also contain the
descriptions and medicinal importance of various plant species. However, the first
floristic and an authoritative work even today is ‘Hortus Malabaricus’ (12 volumes)
published by a Dutch amateur botanist, Hendrich van Rheede during the year 1679.
Based on this work, Linnaeus prepared a Binomial System of Nomenclature of 265
Indian plants in his ‘Species Plantarum’ during 1753 (Santapau, 1954). Thereafter,
JG Koening who came to India in 1768 as a surgeon and a naturalist, formed a society
called ‘The United Brothers’, for promoting the study of Indian plants but in the
meantime, Royal Botanical Garden also came into existence in Bengal under the
patronage of East India Company. Col. Robert Kyd (first Superintendent) followed by
Buchnan Hamilton, C. B Clarke, N. Wallich, T. Cooke, William Griffth, William
Roxburgh are few other names of Europeans being amongst the outstanding plant
collectors of India , those who took real and keen interest in studying the flora of this
country during nineteenth century (Burkill, 1965). The binomial system of
nomenclature of plants and animals as developed by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753, soon
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started finding its application in India with Rheede’s work being used as the base
(Santapau, 1954). During this period some Britishers under stimulus from James
Petiver and Charles du Boiss gathered plants from the Madras Coast. Botanical
explorations in the country continued with Benjamin Heyne, Francis Buchanan
Hamilton, JF Royle, JG Koeing, John Peter Rattler, Nathaniel Wallich, Robert Wight,
Victoria Jacquemont, William Griffith and William Roxburgh being among the
outstanding plant collectors in India till the middle of the nineteenth century (Burkill,
1965).
Explorations of the plant resources in India and further compilations and publication
of floristic accounts, sought an additional boost by the middle of 19th century. During
this period, India had become one of the best known tropical countries with the
second best National Flora of the world at that time. The ‘Hand Book of Indian
Flora’ in three volumes by Lt. Col. Heber Drury (1864) was published as a guide to
all the flowering plants considered indigenous to the sub-continent of India. In the
year 1855, JD Hooker and T. Thompson published a volume of Flora Indica,
however, this volume was soon given up in favour of the more comprehensive work
‘The Flora of British India’ (Hooker, 1872-1897) which includes the present day
Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, India, Malaya, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore and Sri
Lanka. The first volume of this publication came out in the year 1872, whereas the
seventh and last volume of the series was published in the year 1897. This flora deals
with about 14,312 species, 25 sub-species, 2,302 varieties, 11 sub-varieties and 9
forms under 2,325 genera and 171 families from a collection of hundred thousands of
specimens as collected over an area of one and a half million square miles in tropical,
temperate and frigid climates and at all the elevations right from the sea-level upto an
altitude of 19,000 ft. Though this flora did not cover all the political boundaries of
India, yet it is the only published work which throws light on the Indian plants. This
work also stimulated the taxonomic research and as a consequence to it, many of the
provincial floras like Cooke (1901-1908); Prain (1903); Talbot (1909-11); Collett
(1921); Kanjilal (1928); Gamble and Fischer (1915-36); Parkinson (1923); Osmaston
(1927); Fyson, (1932) and Kanjilal (1934-40) were published over the years. Besides,
there are more than 150 odd local floras those are also important in their own right
and spirit as they threw light on the plants of their respective regions, however, have
not been cited here. Since, publication of ‘Magnum Opus’ of Indian Botany, many
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authors listed the species and genera of Indian Phanerogames not included in Sir JD
Hooker’s Flora of British India (Calder et al., 1926; Razi, 1959; Nayar and
Ramamurthy, 1973; Nayar and Karthikeyan, 1981; Naithani, 1990).
Collections made as a result of the efforts put in by the earlier explorers can be seen in
the flora under reference which still remains the pioneer work in the country and has
formed the basis of all the later provincial or local Indians floras published till date. In
between, a number of local and regional floras were written and published and
amongst all of them work of Roxburgh (1832) described the phenology of Indian wild
and cultivated plants and arranged them in Candollian order with the modern names
needs special mention. His ‘Flora Indica’, has an abbreviated transcript of a
dictionary of Indian plants and shrubs.
Stewart (1869) explored the floral wealth of old Punjab Provinces and named the
compilation as ‘The Punjab Plants’ comprising of both the botanical and vernacular
names including uses of most of the trees, shrubs and herbs of economic values
growing within the province including Hazara and the Kashmir Valleys. Brandis
(1874) in his ‘Forest Flora of North- West and Central India’ described about 700
indigenous trees and shrubs those also included about 80 introduced and cultivated
plants. It is quite pertinent to mention over here that this flora was written not only
keeping in view the requirements of the botanists but also in view of the practical
utility of the same to those people who were given the responsibility to care for the
public forests in different provinces of the country.
After completion of the field work on the orchids of Sikkim Himalaya, King and
Pantling (1898) later published their work in 3 volumes while supplementing their
splendid work as undertaken by them on those orchids in the past. Duthie (1905)
described the phenology of woody and herbaceous plants of the Shiwalik and Sub-
Himalayan tracts of upper Gangetic Plains and apart from this work also presented a
detailed account of the orchids of Western Himalaya (Duthie, 1906). Brandis (1906)
described over 4400 species of trees, shrubs, climbers, bamboos and plants in British
Empire following Bentham and Hooker’s ‘Genera Plantarum’ to the sequence of
orders with the sole exception that gymnosperms were placed at the end. Kanjilal
(1928) described the tropical, sub-tropical and temperate plants native to and
naturalized in Chakrata, Dehradun and Saharanpur Forest divisions, first two places
now falling in Uttarakhand and the last one in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
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Talbot (1909-1911) while describing the ‘Forest Flora of Bombay Presidency and
Sind’- undoubtedly the initial best work on woody flora for the major parts of
Peninsular India- profusely illustrated identification details of trees, shrubs, bamboos,
palms and woody climbers and is still used widely by the botanists, foresters and
naturalists as well. Later, Gamble and Fischer (1915-1936) described about 4516
species from Indian Peninsular region covering different elevations ranging right from
the sea level to almost 2800 m above msl. Continuing with this work Santapau (1967),
Saldanha and Nicolson (1976) and Mathew (1981-84) compiled, ‘The Flora of
Khandala’, ‘Flora of Hassan District, Karnataka’ and ‘The Flora of Tamil Nadu
Carnatic’ respectively covering plant explorations of Peninsular India.
Rao (1914) enumerated the flowering plants of Travancore, primarily for the British
ladies, which contains a list of 3,535 plant species. Fyson (1915) made a major and
important contribution to the study of hill plants of South India. His important
contributions has been compiled as an illustrated book/ flora on the hills: The Flora
of the Nilgiri and Pulney Hill-Tops (1915, 1921) a revised version of which was
published in 1932, ‘The Flora of the South Indian Hill Stations’, where he described
the wild and introduced flowering plants around the hill stations of Kotagiri,
Kodaikanal and Ootacamund. This book opened the way for the study of the plants of
the Western Ghats, one of the world’s 18 bio-diversity hotspots. Bamber (1916)
provided a descriptive key to the old Punjab, North-west Frontier Province and
Kashmir. Parker (1918) described the flora of Punjab with Hazara and Delhi including
plants from the Bashahar Himalayas. Others who worked on regional floras include
Stewart (1869), Collet (1902) and Coventry (1923-1930). Bor (1960) while working
on the grasses of India, for the first time made efforts to document this difficult group
not only from India, but also from Burma, Ceylon and Pakistan. Another interesting
group of Indian orchids was worked by Sarkar (1995) and afterwards, he compiled a
comprehensive and up-to-date census of about 1004 such species, highlighting the
presence of 550 rare, endemic and endangered categories of these orchids. Naveh and
Whittaker (1979) studied the structure and diversity of shrub-lands and woodlands of
northern Israel along climatic and Human-disturbance gradients using 0.1 ha
vegetation samples. Diversity showed a two-slope response to grazing with highest
species numbers in heavily (but not the most severely) grazed woodlands and shrub
lands.
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Botanical explorations as carried out by different workers in the recent past in various
states including different districts of the country, mainly included the works of
Saldanha (1984 and 1996) ‘Flora of Karnataka’ containing over 3400 species of
flowering plants; Kulkarni (1988) ‘Flora of Sindhudurg’; Manilal (1988) ‘Flora of
Silent Valley’; Sahni (1990) ‘Gymnosperms of India and Adjacent countries’;
Sasidharan and Sivarajan (1996) ‘Flowering Plants of Trissur Forest’; Almeida
(1996) ‘Flora of Maharashtra’; Shivarajan and Mathew (1997) ‘Flora of Nilambur
Western Ghats’ containing over 1,132 species of angiosperms; Pullaiah (1997) ‘Flora
of Andhra Pradesh’; Naithani et al., (1997) ‘Forest Flora of Goa’; Naik (1998)
‘Flora of Marathwada of Maharashtra’ and Kumar’s (2001) ‘Flora of Haryana’. In
fact, these publications have made worth-while contributions to the existing
knowledge of plant wealth of the country.
Presently, Botanical Survey of India has been undertaking intensive floristic surveys
in various under explored and unexplored regions of the country and is in the process
of compiling this information in the form of ‘Flora of India’ in 32 volumes. Out of
these, Sharma and Balakrishnan (1993-2000) and Hajra et al., (1995) have already
published 5 volumes of this work. Meanwhile, works on the floristic diversity of India
had also been compiled by Sambamurthy (2001) in his publication ‘Dictionary of
Angiosperm Families and their Genera’ wherein he described about 510 families
and had listed 13,600 genera. All these works reveal an intensive taxonomic work and
field collections those ultimately resulted in adding many taxa to the floristic wealth
of the country. The changing taxonomic concepts which are seen as an improvement
over Bentham and Hooker’s system of classification which has been followed in
‘Flora of British India’, have led to shifting of certain genera from one family to
another along with changes at the levels of families, genera and species in accordance
with the classification as earlier given by Engler and Prantl (1887-1915). However,
this being a continuous process and keeping in view the objectives of the study, the
work done by different authors and that has been published in form of research
papers/books/reports/proceedings was thoroughly reviewed and their findings have
further been discussed under various headings as detailed below:
2.2. Floristic Diversity-In General
Celep and Dogan (2007) after studying the natural flora of lower Tersakan Valley in
Northern Turkey, reported 457 taxa of 301 genera belonging to 74 families and 54 of
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these determined to be threatened according to IUCN Red List Categories. Shrestha et
al., (2000) carried out the comparative studies of floristic diversity of natural and
degraded forests in Chitrepani in Siwalik region of Central Nepal and found that due
to degradation the country had already lost 78.2 per cent species, 90.9 per cent loss of
plant density, 80.0 per cent basal area, 71.7 per cent tree volume and 80.1 per cent
tree biomass while compared to the natural forest. A general overview of the
biological knowledge of the floristic province of Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley in
Central-southern Mexico was presented by Davila et al., (2002) which showed that in
an approximate area of 10,000 km2, a total of 10 to 11.4% of the Mexican flora was
present. In addition, the valley had the distribution of about 365 endemic species
thereby representing 13.9% of its flora. With respect to the faunal diversity, the
available information is less comprehensive than for plants whereas, Philip et al.,
(2003) repeatedly sampled forests in two regions of Amazonia, Peru (Loreto and
Madre de Dios Departments) using the two most widely used plot based protocols of
floristic sampling and compared their performance in terms of the quantity of floristic
knowledge and ecological insight gained scaled to the field effort required.
Two community forests namely Amaldapani and Juphal falling in Dolpa district of
mid-west of Nepal were selected for a study on the quantitative analysis of tree flora
(Kunwar and Sharma, 2004) and in this process a total of 419 individual trees
representing 16 species, 16 genera and 11 families were registered. Species like Pinus
wallichiana, Abies spectabilis, Quercus semicarpifolia and Cedrus deodara were
recorded as the species showing highest Importance Value Index (IVI) and could
therefore, be considered as the dominant species. Studies on the similar lines were
undertaken on floristic composition and phyto-geographical analysis of Gebel Elba
National Park in the south-east corner of Egypt by Abdel-Ghani and Abdel Kkalik
(2006) who then recorded a total of 179 species belonging to 51 families. Infact, six
major sites were investigated to adequately cover the entire territory of the Park
(35,600 km2) and also to reach completeness while inventorizing the vascular flora of
this area. Variations in species richness with reference to floristic composition and
species diversity amongst the sites within the park were also observed. A new
approach for conserving biodiversity within human dominated Meso-American
landscapes that unites a focus on ecologically sustainable agriculture with existing
efforts in protected areas to achieve lasting conservation outcomes at local and
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regional levels was put forward by Harvey et al., (2007). Similarly, vegetation of
Gibraltar Range National Park and adjoining parts of eastern Washpool National Park,
65 km east of Glen Innes on the Eastern escarpment of New South Wales was studied
and described by Hunter and Paul (2008) in which a total of 878 vascular taxa from
138 families were recorded, of which only 21 (2%) were found to be of introduced
origin and 81 (9%) were recorded having conservation significance. They observed
and concluded that communities with a high number of shrubs had greater consistency
between sites while compared to those that contained a high number of closed forest
species.
Qureshi (2008) carried out the vegetational assessment of Sawan Wari of Nara Desert
and on the basis of IVI, plant communities were delineated for this study area. A total
of 136 plant species belonging to 73 genera and 44 families were identified and out of
it five plant communities were constructed from its 5 distinct habitats. In addition to
it, 01 species of fern, 01 species of gymnosperms, 6 sedges and 25 species of Poaceae
were recorded. With the objective to assess and analyse the floristic diversity of
Azagny National Park located on the Ivorian coast, Wildlife Conservation Monitoring
Centre, (2008) conducted a botanical study and accordingly, recorded 519 plant
species at the end of the study. Amongst the identified species, 57 were found as
endemic to upper Guinea and 24 of them belonged to threatened and endangered
categories thereby, justifying the inclusion of this park in the Guinean Forest of West
African Hotspot. Similarly, Abdullahi et al., (2009) carried out species assessment of
Yankari Game Reserve of Bauchi-Nigeria and as a result of it, five different plant
communities were constructed from five different habitats besides, identification of
40 new plant species belonging to 33 genera and 7 families for this area.
A comparison of the species composition and diversity of 15 one-ha plots in the
Amazonian terra firme dense forest in Brazil, within the other nine one-ha plots was
studied by Emido da Silva et al., (2011). Results thus obtained, highlighted both the
local and regional heterogeneity of environments in terra firme forests and the high
occurrence of rare species, which should be considered in management and
conservation programmes in the Amazon rainforest, in order to maintain its structure
in the long run. Similarly, Hoang et al., (2011) analysed species composition and
density in forest plots with diverse soils and varying degrees of human disturbance in
Ben En National Park, Vietnam. It was seen that the soil factors significantly
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influenced tree species composition, although they only explained 5.7% of the
observed data variance. Human factors (disturbances) were second most important in
explaining species composition and density, accounting for 4.4% of variance.
Changes in species composition related to human disturbances varied mostly
independently of the soil condition/types. In order to study floristic and plant species
diversity, approximately 450 ha of Oak forests was selected by Pourbabaei and
Navgran (2011) in Chenareh, Marivan of Kordestan province in Western Iran and in
the process mean values of richness and diversity were found maximum at an altitude
of 1500 m above msl whereas, their lowest values were recorded in the altitude
varying from 1750 m and 1800 m above msl in the tree and shrub layers. Mean
richness and diversity were found to be the highest in 1500 m above msl and lowest in
1750 m above msl in the regeneration layer. Also, the mean diversities were found to
be the highest at an altitude 1700 m above msl and lowest in the elevation of 1800 m
above msl in the herbaceous layer.
Analogous to this work, Sobuj and Rahman (2011) after employing stratified random
quadrat method for studying the floristic diversity in Khadimnagar National Park of
Bangladesh, described the diversity of plant species (trees, shrubs and herbs).
Accordingly, a total of 74 plant species were recorded of which 26 were tree species,
17 were shrubs and 31 were herbs. Among the tree species, Tectona grandis showed
the highest density (3.03/100 m2), frequency (76.67%), relative density (17.7%),
relative frequency (11.3%) and relative dominance (37.3%). On the contrary, Alstonia
scholaris represented the lowest density (0.07/100 m2), frequency (6.67%), relative
density (0.39%) and relative frequency (0.995). An analysis of the compositional
patterns for limestone tropical forests in Xishuangbanna, which is located in the
northern edge of tropical Asia was also done by Tang et al., (2011). All trees in four
50mx50m plots with diameter at breast height (dbh=1.3) ≥ 5 cm were measured and
identified. A total of 998 individuals belonging to 100 species, 74 genera and 31
families were recorded in these plots. Species richness ranged from 18 to 46 species
per plot. The most ecologically significant family as determined by basal area and
stem density was Euphorbiaceae.
Upadhaya et al., (2003) selected two sacred groves in Jaintia hills of Meghalaya and
recorded a total of 738 individuals belonging to 82 species, 59 genera and 39 families
in a 0.5 ha plot of the Ialong sacred grove, whereas the same area in the Raliang
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sacred grove had 469 individuals of 80 species, 62 genera and 41 families. About 32
per cent of the species were common to both the groves. Lauraceae, with 10-17
species, was the dominant family. Canopy and the sub-canopy strata were
respectively comprised of 28 per cent and 33 per cent of the total tree species in the
forest. Patnaik and Reddy (2007) studied the plant resources of Gandhamardan hill
ranges of Orissa and in the process, a total of 912 vascular species belonging to 556
genera under 142 families were recorded. Floristic survey and phyto-sociological
analysis along 110 km of busy road sides of a biodiversity-rich tropical zone, in
Kottayam District of Kerela, South India, showed 85 species belonging to 27 families
differently tolerant to the stressful environment, which also included exotics as well
as medicinal plants (Ray and George, 2009). To record the floristic diversity of
evergreen forest of Kolli Hills falling in Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu, a survey was
conducted (Jayakumar et al., 2009) after following three different sampling methods
i.e., (a) adhoc (AH) vegetation survey, (b) stratified random plot (SRP) and (c) bigger
plot (BP) and it was finally inferred that the diversity indices calculated based on SRP
and BP with 3 ha sampling area (0.1% of total evergreen area using 20mX20m plot
following SRP) and BP with 8 ha sampling area varied considerably. Similar studies
as carried out by Manhas et al., (2010) in the protected areas of Pathankot, Hoshiarpur
and Garhshanker falling in Kandi region of Punjab, registered a total of 206 species
belonging to 159 genera and 59 families from these sites. The per cent contribution of
di-cotyledons, mono-cotyledons and pteridophytes recorded was 77.7, 20.4 and 1.9
respectively; however, Ipomoea was found to be the most dominant genera.
Biological spectrum of the study site showed that therophytes constituted the most
dominant life-form (52%) followed by phanerophytes (27%).
To compile a national level database on the spatial distribution of biological diversity,
a nationwide project on the biodiversity characterization at landscape level was
implemented and in the process studies were carried out by Roy et al., (2012) between
1998 and 2010 to characterize and map the flowering plants richness in the forested
landscapes. This study has resulted in the creation of a large baseline spatial database
on vegetation types, porosity, patchiness, interspersion, juxta-position, fragmentation,
disturbance regimes, ecosystems uniqueness, terrain complexity and biological
richness. Sainkhediya and Ray (2012) carried out an extensive and intensive plant
survey of Khandwa and Khargone district of Nimar region and preliminary study of
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region showed rich plant diversity in respect to 72 families and 222 genera. As a
result of this study, it was also observed that 17 plant species have become threatened
of which Oroxylum indicum L., Gloriosa superba L., Ceropegia hirsuta Wt. & Arm.,
Visum articulatum Auct., Oryza rufipogon Griff., are depleting at an alarming rate.
Chawla et al., (2012) identified few Protected Areas and selected forest core area and
ecotones along the temperate, sub-alpine, alpine and cold desert ecosystems in
Himachal Pradesh so as to establish a network of permanent monitoring plots. Land
and vegetation cover map of three selected protected areas has been prepared using
satellite data. Amongst the 10 permanent monitoring plots, the temperate and tree line
forests in the Great Himalayan National Park (GHNP) were found to have the highest
tree diversity with Taxus baccata subsp. wallichiana showing good stand density and
regeneration.
2.3. Floristic Elements of North-west Himalaya
North-west Himalaya in particular includes the states of Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand and Jammu and Kashmir and has long been recognized as a distinct
floristic region in India (Hooker, 1906; Mani, 1974). It has about 1,000 endemics out
of a total of approximately 3,000 species recorded in this part of the country
(Nayar,1996) which further indicates that ecological and phyto-geographical features
of the region those reflect upon the floristic distribution are quite remarkable, thereby,
presenting many unsolved problems of great interest. Only because of this
uniqueness, North-west Himalaya has been placed at the third position as far as
endemism of India is concerned followed by North-east and Peninsular India (Nayar,
1996). Mani (1978) had also discussed and described at length some of the
outstanding differences between North-west part of Himalaya with rest of the
Himalayan ranges and found that the vegetation of the North-west Himalaya are not
so well known and documented while compared to the Eastern Himalaya, mainly
because of its varied topography, wide altitudinal ranges and unique geographical
locations the area has. Infact, this region harbours a rich flora and exhibits affinities
with the flora of Mediterranean, Siberian, Tibetan and Indo-Malayan regions. The
presence of Christolea himalayensis is one of the unique records for the Western
Himalaya which belongs to the family Brassicaceae, a specimen of which was
collected by Gurdial Singh at an altitude of 6300 m above msl during the Mt. Kamet
Expedition in 1955. Palaeo-botanical evidences also indicate that many of the woody
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elements in the flora of Himalayan region owe their origin from the tropical wet
evergreen forests of the Indian Peninsula (Vishnu-Mittre, 1984).
Kachroo et al., (1977) explored the Cold Deserts of Ladakh, India and later described
about 611 plant species. Similar studies as conducted by Polunin and Stainton (1984)
were also compiled and published in the ‘Flowers of Himalaya’ and later Stainton
(1988) after conducting the floristic survey in the Western Himalaya and Nepal
spreading over an area of 1450 km2 further added and described over 1500 species in
the text ‘A supplement to the Flowers of Himalaya’, which also supported 606
coloured photographs besides 319 line drawings covering native, naturalized and
exotic species in parts of India. The ‘Flora of Cold Deserts of Western Himalaya’
(Murti, 2001) is another addition to the series of floristic works in the North-west
Himalaya describing about 347 species of monocots, belonging to 103 genera under
16 families. Chauhan and Singh (2005) recorded eight interesting plants viz.
Corydalis vaginans Royle, Lepidium virginicum L., Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers.,
Gentiana crassuloides Bureau et Franchet, Orobanche cernua Loefl. Var. pseudo-
clakkei Jafri, Chenopodium murale L. and Eleocharis retroflexa (Poir.) Urb. from the
Cold Desert of Ladakh.
Supplementing the splendid work on orchids already done by Som Deva and Naithani
(1986) also added more details in their account on ‘The orchids of North-west
Himalaya’. Goel and Bhattacharya (1985) explored Gharwal Himalaya and collected
a new variety Pimpinella diversifolia from Gangi, situated at an altitude of 3000m
above msl. Kapur and Sarin (1990) while conducting botanical survey in Trikuta hills
around Vaishno Devi Shrine, Jammu, collected 495 species of flowering plants and
later described the vegetation distribution pattern, plant communities, phyto-
geography and also the issues pertaining to the economic upliftment of the area.
Dangwal et al., (1994, 1995) also recorded some rare and lesser known legumes from
Garhwal Himalaya while Semwal and Bhat (1994) investigated impact of biotic
stresses on the composition and structure of temperate forests in Garhwal Himalaya.
Phyto-sociological details of some of the individual species like Nardostachys
grandiflora D.C. in the past was carried out by Gargya et al., (1998) where sub-alpine
and alpine regions of Yamunotri, Kedarnath and Dayyara, Garhwal Himalayas were
covered. While studying the alpine grasslands at Panwalikantha (3963 m above msl)
in Garhwal Himalaya, Raizada et al., (1998) observed that the intensively grazed
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22
areas in summer months showed seven distinct plant communities and species
richness recorded was highest in the moderately grazed area and least in the
intensively grazed areas. In–depth studies pertaining to ecological and conservation
aspects of alpine meadows in the Valley of Flowers, Garhwal Himalaya was also
made by Kala (1998) and Kala et al., (2003). Rawat and Bhainsora (1999) studied the
structure and composition of forests across the Shiwaliks of Doon valley and also of
outer Himalaya in Dehradun district covering western fringe of Rajaji National Park
by using stratified random plots. Aspects like richness of woody species, Importance
Value Index (IVI) of trees and regeneration of Sal (Shorea robusta Roxb. ex Gaertn.
F.). Besides it, the climax species of the region were also compared and discussed at
great length.
Samant et al., (1998b) studied the biodiversity of Askot Wildlife Sanctuary and found
that the forest and pasture lands those covered nearly 52 per cent and 12 per cent of
total reported area respectively, are the ideal habitats for the floral and faunal
elements. Plant diversity assessment in relation to the disturbances in mid-elevation
forests (1300 m-2000 m above msl) of Nainital, was made by Khera et al., (2001) and
it was observed that higher number of trees and shrubs were found on the western
aspect which was experiencing low erosion and great anthropogenic pressures. Rawat
et al., (2001) explored Valley of Flowers National Parks in the Chamoli district of
Gharwal Himalaya during 1993-1997 and recorded 520 species of vascular plants
belonging to 72 families and 248 genera. Joshi et al., (2004) recorded about 109
species of ferns from Mandal and adjoining localities in Chamoli district of Gharwal
Himalaya including recording of 4 new species to the area.
Negi and Nautiyal (2005) also made significant contributions to the phyto-
sociological aspects in a traditional reserve forest-Thal ke Dhar, Pithoragarh-
bordering Tibet and Nepal. Ahmad et al., (2006) after conducting a quantitative
phyto-sociological survey in 184 sampling stands in various climatic zones of
Himalayan forests of Pakistan, further recognized 24 different communities and 4
mono-specific forest vegetations. Supriya and Yadava (2006) studied the floristic
diversity of Dipterocarpus tuberculatus dominated forest of Manipur situated along
the Indo-Myanmar Border and as a result of it a total of 123 species belonging to 48
families were recorded. Synoptic account of the floristic diversity of Dihang Dibang
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23
Biosphere of Arunachal Pradesh in NE India (Chowdhary, 2008) revealed the
occurrence of 1004 species of angiosperms belonging to 527 genera and 124 families.
Studies conducted by Rashid et al., (2008) in Rajouri district, Jammu and Kashmir
revealed the presence of 57 plant species belonging to 33 families and Rosaceae and
Polygonaceae were the dominated amongst all with 5 taxa in each while family
Rhamnaceae followed with 4 taxa whereas Violaceae was represented by 3 members
only. Singh and Gupta (2009) revealed the dominance of Cedrus deodara an endemic
species of Indian Himalayas in all Periodic Blocks with maximum dominance in PB
II. Amongst different PBs, maximum diversity in species was found in PB IV with
highest density of Quercus floribunda followed by Cedrus deodara and Pinus
wallichiana.
Suyal et al., (2010) recorded a total of 231 species (227 angiosperms and 4
gymnosperms) belonging to 69 families (67 angiosperms and 2 gymnosperms) and
159 genera (156 angiosperms and 3 gymnosperms) from Chaurangikhal forest of
Gharwal Himalaya. Uniyal et al., (2010) studied the plant diversity in two different
forest types having varied degree of biotic pressures along the gradients in Dewalgarh
Watershed, Gharwal Himalaya and ultimately found that the moderately disturbed
stand favoured density and species richness in both the forest types. Pant and Pant
(2011) made an attempt to describe 63 species (trees: 07 spp.; shrubs: 09 spp.; herbs:
47 spp.) of threatened plants of Jammu and Kashmir. As per the new criteria of
International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), all the
sixty three (63) species described had been categorized as Critically Endangered
(11spp.); Endangered (21 spp.); Vulnerable (26 spp.); Near Threatened (02 spp.) and
Least Concern (03 spp.).
Dhakal et al., (2011) carried out studies in the Bandevi Buffer Zone Community
Forest (BZCF) and Satkanya Community Forest of Barandabhar corridor area in
Chitwan district of Nepal so as to assess and compare the status of floristic diversity
in buffer zone community forest and community forest in Barandabhar corridor in
Chitwan district of Nepal. As a result of these efforts, diversity index (SI=0.9367 and
SI=3.3714) and species richness index of (MI=10) of BZCF were found higher than
the diversity index (SI=0.8749 and WI=3.0099) and species richness index
(MI=9.0491) of SCF. It was finally concluded that floral diversity is higher in BZCF
than the CF outside the buffer zone under similar edapho-climatic conditions whereas
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24
comprehensive information on the diversity, conservation status and utilization of
plants in Shiwalik Himalaya of Uttarakhand was provided by Sharma et al., (2011).
Botanical explorations of Rau (1975), ‘High altitude Flowering Plants of Western
Himalaya’; Sharma and Kachroo (1981), ‘Flora of Jammu and Plants of
Neighborhood’ ; Dhar and Kachroo (1983), ‘Alpine Flora of Kashmir Himalaya’ ;
Naithani’s (1984), ‘Flora of Chamoli’ : Kaul (1986), ‘Weed Flora of Kashmir
valley’ ; Garg (1987), ‘Gentianaceae of North-west Himalaya’; Chaurasia and Singh
(1996-98), ‘Cold Desert Plants’: Gaur (1999), ‘Flora of District Gharwal, North-
West Himalaya (with ethno-botanical notes)’ ; Singh et al., (2002), ‘Flora of
Jammu and Kashmir’ Rana et al., (2002), ‘Flora of Tons Valley, Gharwal
Himalaya’ ; Singh and Prakash (2002), ‘Flora of Rajaji National Park’ are some of
the important floristic works in recent years and those have made worthwhile
contributions to the existing knowledge in the North-west Himalaya.
Stapf (1905) conducted work on Indian Aconites having 24 species and arranged them
in main categories according to the structure of their roots. Based upon the earlier
collections of the family ‘Scrophulariaceae’, made over for more than thirty years by
numerous workers, especially those of Dr. RR Stewart, the then President of Gordon
College at Rawalpindi, detailed studies in Western Himalayas were taken up by
Pennell (1943).
Vediya and Kharadi (2011) recorded a total of 58 angiospermic families belonging to
164 genera and 287 species besides the collection of 4 pteridophytes and 3 bryophytes
from Megharj range forest of Isari Gujarat, India. Following his work, Desai and Ant
(2012) recorded a total of 355 plant species belonging to 80 families from Vadali
range forest in particular zone Vasai, Verabar and Mota kotada of district
Sabarkantha, North Gujarat, India. To provide comprehensive information on
diversity and distribution of plants in the Hazaribag District Jharkhand an attempt was
made by Lal and Singh (2012) and came out with a record of plants belonging to 95
genera and 51 families.
2.4. Status of Floristic Elements in Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh-a hilly state of North-west Himalayan region reveals a wide
diversity of plant forms in its different climatic zones (Chauhan and Thakur, 1995)
and hence, is commonly regarded as a veritable emporium of plant resources. The
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25
countess of Dalhousie, collected about 600 species from Shimla in between April to
October during 1829 but first account of the flora of this region was published by
Aitchinson (1868). Similarly, Watt (1881) published notes on the vegetation of
Chamba state and British Lahaul. Literature search on the lines as mentioned above
revealed that some other plant collections of 19th century were referred to by Stewart
(1869), Parker (1918), Shabnam (1964) and Rau (1975) whereas, Collett (1921)
carried out detailed floristic survey in the Shimla hills.
With the start of functioning of Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle and Forest
Research Institute, Dehradun various botanists and scientists have periodically
explored various locations in the state of Himachal Pradesh and the collections were
later conserved at the Herbaria of Botanical Survey of India, Northern circle (BSD)
and Forest research Institute (DD).
Continuing with the earlier work of plant explorations and collections, Vaid and
Naithani (1970), reported the occurrence of Parthenium hysterophorus from North-
western Himalaya. Nair (1977) recorded 1629 species belonging to 709 genera and
137 families of Vascular plants from Bushahar state in the altitude varying from 650
m-6930 m above msl falling in the valleys of Sutlej, Baspa, Pabbar while presently
comprises of the districts namely Kinnaur and Shimla of the state. Aswal and
Mehrotra (1979) recorded 12 new plant species from Lahaul-Spiti those are new to
the botanical records for the state of Himachal Pradesh. Reporting of Ranunculus
bikramii as a new species is one such record from Rohtang Pass, Lahaul Valley.
Continuing with their works Aswal and Mehrotra (1987, 1994) published a
comprehensive account of the flowering plants (985 species, 353 genera) of Lahaul-
Spiti, representing arid zone and cold desert areas of the state. Murti and Uniyal
(1985) also compiled a brief description on some important plants which otherwise
remained overlooked. Naithani and Bahadur (1979) reported a new grass namely
Vulpia ciliata (Poaceae) from India. Naithani and Aswal (1984) reported the
occurrence of Ranunculus adoxifolius (Rananculaceae) from North-west India.
Naithani et al., (1986) reported the occurrence of Oxytropis sericopetla belonging to
family Fabaceae from India and subsequent records of his work (Naithani, 1988) also
includes the reporting of Pistacia atlantica (Anacardiaceae) from Himachal Pradesh.
Authors like Singh et al., (1993), Sharma and Singh (1996) and Singh (1997) have
also reported new species from Himachal Pradesh. Chowdhery and Wadhwa (1984)
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26
published a comprehensive list of the flowering plants of Himachal Pradesh under the
title, ‘Flora of Himachal Pradesh’ in 3 volumes on the basis of herbarium sheets
housed at various herbaria. About 3,300 species have so far been documented as a
result of floristic survey conducted by various earlier workers in the past.
Hooker’s ‘Flora of British India’ and Collet’s publication ‘Flora Simlensis’
including Chowdhery and Wadhwa’s ‘Flora of Himachal Pradesh’, were broad
based floras covering vast tracts of Himachal Himalayas. However, they did not cover
all the niches and aspects which are not only important but harbour some distinct
floral elements. Hence, the emphasis was shifted to exploration of specific areas with
specific habitats and inclusion of ecological parameters and ethno-botanical aspects to
cover the term biodiversity in a more or less holistic manner. Some other
contributions as also indicated earlier in this direction were made by Aswal and
Mehrotra (1983), Aswal and Mehrotra (1994), Dhaliwal and Sharma (1999) and
Subramani and Kapoor (2011b). Similarly, while assessing the floristic diversity of
Pooh Valley falling in the cold deserts of district Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh (Verma
and Kapoor, 2010a), a total of 192 plant species belonging to 55 families and 136
genera were recorded. The dominant families recorded were Asteraceae, Rosaceae,
Lamiaceae and Polygonaceae.
Chauhan (1984) surveyed the wild medicinal and aromatic plants of Pabbar valley of
Himachal Pradesh and collected 738 species belonging to 107 families out of which
649 were dicots and 89 were monocots. Similarly, while assessing the floristic
elements of Churdhar Wildlife Sanctuary falling in Sirmaur district of Himachal
Pradesh, Subramani (2006) collected a total a total of 793 taxa with 748 angiosperms,
8 gymnosperms, 37 pteridophytes belonging to 431 genera and 143 families.
Whereas, Singh (1992a) had given taxonomic account of 1027 species distributed
over 149 families and 626 genera from Mandi district of the state, covering an altitude
gradient varying from 700 m-3000 m above msl. Singh and Gupta (2009) concluded
detailed vegetation survey and ecological studies of ground vegetation under Silver fir
and spruce forests of Himachal Pradesh. Sindhi (1997) worked on the plant diversity
of economic utility of Nauni-Solan and enlisted 723 plants belonging to 115 families.
Similarly, as an outcome of extensive field surveys conducted in Kullu valley from
1988-1992, Dhaliwal and Sharma (1999) published ‘Flora of Kullu’ which covers
about 930 species belonging to 504 genera and 126 families.
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27
Phyto-sociological analysis of sand mines of Solan district, Himachal Pradesh as
carried out by Panwar (1999) revealed that mining had caused loss of biodiversity in
those areas and many of the economically important plant species were either got
eroded or got replaced by uneconomical and unwanted species. Subsequently,
Chauhan (2002) also studied phyto-diversity of Shilly wildlife sanctuary, Himachal
Pradesh whereas Kapoor et al., (2005a) after studying the floristic diversity of North-
west Himalaya, documented the medicinal plant wealth of Cold Deserts of Himachal
Pradesh in particular. On the same analogy, Chandrasekar et al., (2003) recorded 21
species from Lahaul-Spiti, out of which five species viz., Astragalus gracilipes Benth.
Ex Bunge, Artemesia persica Boiss., Saxifraga palpebrata Hook. f. & Thoms.,
Saussurea depsangensis Pamp. and S. glacialis Herd. are new additions to the state.
Similar studies were also conducted by Verma et al., (2003b) in Man Lunga (North-
east aspect) and Khamengar valleys (Southern aspect), falling within the Pin Valley
National Park. Chandrasekar and Srivastava (2005) described Oxytropis immerse
(Baker ex Aitch.) Bunge ex. Fedtsch. (Fabaceae) as new records for India from
Tariya-Pin Parvati pass of Pin Valley National park at 4100 m above msl.
Chandrasekar and Srivastava (2004) reported occurrence of a new grass species
Elymus ruselli for the first time from Himachal Pradesh whereas Fallopia
dentatoalata (F. Schmidt) Holub (Polygonaceae) was reported for the first time from
Himachal Pradesh, India by Chowdhary et al., (2010). Six new species of
Angiosperms namely Angelica archangelica Linn. Var. himalaica (Cl.) Nasir,
Diphylax griffithii (Hook. f.) Kranzl., Onosma thomsoni Hook. f., Pueraria montana
(Lour.) Merr. Var. chinensis, Trachelospermum axillare Hook. f., and Tricholepis
royeli Hook. f. were reported for the first time from the state of Himachal Pradesh all
collected from district Sirmaur, by Lal and Rawat (2008).
Lal et al., (2008) reported three species of Orchidaceae viz., Dendrobium amoenum
Lindl., Pholidota articulate Lindl. and Thunia bracteata (Roxb.) Schltr. for the first
time from Himachal Pradesh and all of them constitutes towards the first report of the
above genera from this state. Lal and Aggarwala (2009) reported two species, namely
Leucomeris speclabilis D.Don (Asteraceae) and Sonerila tenera Royle
(Melastomataceae) for the first time from Himachal Pradesh. Continuing with their
work in this direction Lal et al., (2010) reported a new orchid, Gastrochilus distichus
(Lindl.) Kuntze for the first time in Himachal Pradesh and the occurrence of
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28
Coelogyne cristata Lindl. in Himachal Pradesh was also confirmed. They also
recollected Eria alba Lindl. (Orchidaceae) from the Mandi district of Himachal
Pradesh. It was earlier recorded by Duthie in 1906 from Chamba district of Himachal
Pradesh. Vij and Verma (2007) reported the occurrence of new orchid namely
Peristylus constrictus from Himachal Pradesh.
The work of Kaur and Sharma (2004) which lead to the documentation of 911
species, in different altitudinal ranges right from about 300 m above msl along
Haryana border up to an elevation of 3647 m above msl at Churdhar was followed by
subsequent floristic assessment of the Churdhar Wildlife Sanctuary-a total of 354
species of phanerogams comprising of 253 dicotyledons, 97 monocotyledons and 4
species of gymnosperms belonging to 84 families as collected only from the Nohra
Block were till date unreported from the district Sirmaur (Subramani and Kapoor,
2011b). Eleven species from the present collection are known to be threatened under
different red listed category of IUCN, 2003 whereas, 35 species are endemic to
Western Himalaya. In continuation to his own work documentation of some lesser
known tree species of Himachal Himalaya was provided by Kapoor et al., (2005b)
wherein the status, distribution of floristic diversity was documented, discussed and
detailed by the authors with the stress on comprehensive floristic account of medicinal
plants including their distributional status. Lal and Aggarwala (2012) also discussed
the family Burseraceae in Himachal Pradesh. Lal et al., (2012) for the first time
reported the occurrence of Duhaldea nervosa (Asteraceae) in Himachal Pradesh
followed by the reporting of the occurrence of Tavrniera cuniefolia (Fabaceae) in
Himachal Pradesh in the same year.
As a result of survey carried out in Himachal Pradesh, India, Sharma et al., (2003)
listed local names, scientific names, distribution pattern, marketability and local uses
of 22 commercially important medicinal and aromatic plants, observed in a survey.
Subsequently, Nilay (2004) also conducted a detailed study on the distribution and
importance of medicinal and aromatic plants of Nahan area of Himachal Pradesh and
recorded a total of 403 species belonging to 311 genera and 101 families from the
different parts of the study area. Sharma et al., (2005) while studying the ambient
plant sources for fuel, fodder, fibre, medicines and other purposes for the Malani
ethnic community, generally called as Republic of Malana-inhabiting the remote
village Malana located in Parvati valley of Kullu district, Himachal Pradesh prepared
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29
a long and comprehensive list of the resources these people have been utilizing since
ages.
Studies as carried out by Chauhan (2006) in Kinnaur forest division of Himachal
Pradesh also lead to the documentation of about 376 species of medicinal and
aromatic plants and is another recent work in the direction. On the same analogy,
Jishtu (2006) surveyed Baspa valley of Kinnaur district and documented 957 taxa
belonging to 475 genera spread over 122 families of vascular plants excluding the
families Cyperaceae and Poaceae.
Dutt et al., (2007) investigated the floristic composition, vegetation diversity and
distribution pattern of medicinal and aromatic plants of different altitudinal zones of
Sangla valley in Himachal Pradesh. The study revealed that the Importance Value
Index (IVI) of different species varied from site to site and most of the herbs exhibited
contagious distribution pattern whereas, the shrubs showed random distribution
pattern. Similar work was further supplemented by Verma and Kapoor (2010a) for
assessing the floristic diversity in Pooh Valley of Cold Deserts of District Kinnaur,
Himachal Pradesh. Phyto-sociological studies as conducted in the Hitch Pawang
Valley of Rakchham Chitkul Wildlife Sanctuary of district Kinnaur (Verma and
Kapoor, 2010b) revealed the presence of 142 species belonging to 42 families and 95
genera. Authors, (Verma and Kapoor, 2011) also discussed the status of plant
diversity along altitudinal gradients in Murti Panag valley of Rakchham-Chitkul
Wildlife Sanctuary in district Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh. Subramani and Kapoor
(2011a) collected Chusua nana (King and Pantling) Pradhan and Hetaeria fusca
Lindl. two little- known orchids from Churdhar Wildlife Sanctuary, Shivalik Hills of
Sirmaur district, which forms new distribution records and second report to the state
Himachal Pradesh. The duo also dealt with the floristic elements of Churdhar Wildlife
Sanctuary which were the additions to the floristic wealth of district Sirmaur,
Himachal Pradesh. The identity and occurrence of Primula reidii Duthie var. redii
from Shivalik hill ranges, Himachal Pradesh was also given by Subramani and
Kapoor (2012). Earlier records pertaining to occurrence and distribution of the
species, detailed description and other ecological parameters including its photograph,
have been discussed and detailed. Verma and Kapoor (2013) studied the impact of
altitudinal gradients on the floristic diversity in Shingan valley falling in Rakchham-
Chitkul Wildlife Sanctuary district Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh and a total of 118
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30
species of plants were recorded. The dominant families registered were Rosaceae,
Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Ranunculaceae and Polygonaceae.
Thakur et al., (2012) studied the floristic composition and life form spectrum of
Bandli Wild Life Sanctuary, located in district Mandi of Himachal Pradesh. A total of
144 plant species belonging to 52 families were recorded from the study area. Poaceae
with 29 species was the most dominant family. Life form spectrum revealed the
dominance of phenerophytes (42.36%) and therophytes (33.33%) and these were
followed by hemi-cryptophytes (18.75%), geophytes (3.47%) and chamaephytes
(2.8%). Therophytes were found higher than normal biological spectrum which
indicated that study area is certainly under biotic pressure.
Thakur (2012) also recorded 707 species of vascular plants i.e., Angiosperms (93
families, 313 genera and 636 species), Gymnosperms (3 families, 6 genera and 9
species) and Pteridophytes (16 families, 27 genera and 62 species) in the Tirthan
Wildlife Sanctuary, Himachal Pradesh. Out of the total species, 46 were the trees, 107
shrubs, 492 herbs and the remaining 62 species were pteridophytes. Viraj, (2005)
conducted the studies on diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants of Sangla valley
in Himachal Pradesh between an altitude ranging from 1800 m (Karcham) to 4800 m
(Chitkul kanda) above msl and collected a total of 253 species, belonging to 171
genera and 61 families from the study area. Out of the recordings made 238 belongs
to dicots, 9 to monocots and 6 to gymnosperms, which are enlisted along with their
botanical names, local/common name(s), families, plant parts, economic and ethno-
botanical importance. Viraj et al., (2010) further enlisted the lesser known aromatic
plants species of the tribal district Kinnaur of Himachal Pradesh and a total of 30
aromatic plant species belonging to 29 genera and 13 families were collected and
identified from the study area. Viraj et al., (2012) also conducted the phyto-
sociological survey of Porang valley of Lippa-Asrang wildlife sanctuary falling in
district Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh and recorded a total number of 138 species,
representing 93 genera and 38 families in the altitude varying from 3300 m-5000 m.
A total of were recorded. While Singh and Rawat (2000) explored the ‘Flora of Great
Himalayan National Park’ (GHNP)-an important protected area network in the state
of Himachal Pradesh for the assessment of its floristic diversity and as an outcome of
the same documented an excellent collection of 832 species belonging to 427 genera
and 128 families.
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31
2.5. Vegetation Studies vis-a-vis Altitudinal Sequence
It is beyond any doubt that the Himalaya has diversified vegetational pattern along an
altitudinal gradient which starts right from sub-montane zone, passes from forests
through savanna and finally culminates in the alpine areas or in the open grazing
lands. So, the presence of a species in Himalaya is much more dependent on altitude
and aspect and the soil criterion may also play some role here but not to that extent.
Joshi and Tiwari (1990) conducted phyto-sociological analysis of woody vegetation
along an altitudinal gradient varying from 500 m-1000 m above msl in a mountain
flank located on the right side of river Alkananda and opposite to Kaliasaur in
Gharwal Himalaya. Pangtey and Rawal (1994) attempted to assign the altitudinal
sequencing for the existing forest zones and types within an altitudinal range of 1600
m-3100 m above msl in Sarju catchment of Kumaon, Central Himalaya. Three forest
zones, viz., low altitude zones (1600 m-2000 m), mid altitude zone (2000 m-2500 m)
and high altitude zone (2500 m-3100 m) were recognized arbitrarily. The altitudinal
sequence of forest vegetation exhibited a sharp compositional change in the mid-
altitudinal zone.
Ghildiyal et al., (1998) carried out vegetation study in a series of respective oak
forests in relation to their analytical and synthetic characters in Gharwal Himalaya
within the altitudinal gradient varying from 1400 m-2600 m above msl. The highest
IVI value was for Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex Rehder, whereas the lowest value for
the same was registered for Q. leucotrichophora at 2300 m above msl. Kala and
Uniyal (1999) also studied the structure of forest vegetation along an altitudinal
gradient (2550 m-3600 m) in the Valley of Flowers and its adjoining areas. Based
upon the IVI values, three major vegetation types i.e. Himalayan moist upper
temperate forest (2550 m-3000 m), sub-alpine fir forest (3000 m-3250 m) and sub-
alpine birch forest (3300 m-3600 m) were identified. During investigations, average
tree density was found to increase with the altitude whereas, the average basal area of
tree species showed a decreasing trend with the increase in altitude. Rawat and Pant
(1999) investigated structure of Chir pine community along two aspects and four
elevational zones in Gharwal Himalaya. The findings indicated that the Chir pine
prefers sunny slopes with xeric conditions. Besides, an attempt had also been made to
summarize general physiographic and structural details of Chir pine forests on
different aspects.
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32
Various qualitative parameters along the gradients and regeneration behavior of the
tree species in Western moist temperate Himalayan forests of Uttarkashi were
discussed and detailed by Pande (2001). Similarly, Pande et al., (2001) studied the
effect of plants species diversity and other parameters on vegetation analysis in moist
temperate forest of Kedarnath Forest Division by dividing the whole area into 8 sub-
sites as per the aspect and altitude ranging from 1800 m-2800 m above msl. Pande et
al., (2002), also described plant species diversity and various parameters of vegetation
analysis in a moist temperate Western Himalayan forest ecosystem located in
Chamoli, Garhwal Himalaya. For this study whole of the area was divided into eight
sub-sites depending upon the altitude ranging from 1800 m-2820 m above msl.
Similarly, Rawat (2001) investigated phyto-sociological of woody vegetation along an
altitudinal gradient in montane forests of Narainbagar, Chamoli district of Gharwal
Himalaya with an altitudinal range of 1700 m-2100 m above msl and concluded that
the maximum number of trees, saplings and seedlings species were present in upper
slopes whereas minimum number was recorded for the lower slopes. Diversity index
and concentration of dominance values confirmed the temperate nature of forests
whereas, Pant and Samant (2007) after conducting a study in a biodiversity rich
Mornaula Reserve Forest between 1500 m-2200 m analyzed the structure,
composition of the forest communities including richness of economically important,
native, endemic and rare-endangered species and prioritized communities for their
conservation. From 123 sampled sites, 289 species (37 trees; 37 shrubs and 215 herbs)
and 31 forest communities have been recorded. The density of trees ranged from 340-
2438 Ind ha-1 and TBA from 19.52-234.31 m2 ha-1.
After carrying out the studies in temperate forests Gairola et al., (2008) revealed that
from low to high altitude strata, size and density of trees declined sharply and further
observed that the density of sapling and seedling do not follow the trend as that of
trees but exhibit site/location specific trends. Shrubs and herbs were also not found
exhibiting uniform patterns across altitudinal range of the sites. It was revealed during
the study that sub-alpine forests are potentially prone to the adverse effects of climate
change, study also provided important baseline information for future evaluation of
the impact of climate change on sub-alpine forest communities. Bhatt and Purohit
(2009) also conducted a study in the temperate Himalayan forests of Joshimath area in
Chamoli district of Uttarakhand to understand the effect of altitudinal variations on
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33
structure and composition of the vegetation and to record the floristic diversity and
economic utilities of the plants in the study area. Rana and Samant (2009) identified
13 habitats, 23 forest communities and 24 alpine communities from Manali Wildlife
Sanctuary and accordingly, each of the habitat and community was evaluated for site
representation, altitudinal distribution, species richness, native, endemic socio-
economically important and threatened species. While assessing the status of plant
diversity along altitudinal gradients varying from 3300 m to 4500 m above msl in
Murti Panag valley of Rakchham-Chitkul Wildlife Sanctuary in district Kinnaur,
Himachal Pradesh clear cut changes in the number and plant species composition
were observed from one altitude to another (Verma and Kapoor, 2011). Singh and
Samant (2010) also made an attempt to; (i) identify the habitats and communities; (ii)
evaluate habitats and communities for species richness, native, endemic, economically
important and threatened species; (iii) prioritize habitats and communities for
conservation in the Lahaul valley of proposed cold desert biosphere reserve.
The above studies and explorations made in the past straightway point out that the
plant species have wide ecological amplitude along the gradients and accordingly are
capable of bringing great fluctuations in environmental conditions whereas, species
with narrow amplitudes are restricted to areas where the environment is relatively
stable. Accordingly, quantitative assessment of the plant species in general and of
important and threatened plant species in particular of different altitudinal zonation is
quite important for devising suitable strategies for their conservation, as also
attempted through the present studies.
2.6. Nativity and Endemism
Number of endemic and native species existing in a particular area gives an idea about
how important it is from floristic and conservation point of view. Higher the number
of species endemic and native to an area more emphasis is essentially required to be
given to conserve the diversity of the area. Some studies were carried out in the past
by different researchers keeping the importance of endemic and native species in
mind. Chatterjee (1939) while carrying out intensive studies on the flora of India and
Burma also enlisted endemic flora. Mathew et al., (1993) presented an account of the
endemic flora in the North Eastern Transuaal escarpment, South Africa. Serrill (2006)
discussed the importance and ways to restore native plants on Catalina Island
whereas, Behera et al., (2002), reported that high plant endemism occurs in the
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34
hotspots while carrying out investigations in the Subansiri area of the eastern
Himalaya. The distribution of vascular plant species richness and endemic richness
along the Himalayan elevation gradient in Nepal was discussed by Vetaas and
Grytnes (2002).
While studying the effect of anthropogenic disturbances on the distribution of
endemic plants existing in Bolivian montane forest, Kessler (2001) reported
maximum plant community endemism occurred at intermediate intensities of
anthropogenic disturbances whereas, measuring and mapping endemism and species
richness and its application on the flora of Africa was discussed by Kier and Barthlott
(2011).
A step forward, Rao (1972) explored angiospermic genera endemic to the Indian
Floristic Region and its neighbouring areas and enlisted them. Continuing with his
work, Nayar (1980) also explored endemic genera (Angiosperms) and also discussed
the patterns of distribution in India. The biological aspects of endemism in higher
plants were discussed by Kruckerberg and Rabinowitz (1985) while Vir Jee et al.,
(1989b) discussed the cyto-geography of some endemic taxa of Kashmir Himalaya.
Dhar and Samant (1993) conducted a study on the endemic diversity of Indian
Himalaya and discussed their nativity, distribution pattern and habitat specificity. In
his studies, Samant (1999) investigated diversity, nativity and endemism of vascular
plants in a part of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve and subsequently, Samant et al.,
(1996b) dealt with the conservation of rare endangered plants in this Biosphere
Reserve. Moving a step ahead, Dhar et al., (1996) carried out a survey in Indian
Himalaya and reported endemic plant diversity in the study area.
The hotspots of endemic plants in India, Nepal and Bhutan were discussed by Nayar
(1996). He also tried to explain the distributional range and environment favouring
the endemic population. Dhar et al., (1997b) studied the diversity, endemism and
economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya. On the same analogy,
Samant et al., (1998a) conducted a study on the diversity, distribution and potential
values of medicinal plants of the region. Continuing with his work, Samant (1998)
reported 279 fodder species from Western Himalaya belonging to 185 genera. Samant
et al., (1998b) studied the biodiversity status of Askot Wildlife Sanctuary and
reported 1262 species of vascular plants out of which 432 (34.2%) taxa are native to
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35
Indian Himalaya of which 24 are endemic and 235 are near endemics. Samant et al.,
(2000a) also dealt with the diversity, nativity and endemism of vascular plants in
Pindari area of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve-II followed by his work on the
diversity, nativity and endemism of vascular plants in Valley of Flowers National
Park (Samant et al., 2001b). Subsequently, Joshi and Samant (2004) also studied the
site/ habitat characteristics, community diversity and distribution pattern, vegetation
composition (richness of native and endemic species) structural patterns, economic
importance of forest communities and community priorities in the buffer zone of
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve.
Pandit et al., (2007) discussed that unreported yet massive deforestation leads to loss
of endemic biodiversity in Indian Himalaya and also suggested conservation measures
to support these plants. An attempt to document the indigenous uses of tree species of
the Pir Pinjal Biodiversity Park of Baba Ghulam Shah Badshah University was made
by Pant and Verma (2008) and accordingly, recorded a total of 28 species belonging
to 24 genera and 19 families being used traditionally to cure various diseases and
having other uses. Out of these, only 6 species were natives and 22 were non-native to
the Indian Himalayan Region.
On the similar lines Singh and Samant (2010) made an attempt in Lahaul Valley of
Himachal Pradesh so as to identify the habitats and communities to further evaluate
them for species richness, native, endemic, economically important and threatened
species and to prioritize habitats and communities for conservation. In the recent
studies carried out in the Tirthan Wildlife Sancturay (Thakur, 2012) it was seen that
out of a total of 707 plant species recorded in the sanctuary area. 456 species were
found native to the Himalayan Region while the remaining 251 species were recorded
to be as the non-natives. Further analysis of the study revealed that, out of these
plants18 species were endemic and 124 species were near endemic to the Indian
Himalayan Region (IHR). A total of 510 species those were further quantified,
revealed that 68.52 per cent species were found native to the Himalayan region. While
17.48 per cent of the total and 27.07 per cent of the native species were near endemic
and 2.53 per cent of the total and 3.93 per cent of the natives were endemic to the IHR
in this sanctuary. When categorized, it was seen that nativity per cent for trees, shrubs
and herbs was 75.6, 83.3 and 60.0 per cent respectively whereas, among these native
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species, 36.4 per cent of trees, 31.9 per cent shrubs and 25 per cent herbs were near
endemic. Endemic species were represented only 4.55 per cent in herbs.
2.7. Rarity
Ayensu (1981) conducted a study on the assessment of threatened plant species in the
United States and prepared an inventory of these plants. A wide approach was
adopted by Oldfield et al., (1998) who proposed the list of threatened trees of the
world. Similarly, Celep and Dogan (2007) after studying the natural flora of lower
Tersakan Valley in Northern Turkey, reported 457 taxa of 301 genera belonging to 74
families and 54 of these determined to be threatened according to IUCN Red List
Categories.
Jain and Rao (1983) carried out a study on the assessment of threatened plants of
India while Given (1996) discussed the reasons and causes of plant extinction and
also gave an approach to conserve them. Samant et al., (1996b) carried out similar
investigations on the conservation of rare endangered plants in Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve. Subsequent studies on the diversity, distribution and potential values of
medicinal plants of Indian Himalaya were accomplished by Samant et al., (1998a).
Rawal and Dhar (1997) dealt with conservation implications of timber-line flora of
Kumaun Himalaya whereas, the status and conservation of rare and endangered
medicinal plants in the Indian trans-Himalaya was discussed by Kala (2000). Samant
and Pal (2003) studied the diversity and conservation status of medicinal plants of
Uttaranchal whereas, Pant and Samant (2007) conducted a study in a biodiversity rich
Mornaula Reserve Forest between 1500 m-2200 m above msl so as to analyze the
structure, composition of the forest communities including richness of economically
important, native, endemic and rare endangered species and prioritize communities
for conservation.
Samant et al., (2007b) identified total of 643 species of medicinal plants from the
state of HP. The plants were first classified according to nativeness, endemism, rarity
and prioritized for cultivation. Sharma, 2008 categorized a total of 137 plant species
as threatened in the Hirb and Shoja catchments of Kullu district in Himachal Pradesh.
Rana and Samant (2011) assessed the threat categorization and conservation
prioritization of floristic diversity in the Manali Wildlife Sanctuary, Himachal
Pradesh. Similar attempt was made by Singh and Samant (2010) to identify the
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37
habitats, communities and threatened species and also to prioritize them for
conservation in Lahaul Valley of Himachal Pradesh. On similar lines Badola and Pal
(2003) identified the threatened medicinal plants in Himachal Himalaya and discussed
the ways of their conservation with particular reference to Himachal Himalaya. As a
result of the study in the Tirthan Wildlife Sanctaury, Thakur (2012) identified a total
of 157 plants belonging to 105 genera and 56 families as threatened in the region.
2.8. Prioritization of Species, Habitats and Communities
Some of the plant species growing in a particular area are used in one way or the other
by the communities living around. In the process, there is a tremendous pressure on
these plant species for various purposes. Besides, the highly valued species are highly
exploited and that too indiscriminately thereby, leading to the degradation of their
niche and in some extreme cases even their extinction.
Keeping this in view, efforts were made by various researchers in the past so as to
suggest specific ways to conserve the species in their natural habitats/ niche. Giam et
al., (2010) identified Angola, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya,
Laos, Madagascar, Myanmar, Nepal, Tajikistan and Tanzania as the countries in
greatest need of conservation assistance and made policy recommendations that aim
to mitigate climate change, promote plant species conservation and improve the
economic conditions and quality of governance in countries with high conservation
need.
Earlier attempt made by Ram and Singh (1994) in the alpine meadows of Central
Himalayas stressed for the conservation of ecology in these locations. The eco-
development planning at Great Himalayan National Park for biodiversity conservation
and participatory rural development was discussed by Pandey and Well (1997) at
length. Moving a step ahead, Johnsingh et al., (1998) presented a detailed account of
the prioritization of area for biodiversity conservation of alpine zone in Trans and
Greater Himalaya in India. Analogous to the work done by Ram and Singh (1994) an
attempt to study ecology and conservation of alpine meadows in the Valley of
Flowers National Park, Garhwal Himalaya was made by Kala (1998). Continuing
with their work in the field of ecology Samant et al., (2002a) also conducted a study
on structure, composition and changes of the vegetation in Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve of West Himalaya. Joshi and Samant (2004) dealt with assessment of forest
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38
vegetation and conservation priorities of communities in a part of Nanda Biosphere
Reserve. They also studied the site/habitat characteristics, community diversity and
distribution pattern, vegetation composition (richness of native and endemic species)
structural patterns, economic importance of forest communities and community
priorities in the buffer zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve.
An attempt for conservation assessment and management prioritization for the wild
medicinal plants of Northeast India was made by Ved et al., (2005). On the analogy of
the above work, Gupta (2006) conducted a survey in Sarbari Khad watershed of Kullu
district, Himachal Pradesh and discussed in detail about the assessment of diversity
and conservation prioritization of economically important plants for socio-economic
development of the inhabitants. Similarly, an intensive study about the assessment of
floristic diversity and conservation status of plants in Kais Wildlife Sanctuary of
Himachal Pradesh in North-western Himalayas was discussed in detail by Lal (2007).
Likewise, Semwal et al., (2007) discussed the current status, distribution and
conservation of rare and endangered medicinal plants of Kedarnath Wildlife
Sanctuary, Central Himalayas. Sharma (2008) prioritized communities and habitats
based on Conservation Priority Index (CPI), in the Hirb and Shoja catchments of
Kullu district in Himachal Pradesh. While, Rana and Samant (2009) identified 13
habitats, 23 forest communities and 24 alpine communities from Manali Wildlife
Sanctuary and accordingly, each of the habitat and community was evaluated for site
representation, altitudinal distribution, species richness, native, endemic socio-
economically important, threatened species and prioritization. They also assessed the
threat categorization and conservation prioritization of floristic diversity. Singh et al.,
(2009) put an emphasis on diversity, indigenous uses and conservation prioritization
of medicinal plants in Lahaul valley. On the similar lines, Singh and Samant (2010)
also made an attempt to conserve and prioritize the habitats and forest communities in
the Lahaul Valley of Proposed Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve. Rana and Samant
(2011) discussed the diversity, indigenous uses and conservation status of medicinal
plants in Manali Wildlife Sanctuary and a total of 270 plants belonging to 84 families
and 197 genera were recorded and were prioritized for conservation.
In continuation to it, Samant et al., (2011) made an attempt to analyze nativity,
endemism and rarity and suggested strategy for the conservation and management of
these species in Indian Himalayan Region (IHR). Total 36 species representing trees
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39
(18 spp.), shrubs (07 spp.), herbs (08 spp.) and ferns (01 spp.) were recorded. Thakur
(2012) prioritized communities and habitats based on Conservation Priority Index
(CPI) in the Tirthan Wildlife Sanctuary of Kullu district in Himachal Pradesh.
2.9. Previous Record of Floristic Assessments in Shimla Water Catchment
Sanctuary and in the Vicinities
Expect for the little documentation of the plant species as listed in the management
plan of the Shimla Water Catchment Sanctuary, no detailed work pertaining to
floristic studies has been carried out at Shimla Water Catchment Sanctuary but
literature concerning studies on flora in Shimla town has been discussed here. Collett
(1921) ‘Flora Simelensis’, described 1326 species belonging to 639 genera under 113
families from Shimla region, covering about 800 km2, with ranges of distribution
varying between 1580 m-3500 m above msl. This century old flora still holds its way
as a major work for the identification of plants of sub-tropical, temperate and sub-
alpine parts & forests of the state. The pioneer plant collectors from this region were
Royle (1839-1840), Brandis (1874) and Parker (1918, 1938). Burkill (1965) gave an
account of the spring flora of Shimla Hills.
Singh et al., (1991) carried out detailed investigation on the phytosociological
parameters of tree vegetation in three selected sites around Shimla, Himachal Pradesh
and on the basis of IVI values formation of the plant communities like Quercus
incana-Rhododendron arboreum (Site-1); Cedrus deodara-Pinus roxburghii-Quercus
incana (Site-2) and Picea smithiana-Pinus roxburghii (Site-3) were recorded at four
different slopes (hilltop, upper slope, lower slope and hill base).The vegetation
showed mainly contiguous distribution pattern followed by random and then regular.
2.10. Hydrological functions of Forested Watersheds
Forests being important from biodiversity point of view also occupy the front seat
being the best land cover under given hydrological and ecological circumstance,
thereby, leading towards maximizing water yield and regulating the seasonal flows.
Besides this, forested watersheds generally offer high quality water as undisturbed
forest with under storey, leaf litter and organically enriched soil. In addition to it, the
availability and quality of water in many regions of the world however, are getting
more and more threatened by its overuse, misuse and pollution. Moreover, climate
change is also altering forest’s role in regulating water flows thereby influencing the
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40
availability of water resources (Bergkamp et al., 2003). Therefore, relationship
between the forests and water is a critical issue that must be accorded high priority
especially in view of the overgrowing menace of climate change. Accordingly, a key
challenge being faced by the land, forest and water managers is to maximize the wide
range of multi-sectoral forest benefits without any deterrent to water resources and
ecosystem functions.
The International Year of Freshwater, 2003 and the Third World Water Forum in
Kyoto, Japan, (2003) helped, drive the incorporation of this understanding of bio-
physical interactions between forests and water into policies. The International Expert
Meeting on Forests and Water, held in Shiga, Japan in November 2002 in preparation
for these events, highlighted the need for more holistic consideration of interactions
between water, forest, land uses and socio-economic factors in complex watershed
ecosystems (Megahan, 1977; Cassells et al., 1984; FAO, 1996, 1999; Hamilton, 2004;
Thang and Chappell, 2004). They included measures to protect soil water and nutrient
status, the recharge of major aquifers, micro-climate and evaporation, and river
resources. To generate data base in terms of ecological and socio-cultural aspects i.e.
physical aspects/ land use, extent of water spread and its water quality, vegetation
status of catchment area and surrounding of Prashar lake in Mandi district, Himachal
Pradesh, an attempt was made by Attri and Santvan (2012). Objectives of the study
were to determine the importance of this wetland for the local people and the threats
to the high altitude wetland were identified and adequate measures for their
conservation and management were suggested.
Many municipalities (certainly not all) cite maintenance of a pure water supply as a
reason for introducing forest protection or reforestation. In the United States, all states
are required under federal law to have a Source Water Assessment, which promotes
the idea that protecting drinking-water at the source is the most effective way of
preventing drinking-water contamination (NRDC, 2003). The city of New York is
famous for its use of protected forests to maintain its high-quality water supply.
Similar examples are found in many tropical and sub-tropical regions. The Mount
Makiling Forest Reserve south of Manila, the Philippines is a 4244 ha area of forest
administered and managed by the University of the Philippines. More than 50 percent
of the reserve is forested, and its watershed ecosystem supplies five water districts and
several water cooperatives serving domestic, institutional and commercial water
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41
users. Other examples of major cities drawing some or all of their drinking-water
from protected areas include Mumbai, Jakarta, Karachi, Singapore, Colombia; Brazil,
Zimbabwe etc.
Shimla Water Catchment Sanctuary also holds its importance not only from its
immense floristic diversity but also from its hydrological function. The sanctuary is
drained by a number of seasonal and streams perennial streams and it is known to
supply water for Shimla city from past more than 100 years. The water level has been
found decreasing every year due to certain reasons as climate change, anthropogenic
pressures, outdated water harvesting techniques etc. as reported by (Singh and
Kandari, 2012)
Taking clues from the work done in the past by the various researchers as also
highlighted in the present chapter, efforts have been made to weave in the results
obtained out of our study under separate chapters for meeting the proposed objectives.
Accordingly, the subsequent chapters highlight the relevant issues one by one. The
following chapter gives a fair idea about the climate, geology, topography,
biodiversity (floral and faunal) etc. of the study area so as to have an imaginary
picturesque of the site.
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