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CHAPTER-02

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Wide array of environmental issues confronting the world today and impacting the

varied ecosystems, now calls for developing mitigation measures through site specific

strategies. To mitigate one such issue is the assessment of present status and

prioritization of floristic diversity in view of its expected loss mainly due to the rapid

changes in land-use system through host of biotic and abiotic interferences including

impact of climate change. (Anton et al., 2010; Barnosky et al., 2011; MacDonald et

al., 2008). However, to reach at the adequate level of priorities and to implement the

realistic conservancy efforts in nature, we certainly require a range of methods to

understand how these processes impact the biodiversity (Dawson et al., 2011). In

view of the fact that ecosystem responses may normally occur or reflect over decades

or centuries, hence, making them difficult to observe, therefore, botanical and

ecological records may provide important basic information about the past responses

relevant to the on-going and future changes in vegetation and biodiversity (Haslett et

al., 2010; Jackson and Hobbs, 2009; Willis and Bhagwat, 2010; Willis et al., 2010).

Hence, it will not be out of place to mention over here that for the sake of

conservation and sustainable management of any forest, it essentially requires a

holistic approach and good knowledge of its biodiversity (Mulchand, 2013).

Importance of “Old wisdom and good knowledge on biodiversity” was also discussed

and stressed upon recently during the International Symposium on “Transforming

Mountain Forestry” organized by International Centre for Integrated Mountain

Development (ICIMOD) in collaboration with Forest Research Institute (FRI),

Dehradun. It was emphasized that replacing “greed” with “need” for managing forests

for biodiversity conservation is essentially required in view of the fact that large

section of society still subsists on forest resources for daily needs. The inadequate

knowledge of forest botany amongst the foresters and other professionals leading to

the plantations of wrong species is adding to the existing vow. Extensive research on

the impacts of non-native species on the ecology of native vegetation was also

emphasized upon in this symposium. (ICIMOD, 2015). Accordingly, it becomes

imperative to review the studies those have been made in the past on the lines similar

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to the objectives identified so as to analyze and correlate the same with present day

scenario.

When talking specifically about the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), it supports a

representative, natural, unique and socio-economically important biodiversity and

accordingly, attracts ecologists, taxonomists, naturalists and also the conservationists

not only from India but also from abroad for exploring, identifying and assessing its

complex biological heritage. Some studies covering multi-dimensional scientific

aspects though had already been carried out in the IHR yet, additional efforts towards

in-depth assessment of biodiversity have been attempted through the present study

titled “Ecological Assessment and Prioritization of Floristic Diversity: Developing

Conservation Strategies for Shimla Water Catchment Sanctuary, Himachal

Pradesh”. The study was undertaken continuously for over a period of two years i.e

2011 to 2013 with an objective to further strengthen the earlier efforts in the direction

and accordingly, a critical review of existing literature on the related aspects like

floral diversity, ecology, nativity, endemism, rarity, prioritization of species, habitats

and communities for their conservation was carried out and has been detailed under

the following sub-heads;

2.1. Floristic Study-A Historical Perspective

Biological diversity in-fact is the central tenant of nature and is one of its key defining

features. Accordingly, nature of a plant community at a place in general, is

determined by the species that grow and develop in such environment (Billings and

Bliss, 1962). It is usually observed that large variations in populations of a species are

usually found in nature mainly because of the fact that each of the constituent species

has not only its own ecological amplitudes but also its particular relationship to the

environment and also to the associate species as well. As effects of discontinuities of

environment on the vegetation often on a large scale are obvious as change of floristic

composition hence, Danseareau (1960) considered floristic composition as one of the

major distinguishing feature of a community or of an ecosystem as well. Such causes

and effects then automatically necessitate carrying out the floristic assessments

especially of ecologically relevant and important areas by conducting their surveys so

as to understand the complete and complex diversity of a particular ecosystem.

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It is beyond any doubt that the ancient Indian literature is also full of references where

lot of importance had been attached to the plants and the respect they upheld since,

they met/are meeting the myriad of survival needs and livelihood securities of the

people belonging to various boxes of life (Kapoor et al., 2005). Earliest records of

expeditions mainly aiming at plant collections dates back to 1495 BC when Queen

Hatsheput of Egypt sent a team from her country to Somalia in search of the trees

yielding precious Frankincense- the fragrant resin (Coats,1969). Beginning of plant

exploration work on scientific lines in India however, dates back to Gracia da Orta, a

great pharmacist from Portugal whose knowledge on the plant wealth has been

recorded in his book ‘Os Coloquios’ published in 1565 (Burkill, 1935a, 1935b). It

was however, Heinrich Van Rheede, the governor of Dutch possession in Malabar

who in 1667-68, made first real attempt to explore systematically the plant wealth

(Manilal, 1980). His monumental book ‘Hortus Malabaricus’ as published in 12

volumes from Amsterdam is still regarded as an important contribution to the

floristics in India.

Botanical studies in ancient India touched their high standard mainly during the Vedic

and Pre-christian era which also proved a good help to the students of medicine of

that period. Atharva Veda and Susruta Samhita-important documents of Vedic times

were written before the Christian era and these compilations also contain the

descriptions and medicinal importance of various plant species. However, the first

floristic and an authoritative work even today is ‘Hortus Malabaricus’ (12 volumes)

published by a Dutch amateur botanist, Hendrich van Rheede during the year 1679.

Based on this work, Linnaeus prepared a Binomial System of Nomenclature of 265

Indian plants in his ‘Species Plantarum’ during 1753 (Santapau, 1954). Thereafter,

JG Koening who came to India in 1768 as a surgeon and a naturalist, formed a society

called ‘The United Brothers’, for promoting the study of Indian plants but in the

meantime, Royal Botanical Garden also came into existence in Bengal under the

patronage of East India Company. Col. Robert Kyd (first Superintendent) followed by

Buchnan Hamilton, C. B Clarke, N. Wallich, T. Cooke, William Griffth, William

Roxburgh are few other names of Europeans being amongst the outstanding plant

collectors of India , those who took real and keen interest in studying the flora of this

country during nineteenth century (Burkill, 1965). The binomial system of

nomenclature of plants and animals as developed by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753, soon

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started finding its application in India with Rheede’s work being used as the base

(Santapau, 1954). During this period some Britishers under stimulus from James

Petiver and Charles du Boiss gathered plants from the Madras Coast. Botanical

explorations in the country continued with Benjamin Heyne, Francis Buchanan

Hamilton, JF Royle, JG Koeing, John Peter Rattler, Nathaniel Wallich, Robert Wight,

Victoria Jacquemont, William Griffith and William Roxburgh being among the

outstanding plant collectors in India till the middle of the nineteenth century (Burkill,

1965).

Explorations of the plant resources in India and further compilations and publication

of floristic accounts, sought an additional boost by the middle of 19th century. During

this period, India had become one of the best known tropical countries with the

second best National Flora of the world at that time. The ‘Hand Book of Indian

Flora’ in three volumes by Lt. Col. Heber Drury (1864) was published as a guide to

all the flowering plants considered indigenous to the sub-continent of India. In the

year 1855, JD Hooker and T. Thompson published a volume of Flora Indica,

however, this volume was soon given up in favour of the more comprehensive work

‘The Flora of British India’ (Hooker, 1872-1897) which includes the present day

Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, India, Malaya, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore and Sri

Lanka. The first volume of this publication came out in the year 1872, whereas the

seventh and last volume of the series was published in the year 1897. This flora deals

with about 14,312 species, 25 sub-species, 2,302 varieties, 11 sub-varieties and 9

forms under 2,325 genera and 171 families from a collection of hundred thousands of

specimens as collected over an area of one and a half million square miles in tropical,

temperate and frigid climates and at all the elevations right from the sea-level upto an

altitude of 19,000 ft. Though this flora did not cover all the political boundaries of

India, yet it is the only published work which throws light on the Indian plants. This

work also stimulated the taxonomic research and as a consequence to it, many of the

provincial floras like Cooke (1901-1908); Prain (1903); Talbot (1909-11); Collett

(1921); Kanjilal (1928); Gamble and Fischer (1915-36); Parkinson (1923); Osmaston

(1927); Fyson, (1932) and Kanjilal (1934-40) were published over the years. Besides,

there are more than 150 odd local floras those are also important in their own right

and spirit as they threw light on the plants of their respective regions, however, have

not been cited here. Since, publication of ‘Magnum Opus’ of Indian Botany, many

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authors listed the species and genera of Indian Phanerogames not included in Sir JD

Hooker’s Flora of British India (Calder et al., 1926; Razi, 1959; Nayar and

Ramamurthy, 1973; Nayar and Karthikeyan, 1981; Naithani, 1990).

Collections made as a result of the efforts put in by the earlier explorers can be seen in

the flora under reference which still remains the pioneer work in the country and has

formed the basis of all the later provincial or local Indians floras published till date. In

between, a number of local and regional floras were written and published and

amongst all of them work of Roxburgh (1832) described the phenology of Indian wild

and cultivated plants and arranged them in Candollian order with the modern names

needs special mention. His ‘Flora Indica’, has an abbreviated transcript of a

dictionary of Indian plants and shrubs.

Stewart (1869) explored the floral wealth of old Punjab Provinces and named the

compilation as ‘The Punjab Plants’ comprising of both the botanical and vernacular

names including uses of most of the trees, shrubs and herbs of economic values

growing within the province including Hazara and the Kashmir Valleys. Brandis

(1874) in his ‘Forest Flora of North- West and Central India’ described about 700

indigenous trees and shrubs those also included about 80 introduced and cultivated

plants. It is quite pertinent to mention over here that this flora was written not only

keeping in view the requirements of the botanists but also in view of the practical

utility of the same to those people who were given the responsibility to care for the

public forests in different provinces of the country.

After completion of the field work on the orchids of Sikkim Himalaya, King and

Pantling (1898) later published their work in 3 volumes while supplementing their

splendid work as undertaken by them on those orchids in the past. Duthie (1905)

described the phenology of woody and herbaceous plants of the Shiwalik and Sub-

Himalayan tracts of upper Gangetic Plains and apart from this work also presented a

detailed account of the orchids of Western Himalaya (Duthie, 1906). Brandis (1906)

described over 4400 species of trees, shrubs, climbers, bamboos and plants in British

Empire following Bentham and Hooker’s ‘Genera Plantarum’ to the sequence of

orders with the sole exception that gymnosperms were placed at the end. Kanjilal

(1928) described the tropical, sub-tropical and temperate plants native to and

naturalized in Chakrata, Dehradun and Saharanpur Forest divisions, first two places

now falling in Uttarakhand and the last one in the state of Uttar Pradesh.

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Talbot (1909-1911) while describing the ‘Forest Flora of Bombay Presidency and

Sind’- undoubtedly the initial best work on woody flora for the major parts of

Peninsular India- profusely illustrated identification details of trees, shrubs, bamboos,

palms and woody climbers and is still used widely by the botanists, foresters and

naturalists as well. Later, Gamble and Fischer (1915-1936) described about 4516

species from Indian Peninsular region covering different elevations ranging right from

the sea level to almost 2800 m above msl. Continuing with this work Santapau (1967),

Saldanha and Nicolson (1976) and Mathew (1981-84) compiled, ‘The Flora of

Khandala’, ‘Flora of Hassan District, Karnataka’ and ‘The Flora of Tamil Nadu

Carnatic’ respectively covering plant explorations of Peninsular India.

Rao (1914) enumerated the flowering plants of Travancore, primarily for the British

ladies, which contains a list of 3,535 plant species. Fyson (1915) made a major and

important contribution to the study of hill plants of South India. His important

contributions has been compiled as an illustrated book/ flora on the hills: The Flora

of the Nilgiri and Pulney Hill-Tops (1915, 1921) a revised version of which was

published in 1932, ‘The Flora of the South Indian Hill Stations’, where he described

the wild and introduced flowering plants around the hill stations of Kotagiri,

Kodaikanal and Ootacamund. This book opened the way for the study of the plants of

the Western Ghats, one of the world’s 18 bio-diversity hotspots. Bamber (1916)

provided a descriptive key to the old Punjab, North-west Frontier Province and

Kashmir. Parker (1918) described the flora of Punjab with Hazara and Delhi including

plants from the Bashahar Himalayas. Others who worked on regional floras include

Stewart (1869), Collet (1902) and Coventry (1923-1930). Bor (1960) while working

on the grasses of India, for the first time made efforts to document this difficult group

not only from India, but also from Burma, Ceylon and Pakistan. Another interesting

group of Indian orchids was worked by Sarkar (1995) and afterwards, he compiled a

comprehensive and up-to-date census of about 1004 such species, highlighting the

presence of 550 rare, endemic and endangered categories of these orchids. Naveh and

Whittaker (1979) studied the structure and diversity of shrub-lands and woodlands of

northern Israel along climatic and Human-disturbance gradients using 0.1 ha

vegetation samples. Diversity showed a two-slope response to grazing with highest

species numbers in heavily (but not the most severely) grazed woodlands and shrub

lands.

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Botanical explorations as carried out by different workers in the recent past in various

states including different districts of the country, mainly included the works of

Saldanha (1984 and 1996) ‘Flora of Karnataka’ containing over 3400 species of

flowering plants; Kulkarni (1988) ‘Flora of Sindhudurg’; Manilal (1988) ‘Flora of

Silent Valley’; Sahni (1990) ‘Gymnosperms of India and Adjacent countries’;

Sasidharan and Sivarajan (1996) ‘Flowering Plants of Trissur Forest’; Almeida

(1996) ‘Flora of Maharashtra’; Shivarajan and Mathew (1997) ‘Flora of Nilambur

Western Ghats’ containing over 1,132 species of angiosperms; Pullaiah (1997) ‘Flora

of Andhra Pradesh’; Naithani et al., (1997) ‘Forest Flora of Goa’; Naik (1998)

‘Flora of Marathwada of Maharashtra’ and Kumar’s (2001) ‘Flora of Haryana’. In

fact, these publications have made worth-while contributions to the existing

knowledge of plant wealth of the country.

Presently, Botanical Survey of India has been undertaking intensive floristic surveys

in various under explored and unexplored regions of the country and is in the process

of compiling this information in the form of ‘Flora of India’ in 32 volumes. Out of

these, Sharma and Balakrishnan (1993-2000) and Hajra et al., (1995) have already

published 5 volumes of this work. Meanwhile, works on the floristic diversity of India

had also been compiled by Sambamurthy (2001) in his publication ‘Dictionary of

Angiosperm Families and their Genera’ wherein he described about 510 families

and had listed 13,600 genera. All these works reveal an intensive taxonomic work and

field collections those ultimately resulted in adding many taxa to the floristic wealth

of the country. The changing taxonomic concepts which are seen as an improvement

over Bentham and Hooker’s system of classification which has been followed in

‘Flora of British India’, have led to shifting of certain genera from one family to

another along with changes at the levels of families, genera and species in accordance

with the classification as earlier given by Engler and Prantl (1887-1915). However,

this being a continuous process and keeping in view the objectives of the study, the

work done by different authors and that has been published in form of research

papers/books/reports/proceedings was thoroughly reviewed and their findings have

further been discussed under various headings as detailed below:

2.2. Floristic Diversity-In General

Celep and Dogan (2007) after studying the natural flora of lower Tersakan Valley in

Northern Turkey, reported 457 taxa of 301 genera belonging to 74 families and 54 of

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these determined to be threatened according to IUCN Red List Categories. Shrestha et

al., (2000) carried out the comparative studies of floristic diversity of natural and

degraded forests in Chitrepani in Siwalik region of Central Nepal and found that due

to degradation the country had already lost 78.2 per cent species, 90.9 per cent loss of

plant density, 80.0 per cent basal area, 71.7 per cent tree volume and 80.1 per cent

tree biomass while compared to the natural forest. A general overview of the

biological knowledge of the floristic province of Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley in

Central-southern Mexico was presented by Davila et al., (2002) which showed that in

an approximate area of 10,000 km2, a total of 10 to 11.4% of the Mexican flora was

present. In addition, the valley had the distribution of about 365 endemic species

thereby representing 13.9% of its flora. With respect to the faunal diversity, the

available information is less comprehensive than for plants whereas, Philip et al.,

(2003) repeatedly sampled forests in two regions of Amazonia, Peru (Loreto and

Madre de Dios Departments) using the two most widely used plot based protocols of

floristic sampling and compared their performance in terms of the quantity of floristic

knowledge and ecological insight gained scaled to the field effort required.

Two community forests namely Amaldapani and Juphal falling in Dolpa district of

mid-west of Nepal were selected for a study on the quantitative analysis of tree flora

(Kunwar and Sharma, 2004) and in this process a total of 419 individual trees

representing 16 species, 16 genera and 11 families were registered. Species like Pinus

wallichiana, Abies spectabilis, Quercus semicarpifolia and Cedrus deodara were

recorded as the species showing highest Importance Value Index (IVI) and could

therefore, be considered as the dominant species. Studies on the similar lines were

undertaken on floristic composition and phyto-geographical analysis of Gebel Elba

National Park in the south-east corner of Egypt by Abdel-Ghani and Abdel Kkalik

(2006) who then recorded a total of 179 species belonging to 51 families. Infact, six

major sites were investigated to adequately cover the entire territory of the Park

(35,600 km2) and also to reach completeness while inventorizing the vascular flora of

this area. Variations in species richness with reference to floristic composition and

species diversity amongst the sites within the park were also observed. A new

approach for conserving biodiversity within human dominated Meso-American

landscapes that unites a focus on ecologically sustainable agriculture with existing

efforts in protected areas to achieve lasting conservation outcomes at local and

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regional levels was put forward by Harvey et al., (2007). Similarly, vegetation of

Gibraltar Range National Park and adjoining parts of eastern Washpool National Park,

65 km east of Glen Innes on the Eastern escarpment of New South Wales was studied

and described by Hunter and Paul (2008) in which a total of 878 vascular taxa from

138 families were recorded, of which only 21 (2%) were found to be of introduced

origin and 81 (9%) were recorded having conservation significance. They observed

and concluded that communities with a high number of shrubs had greater consistency

between sites while compared to those that contained a high number of closed forest

species.

Qureshi (2008) carried out the vegetational assessment of Sawan Wari of Nara Desert

and on the basis of IVI, plant communities were delineated for this study area. A total

of 136 plant species belonging to 73 genera and 44 families were identified and out of

it five plant communities were constructed from its 5 distinct habitats. In addition to

it, 01 species of fern, 01 species of gymnosperms, 6 sedges and 25 species of Poaceae

were recorded. With the objective to assess and analyse the floristic diversity of

Azagny National Park located on the Ivorian coast, Wildlife Conservation Monitoring

Centre, (2008) conducted a botanical study and accordingly, recorded 519 plant

species at the end of the study. Amongst the identified species, 57 were found as

endemic to upper Guinea and 24 of them belonged to threatened and endangered

categories thereby, justifying the inclusion of this park in the Guinean Forest of West

African Hotspot. Similarly, Abdullahi et al., (2009) carried out species assessment of

Yankari Game Reserve of Bauchi-Nigeria and as a result of it, five different plant

communities were constructed from five different habitats besides, identification of

40 new plant species belonging to 33 genera and 7 families for this area.

A comparison of the species composition and diversity of 15 one-ha plots in the

Amazonian terra firme dense forest in Brazil, within the other nine one-ha plots was

studied by Emido da Silva et al., (2011). Results thus obtained, highlighted both the

local and regional heterogeneity of environments in terra firme forests and the high

occurrence of rare species, which should be considered in management and

conservation programmes in the Amazon rainforest, in order to maintain its structure

in the long run. Similarly, Hoang et al., (2011) analysed species composition and

density in forest plots with diverse soils and varying degrees of human disturbance in

Ben En National Park, Vietnam. It was seen that the soil factors significantly

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influenced tree species composition, although they only explained 5.7% of the

observed data variance. Human factors (disturbances) were second most important in

explaining species composition and density, accounting for 4.4% of variance.

Changes in species composition related to human disturbances varied mostly

independently of the soil condition/types. In order to study floristic and plant species

diversity, approximately 450 ha of Oak forests was selected by Pourbabaei and

Navgran (2011) in Chenareh, Marivan of Kordestan province in Western Iran and in

the process mean values of richness and diversity were found maximum at an altitude

of 1500 m above msl whereas, their lowest values were recorded in the altitude

varying from 1750 m and 1800 m above msl in the tree and shrub layers. Mean

richness and diversity were found to be the highest in 1500 m above msl and lowest in

1750 m above msl in the regeneration layer. Also, the mean diversities were found to

be the highest at an altitude 1700 m above msl and lowest in the elevation of 1800 m

above msl in the herbaceous layer.

Analogous to this work, Sobuj and Rahman (2011) after employing stratified random

quadrat method for studying the floristic diversity in Khadimnagar National Park of

Bangladesh, described the diversity of plant species (trees, shrubs and herbs).

Accordingly, a total of 74 plant species were recorded of which 26 were tree species,

17 were shrubs and 31 were herbs. Among the tree species, Tectona grandis showed

the highest density (3.03/100 m2), frequency (76.67%), relative density (17.7%),

relative frequency (11.3%) and relative dominance (37.3%). On the contrary, Alstonia

scholaris represented the lowest density (0.07/100 m2), frequency (6.67%), relative

density (0.39%) and relative frequency (0.995). An analysis of the compositional

patterns for limestone tropical forests in Xishuangbanna, which is located in the

northern edge of tropical Asia was also done by Tang et al., (2011). All trees in four

50mx50m plots with diameter at breast height (dbh=1.3) ≥ 5 cm were measured and

identified. A total of 998 individuals belonging to 100 species, 74 genera and 31

families were recorded in these plots. Species richness ranged from 18 to 46 species

per plot. The most ecologically significant family as determined by basal area and

stem density was Euphorbiaceae.

Upadhaya et al., (2003) selected two sacred groves in Jaintia hills of Meghalaya and

recorded a total of 738 individuals belonging to 82 species, 59 genera and 39 families

in a 0.5 ha plot of the Ialong sacred grove, whereas the same area in the Raliang

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sacred grove had 469 individuals of 80 species, 62 genera and 41 families. About 32

per cent of the species were common to both the groves. Lauraceae, with 10-17

species, was the dominant family. Canopy and the sub-canopy strata were

respectively comprised of 28 per cent and 33 per cent of the total tree species in the

forest. Patnaik and Reddy (2007) studied the plant resources of Gandhamardan hill

ranges of Orissa and in the process, a total of 912 vascular species belonging to 556

genera under 142 families were recorded. Floristic survey and phyto-sociological

analysis along 110 km of busy road sides of a biodiversity-rich tropical zone, in

Kottayam District of Kerela, South India, showed 85 species belonging to 27 families

differently tolerant to the stressful environment, which also included exotics as well

as medicinal plants (Ray and George, 2009). To record the floristic diversity of

evergreen forest of Kolli Hills falling in Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu, a survey was

conducted (Jayakumar et al., 2009) after following three different sampling methods

i.e., (a) adhoc (AH) vegetation survey, (b) stratified random plot (SRP) and (c) bigger

plot (BP) and it was finally inferred that the diversity indices calculated based on SRP

and BP with 3 ha sampling area (0.1% of total evergreen area using 20mX20m plot

following SRP) and BP with 8 ha sampling area varied considerably. Similar studies

as carried out by Manhas et al., (2010) in the protected areas of Pathankot, Hoshiarpur

and Garhshanker falling in Kandi region of Punjab, registered a total of 206 species

belonging to 159 genera and 59 families from these sites. The per cent contribution of

di-cotyledons, mono-cotyledons and pteridophytes recorded was 77.7, 20.4 and 1.9

respectively; however, Ipomoea was found to be the most dominant genera.

Biological spectrum of the study site showed that therophytes constituted the most

dominant life-form (52%) followed by phanerophytes (27%).

To compile a national level database on the spatial distribution of biological diversity,

a nationwide project on the biodiversity characterization at landscape level was

implemented and in the process studies were carried out by Roy et al., (2012) between

1998 and 2010 to characterize and map the flowering plants richness in the forested

landscapes. This study has resulted in the creation of a large baseline spatial database

on vegetation types, porosity, patchiness, interspersion, juxta-position, fragmentation,

disturbance regimes, ecosystems uniqueness, terrain complexity and biological

richness. Sainkhediya and Ray (2012) carried out an extensive and intensive plant

survey of Khandwa and Khargone district of Nimar region and preliminary study of

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region showed rich plant diversity in respect to 72 families and 222 genera. As a

result of this study, it was also observed that 17 plant species have become threatened

of which Oroxylum indicum L., Gloriosa superba L., Ceropegia hirsuta Wt. & Arm.,

Visum articulatum Auct., Oryza rufipogon Griff., are depleting at an alarming rate.

Chawla et al., (2012) identified few Protected Areas and selected forest core area and

ecotones along the temperate, sub-alpine, alpine and cold desert ecosystems in

Himachal Pradesh so as to establish a network of permanent monitoring plots. Land

and vegetation cover map of three selected protected areas has been prepared using

satellite data. Amongst the 10 permanent monitoring plots, the temperate and tree line

forests in the Great Himalayan National Park (GHNP) were found to have the highest

tree diversity with Taxus baccata subsp. wallichiana showing good stand density and

regeneration.

2.3. Floristic Elements of North-west Himalaya

North-west Himalaya in particular includes the states of Himachal Pradesh,

Uttarakhand and Jammu and Kashmir and has long been recognized as a distinct

floristic region in India (Hooker, 1906; Mani, 1974). It has about 1,000 endemics out

of a total of approximately 3,000 species recorded in this part of the country

(Nayar,1996) which further indicates that ecological and phyto-geographical features

of the region those reflect upon the floristic distribution are quite remarkable, thereby,

presenting many unsolved problems of great interest. Only because of this

uniqueness, North-west Himalaya has been placed at the third position as far as

endemism of India is concerned followed by North-east and Peninsular India (Nayar,

1996). Mani (1978) had also discussed and described at length some of the

outstanding differences between North-west part of Himalaya with rest of the

Himalayan ranges and found that the vegetation of the North-west Himalaya are not

so well known and documented while compared to the Eastern Himalaya, mainly

because of its varied topography, wide altitudinal ranges and unique geographical

locations the area has. Infact, this region harbours a rich flora and exhibits affinities

with the flora of Mediterranean, Siberian, Tibetan and Indo-Malayan regions. The

presence of Christolea himalayensis is one of the unique records for the Western

Himalaya which belongs to the family Brassicaceae, a specimen of which was

collected by Gurdial Singh at an altitude of 6300 m above msl during the Mt. Kamet

Expedition in 1955. Palaeo-botanical evidences also indicate that many of the woody

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elements in the flora of Himalayan region owe their origin from the tropical wet

evergreen forests of the Indian Peninsula (Vishnu-Mittre, 1984).

Kachroo et al., (1977) explored the Cold Deserts of Ladakh, India and later described

about 611 plant species. Similar studies as conducted by Polunin and Stainton (1984)

were also compiled and published in the ‘Flowers of Himalaya’ and later Stainton

(1988) after conducting the floristic survey in the Western Himalaya and Nepal

spreading over an area of 1450 km2 further added and described over 1500 species in

the text ‘A supplement to the Flowers of Himalaya’, which also supported 606

coloured photographs besides 319 line drawings covering native, naturalized and

exotic species in parts of India. The ‘Flora of Cold Deserts of Western Himalaya’

(Murti, 2001) is another addition to the series of floristic works in the North-west

Himalaya describing about 347 species of monocots, belonging to 103 genera under

16 families. Chauhan and Singh (2005) recorded eight interesting plants viz.

Corydalis vaginans Royle, Lepidium virginicum L., Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers.,

Gentiana crassuloides Bureau et Franchet, Orobanche cernua Loefl. Var. pseudo-

clakkei Jafri, Chenopodium murale L. and Eleocharis retroflexa (Poir.) Urb. from the

Cold Desert of Ladakh.

Supplementing the splendid work on orchids already done by Som Deva and Naithani

(1986) also added more details in their account on ‘The orchids of North-west

Himalaya’. Goel and Bhattacharya (1985) explored Gharwal Himalaya and collected

a new variety Pimpinella diversifolia from Gangi, situated at an altitude of 3000m

above msl. Kapur and Sarin (1990) while conducting botanical survey in Trikuta hills

around Vaishno Devi Shrine, Jammu, collected 495 species of flowering plants and

later described the vegetation distribution pattern, plant communities, phyto-

geography and also the issues pertaining to the economic upliftment of the area.

Dangwal et al., (1994, 1995) also recorded some rare and lesser known legumes from

Garhwal Himalaya while Semwal and Bhat (1994) investigated impact of biotic

stresses on the composition and structure of temperate forests in Garhwal Himalaya.

Phyto-sociological details of some of the individual species like Nardostachys

grandiflora D.C. in the past was carried out by Gargya et al., (1998) where sub-alpine

and alpine regions of Yamunotri, Kedarnath and Dayyara, Garhwal Himalayas were

covered. While studying the alpine grasslands at Panwalikantha (3963 m above msl)

in Garhwal Himalaya, Raizada et al., (1998) observed that the intensively grazed

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22

areas in summer months showed seven distinct plant communities and species

richness recorded was highest in the moderately grazed area and least in the

intensively grazed areas. In–depth studies pertaining to ecological and conservation

aspects of alpine meadows in the Valley of Flowers, Garhwal Himalaya was also

made by Kala (1998) and Kala et al., (2003). Rawat and Bhainsora (1999) studied the

structure and composition of forests across the Shiwaliks of Doon valley and also of

outer Himalaya in Dehradun district covering western fringe of Rajaji National Park

by using stratified random plots. Aspects like richness of woody species, Importance

Value Index (IVI) of trees and regeneration of Sal (Shorea robusta Roxb. ex Gaertn.

F.). Besides it, the climax species of the region were also compared and discussed at

great length.

Samant et al., (1998b) studied the biodiversity of Askot Wildlife Sanctuary and found

that the forest and pasture lands those covered nearly 52 per cent and 12 per cent of

total reported area respectively, are the ideal habitats for the floral and faunal

elements. Plant diversity assessment in relation to the disturbances in mid-elevation

forests (1300 m-2000 m above msl) of Nainital, was made by Khera et al., (2001) and

it was observed that higher number of trees and shrubs were found on the western

aspect which was experiencing low erosion and great anthropogenic pressures. Rawat

et al., (2001) explored Valley of Flowers National Parks in the Chamoli district of

Gharwal Himalaya during 1993-1997 and recorded 520 species of vascular plants

belonging to 72 families and 248 genera. Joshi et al., (2004) recorded about 109

species of ferns from Mandal and adjoining localities in Chamoli district of Gharwal

Himalaya including recording of 4 new species to the area.

Negi and Nautiyal (2005) also made significant contributions to the phyto-

sociological aspects in a traditional reserve forest-Thal ke Dhar, Pithoragarh-

bordering Tibet and Nepal. Ahmad et al., (2006) after conducting a quantitative

phyto-sociological survey in 184 sampling stands in various climatic zones of

Himalayan forests of Pakistan, further recognized 24 different communities and 4

mono-specific forest vegetations. Supriya and Yadava (2006) studied the floristic

diversity of Dipterocarpus tuberculatus dominated forest of Manipur situated along

the Indo-Myanmar Border and as a result of it a total of 123 species belonging to 48

families were recorded. Synoptic account of the floristic diversity of Dihang Dibang

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Biosphere of Arunachal Pradesh in NE India (Chowdhary, 2008) revealed the

occurrence of 1004 species of angiosperms belonging to 527 genera and 124 families.

Studies conducted by Rashid et al., (2008) in Rajouri district, Jammu and Kashmir

revealed the presence of 57 plant species belonging to 33 families and Rosaceae and

Polygonaceae were the dominated amongst all with 5 taxa in each while family

Rhamnaceae followed with 4 taxa whereas Violaceae was represented by 3 members

only. Singh and Gupta (2009) revealed the dominance of Cedrus deodara an endemic

species of Indian Himalayas in all Periodic Blocks with maximum dominance in PB

II. Amongst different PBs, maximum diversity in species was found in PB IV with

highest density of Quercus floribunda followed by Cedrus deodara and Pinus

wallichiana.

Suyal et al., (2010) recorded a total of 231 species (227 angiosperms and 4

gymnosperms) belonging to 69 families (67 angiosperms and 2 gymnosperms) and

159 genera (156 angiosperms and 3 gymnosperms) from Chaurangikhal forest of

Gharwal Himalaya. Uniyal et al., (2010) studied the plant diversity in two different

forest types having varied degree of biotic pressures along the gradients in Dewalgarh

Watershed, Gharwal Himalaya and ultimately found that the moderately disturbed

stand favoured density and species richness in both the forest types. Pant and Pant

(2011) made an attempt to describe 63 species (trees: 07 spp.; shrubs: 09 spp.; herbs:

47 spp.) of threatened plants of Jammu and Kashmir. As per the new criteria of

International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), all the

sixty three (63) species described had been categorized as Critically Endangered

(11spp.); Endangered (21 spp.); Vulnerable (26 spp.); Near Threatened (02 spp.) and

Least Concern (03 spp.).

Dhakal et al., (2011) carried out studies in the Bandevi Buffer Zone Community

Forest (BZCF) and Satkanya Community Forest of Barandabhar corridor area in

Chitwan district of Nepal so as to assess and compare the status of floristic diversity

in buffer zone community forest and community forest in Barandabhar corridor in

Chitwan district of Nepal. As a result of these efforts, diversity index (SI=0.9367 and

SI=3.3714) and species richness index of (MI=10) of BZCF were found higher than

the diversity index (SI=0.8749 and WI=3.0099) and species richness index

(MI=9.0491) of SCF. It was finally concluded that floral diversity is higher in BZCF

than the CF outside the buffer zone under similar edapho-climatic conditions whereas

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comprehensive information on the diversity, conservation status and utilization of

plants in Shiwalik Himalaya of Uttarakhand was provided by Sharma et al., (2011).

Botanical explorations of Rau (1975), ‘High altitude Flowering Plants of Western

Himalaya’; Sharma and Kachroo (1981), ‘Flora of Jammu and Plants of

Neighborhood’ ; Dhar and Kachroo (1983), ‘Alpine Flora of Kashmir Himalaya’ ;

Naithani’s (1984), ‘Flora of Chamoli’ : Kaul (1986), ‘Weed Flora of Kashmir

valley’ ; Garg (1987), ‘Gentianaceae of North-west Himalaya’; Chaurasia and Singh

(1996-98), ‘Cold Desert Plants’: Gaur (1999), ‘Flora of District Gharwal, North-

West Himalaya (with ethno-botanical notes)’ ; Singh et al., (2002), ‘Flora of

Jammu and Kashmir’ Rana et al., (2002), ‘Flora of Tons Valley, Gharwal

Himalaya’ ; Singh and Prakash (2002), ‘Flora of Rajaji National Park’ are some of

the important floristic works in recent years and those have made worthwhile

contributions to the existing knowledge in the North-west Himalaya.

Stapf (1905) conducted work on Indian Aconites having 24 species and arranged them

in main categories according to the structure of their roots. Based upon the earlier

collections of the family ‘Scrophulariaceae’, made over for more than thirty years by

numerous workers, especially those of Dr. RR Stewart, the then President of Gordon

College at Rawalpindi, detailed studies in Western Himalayas were taken up by

Pennell (1943).

Vediya and Kharadi (2011) recorded a total of 58 angiospermic families belonging to

164 genera and 287 species besides the collection of 4 pteridophytes and 3 bryophytes

from Megharj range forest of Isari Gujarat, India. Following his work, Desai and Ant

(2012) recorded a total of 355 plant species belonging to 80 families from Vadali

range forest in particular zone Vasai, Verabar and Mota kotada of district

Sabarkantha, North Gujarat, India. To provide comprehensive information on

diversity and distribution of plants in the Hazaribag District Jharkhand an attempt was

made by Lal and Singh (2012) and came out with a record of plants belonging to 95

genera and 51 families.

2.4. Status of Floristic Elements in Himachal Pradesh

Himachal Pradesh-a hilly state of North-west Himalayan region reveals a wide

diversity of plant forms in its different climatic zones (Chauhan and Thakur, 1995)

and hence, is commonly regarded as a veritable emporium of plant resources. The

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countess of Dalhousie, collected about 600 species from Shimla in between April to

October during 1829 but first account of the flora of this region was published by

Aitchinson (1868). Similarly, Watt (1881) published notes on the vegetation of

Chamba state and British Lahaul. Literature search on the lines as mentioned above

revealed that some other plant collections of 19th century were referred to by Stewart

(1869), Parker (1918), Shabnam (1964) and Rau (1975) whereas, Collett (1921)

carried out detailed floristic survey in the Shimla hills.

With the start of functioning of Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle and Forest

Research Institute, Dehradun various botanists and scientists have periodically

explored various locations in the state of Himachal Pradesh and the collections were

later conserved at the Herbaria of Botanical Survey of India, Northern circle (BSD)

and Forest research Institute (DD).

Continuing with the earlier work of plant explorations and collections, Vaid and

Naithani (1970), reported the occurrence of Parthenium hysterophorus from North-

western Himalaya. Nair (1977) recorded 1629 species belonging to 709 genera and

137 families of Vascular plants from Bushahar state in the altitude varying from 650

m-6930 m above msl falling in the valleys of Sutlej, Baspa, Pabbar while presently

comprises of the districts namely Kinnaur and Shimla of the state. Aswal and

Mehrotra (1979) recorded 12 new plant species from Lahaul-Spiti those are new to

the botanical records for the state of Himachal Pradesh. Reporting of Ranunculus

bikramii as a new species is one such record from Rohtang Pass, Lahaul Valley.

Continuing with their works Aswal and Mehrotra (1987, 1994) published a

comprehensive account of the flowering plants (985 species, 353 genera) of Lahaul-

Spiti, representing arid zone and cold desert areas of the state. Murti and Uniyal

(1985) also compiled a brief description on some important plants which otherwise

remained overlooked. Naithani and Bahadur (1979) reported a new grass namely

Vulpia ciliata (Poaceae) from India. Naithani and Aswal (1984) reported the

occurrence of Ranunculus adoxifolius (Rananculaceae) from North-west India.

Naithani et al., (1986) reported the occurrence of Oxytropis sericopetla belonging to

family Fabaceae from India and subsequent records of his work (Naithani, 1988) also

includes the reporting of Pistacia atlantica (Anacardiaceae) from Himachal Pradesh.

Authors like Singh et al., (1993), Sharma and Singh (1996) and Singh (1997) have

also reported new species from Himachal Pradesh. Chowdhery and Wadhwa (1984)

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published a comprehensive list of the flowering plants of Himachal Pradesh under the

title, ‘Flora of Himachal Pradesh’ in 3 volumes on the basis of herbarium sheets

housed at various herbaria. About 3,300 species have so far been documented as a

result of floristic survey conducted by various earlier workers in the past.

Hooker’s ‘Flora of British India’ and Collet’s publication ‘Flora Simlensis’

including Chowdhery and Wadhwa’s ‘Flora of Himachal Pradesh’, were broad

based floras covering vast tracts of Himachal Himalayas. However, they did not cover

all the niches and aspects which are not only important but harbour some distinct

floral elements. Hence, the emphasis was shifted to exploration of specific areas with

specific habitats and inclusion of ecological parameters and ethno-botanical aspects to

cover the term biodiversity in a more or less holistic manner. Some other

contributions as also indicated earlier in this direction were made by Aswal and

Mehrotra (1983), Aswal and Mehrotra (1994), Dhaliwal and Sharma (1999) and

Subramani and Kapoor (2011b). Similarly, while assessing the floristic diversity of

Pooh Valley falling in the cold deserts of district Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh (Verma

and Kapoor, 2010a), a total of 192 plant species belonging to 55 families and 136

genera were recorded. The dominant families recorded were Asteraceae, Rosaceae,

Lamiaceae and Polygonaceae.

Chauhan (1984) surveyed the wild medicinal and aromatic plants of Pabbar valley of

Himachal Pradesh and collected 738 species belonging to 107 families out of which

649 were dicots and 89 were monocots. Similarly, while assessing the floristic

elements of Churdhar Wildlife Sanctuary falling in Sirmaur district of Himachal

Pradesh, Subramani (2006) collected a total a total of 793 taxa with 748 angiosperms,

8 gymnosperms, 37 pteridophytes belonging to 431 genera and 143 families.

Whereas, Singh (1992a) had given taxonomic account of 1027 species distributed

over 149 families and 626 genera from Mandi district of the state, covering an altitude

gradient varying from 700 m-3000 m above msl. Singh and Gupta (2009) concluded

detailed vegetation survey and ecological studies of ground vegetation under Silver fir

and spruce forests of Himachal Pradesh. Sindhi (1997) worked on the plant diversity

of economic utility of Nauni-Solan and enlisted 723 plants belonging to 115 families.

Similarly, as an outcome of extensive field surveys conducted in Kullu valley from

1988-1992, Dhaliwal and Sharma (1999) published ‘Flora of Kullu’ which covers

about 930 species belonging to 504 genera and 126 families.

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Phyto-sociological analysis of sand mines of Solan district, Himachal Pradesh as

carried out by Panwar (1999) revealed that mining had caused loss of biodiversity in

those areas and many of the economically important plant species were either got

eroded or got replaced by uneconomical and unwanted species. Subsequently,

Chauhan (2002) also studied phyto-diversity of Shilly wildlife sanctuary, Himachal

Pradesh whereas Kapoor et al., (2005a) after studying the floristic diversity of North-

west Himalaya, documented the medicinal plant wealth of Cold Deserts of Himachal

Pradesh in particular. On the same analogy, Chandrasekar et al., (2003) recorded 21

species from Lahaul-Spiti, out of which five species viz., Astragalus gracilipes Benth.

Ex Bunge, Artemesia persica Boiss., Saxifraga palpebrata Hook. f. & Thoms.,

Saussurea depsangensis Pamp. and S. glacialis Herd. are new additions to the state.

Similar studies were also conducted by Verma et al., (2003b) in Man Lunga (North-

east aspect) and Khamengar valleys (Southern aspect), falling within the Pin Valley

National Park. Chandrasekar and Srivastava (2005) described Oxytropis immerse

(Baker ex Aitch.) Bunge ex. Fedtsch. (Fabaceae) as new records for India from

Tariya-Pin Parvati pass of Pin Valley National park at 4100 m above msl.

Chandrasekar and Srivastava (2004) reported occurrence of a new grass species

Elymus ruselli for the first time from Himachal Pradesh whereas Fallopia

dentatoalata (F. Schmidt) Holub (Polygonaceae) was reported for the first time from

Himachal Pradesh, India by Chowdhary et al., (2010). Six new species of

Angiosperms namely Angelica archangelica Linn. Var. himalaica (Cl.) Nasir,

Diphylax griffithii (Hook. f.) Kranzl., Onosma thomsoni Hook. f., Pueraria montana

(Lour.) Merr. Var. chinensis, Trachelospermum axillare Hook. f., and Tricholepis

royeli Hook. f. were reported for the first time from the state of Himachal Pradesh all

collected from district Sirmaur, by Lal and Rawat (2008).

Lal et al., (2008) reported three species of Orchidaceae viz., Dendrobium amoenum

Lindl., Pholidota articulate Lindl. and Thunia bracteata (Roxb.) Schltr. for the first

time from Himachal Pradesh and all of them constitutes towards the first report of the

above genera from this state. Lal and Aggarwala (2009) reported two species, namely

Leucomeris speclabilis D.Don (Asteraceae) and Sonerila tenera Royle

(Melastomataceae) for the first time from Himachal Pradesh. Continuing with their

work in this direction Lal et al., (2010) reported a new orchid, Gastrochilus distichus

(Lindl.) Kuntze for the first time in Himachal Pradesh and the occurrence of

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Coelogyne cristata Lindl. in Himachal Pradesh was also confirmed. They also

recollected Eria alba Lindl. (Orchidaceae) from the Mandi district of Himachal

Pradesh. It was earlier recorded by Duthie in 1906 from Chamba district of Himachal

Pradesh. Vij and Verma (2007) reported the occurrence of new orchid namely

Peristylus constrictus from Himachal Pradesh.

The work of Kaur and Sharma (2004) which lead to the documentation of 911

species, in different altitudinal ranges right from about 300 m above msl along

Haryana border up to an elevation of 3647 m above msl at Churdhar was followed by

subsequent floristic assessment of the Churdhar Wildlife Sanctuary-a total of 354

species of phanerogams comprising of 253 dicotyledons, 97 monocotyledons and 4

species of gymnosperms belonging to 84 families as collected only from the Nohra

Block were till date unreported from the district Sirmaur (Subramani and Kapoor,

2011b). Eleven species from the present collection are known to be threatened under

different red listed category of IUCN, 2003 whereas, 35 species are endemic to

Western Himalaya. In continuation to his own work documentation of some lesser

known tree species of Himachal Himalaya was provided by Kapoor et al., (2005b)

wherein the status, distribution of floristic diversity was documented, discussed and

detailed by the authors with the stress on comprehensive floristic account of medicinal

plants including their distributional status. Lal and Aggarwala (2012) also discussed

the family Burseraceae in Himachal Pradesh. Lal et al., (2012) for the first time

reported the occurrence of Duhaldea nervosa (Asteraceae) in Himachal Pradesh

followed by the reporting of the occurrence of Tavrniera cuniefolia (Fabaceae) in

Himachal Pradesh in the same year.

As a result of survey carried out in Himachal Pradesh, India, Sharma et al., (2003)

listed local names, scientific names, distribution pattern, marketability and local uses

of 22 commercially important medicinal and aromatic plants, observed in a survey.

Subsequently, Nilay (2004) also conducted a detailed study on the distribution and

importance of medicinal and aromatic plants of Nahan area of Himachal Pradesh and

recorded a total of 403 species belonging to 311 genera and 101 families from the

different parts of the study area. Sharma et al., (2005) while studying the ambient

plant sources for fuel, fodder, fibre, medicines and other purposes for the Malani

ethnic community, generally called as Republic of Malana-inhabiting the remote

village Malana located in Parvati valley of Kullu district, Himachal Pradesh prepared

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a long and comprehensive list of the resources these people have been utilizing since

ages.

Studies as carried out by Chauhan (2006) in Kinnaur forest division of Himachal

Pradesh also lead to the documentation of about 376 species of medicinal and

aromatic plants and is another recent work in the direction. On the same analogy,

Jishtu (2006) surveyed Baspa valley of Kinnaur district and documented 957 taxa

belonging to 475 genera spread over 122 families of vascular plants excluding the

families Cyperaceae and Poaceae.

Dutt et al., (2007) investigated the floristic composition, vegetation diversity and

distribution pattern of medicinal and aromatic plants of different altitudinal zones of

Sangla valley in Himachal Pradesh. The study revealed that the Importance Value

Index (IVI) of different species varied from site to site and most of the herbs exhibited

contagious distribution pattern whereas, the shrubs showed random distribution

pattern. Similar work was further supplemented by Verma and Kapoor (2010a) for

assessing the floristic diversity in Pooh Valley of Cold Deserts of District Kinnaur,

Himachal Pradesh. Phyto-sociological studies as conducted in the Hitch Pawang

Valley of Rakchham Chitkul Wildlife Sanctuary of district Kinnaur (Verma and

Kapoor, 2010b) revealed the presence of 142 species belonging to 42 families and 95

genera. Authors, (Verma and Kapoor, 2011) also discussed the status of plant

diversity along altitudinal gradients in Murti Panag valley of Rakchham-Chitkul

Wildlife Sanctuary in district Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh. Subramani and Kapoor

(2011a) collected Chusua nana (King and Pantling) Pradhan and Hetaeria fusca

Lindl. two little- known orchids from Churdhar Wildlife Sanctuary, Shivalik Hills of

Sirmaur district, which forms new distribution records and second report to the state

Himachal Pradesh. The duo also dealt with the floristic elements of Churdhar Wildlife

Sanctuary which were the additions to the floristic wealth of district Sirmaur,

Himachal Pradesh. The identity and occurrence of Primula reidii Duthie var. redii

from Shivalik hill ranges, Himachal Pradesh was also given by Subramani and

Kapoor (2012). Earlier records pertaining to occurrence and distribution of the

species, detailed description and other ecological parameters including its photograph,

have been discussed and detailed. Verma and Kapoor (2013) studied the impact of

altitudinal gradients on the floristic diversity in Shingan valley falling in Rakchham-

Chitkul Wildlife Sanctuary district Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh and a total of 118

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species of plants were recorded. The dominant families registered were Rosaceae,

Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Ranunculaceae and Polygonaceae.

Thakur et al., (2012) studied the floristic composition and life form spectrum of

Bandli Wild Life Sanctuary, located in district Mandi of Himachal Pradesh. A total of

144 plant species belonging to 52 families were recorded from the study area. Poaceae

with 29 species was the most dominant family. Life form spectrum revealed the

dominance of phenerophytes (42.36%) and therophytes (33.33%) and these were

followed by hemi-cryptophytes (18.75%), geophytes (3.47%) and chamaephytes

(2.8%). Therophytes were found higher than normal biological spectrum which

indicated that study area is certainly under biotic pressure.

Thakur (2012) also recorded 707 species of vascular plants i.e., Angiosperms (93

families, 313 genera and 636 species), Gymnosperms (3 families, 6 genera and 9

species) and Pteridophytes (16 families, 27 genera and 62 species) in the Tirthan

Wildlife Sanctuary, Himachal Pradesh. Out of the total species, 46 were the trees, 107

shrubs, 492 herbs and the remaining 62 species were pteridophytes. Viraj, (2005)

conducted the studies on diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants of Sangla valley

in Himachal Pradesh between an altitude ranging from 1800 m (Karcham) to 4800 m

(Chitkul kanda) above msl and collected a total of 253 species, belonging to 171

genera and 61 families from the study area. Out of the recordings made 238 belongs

to dicots, 9 to monocots and 6 to gymnosperms, which are enlisted along with their

botanical names, local/common name(s), families, plant parts, economic and ethno-

botanical importance. Viraj et al., (2010) further enlisted the lesser known aromatic

plants species of the tribal district Kinnaur of Himachal Pradesh and a total of 30

aromatic plant species belonging to 29 genera and 13 families were collected and

identified from the study area. Viraj et al., (2012) also conducted the phyto-

sociological survey of Porang valley of Lippa-Asrang wildlife sanctuary falling in

district Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh and recorded a total number of 138 species,

representing 93 genera and 38 families in the altitude varying from 3300 m-5000 m.

A total of were recorded. While Singh and Rawat (2000) explored the ‘Flora of Great

Himalayan National Park’ (GHNP)-an important protected area network in the state

of Himachal Pradesh for the assessment of its floristic diversity and as an outcome of

the same documented an excellent collection of 832 species belonging to 427 genera

and 128 families.

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2.5. Vegetation Studies vis-a-vis Altitudinal Sequence

It is beyond any doubt that the Himalaya has diversified vegetational pattern along an

altitudinal gradient which starts right from sub-montane zone, passes from forests

through savanna and finally culminates in the alpine areas or in the open grazing

lands. So, the presence of a species in Himalaya is much more dependent on altitude

and aspect and the soil criterion may also play some role here but not to that extent.

Joshi and Tiwari (1990) conducted phyto-sociological analysis of woody vegetation

along an altitudinal gradient varying from 500 m-1000 m above msl in a mountain

flank located on the right side of river Alkananda and opposite to Kaliasaur in

Gharwal Himalaya. Pangtey and Rawal (1994) attempted to assign the altitudinal

sequencing for the existing forest zones and types within an altitudinal range of 1600

m-3100 m above msl in Sarju catchment of Kumaon, Central Himalaya. Three forest

zones, viz., low altitude zones (1600 m-2000 m), mid altitude zone (2000 m-2500 m)

and high altitude zone (2500 m-3100 m) were recognized arbitrarily. The altitudinal

sequence of forest vegetation exhibited a sharp compositional change in the mid-

altitudinal zone.

Ghildiyal et al., (1998) carried out vegetation study in a series of respective oak

forests in relation to their analytical and synthetic characters in Gharwal Himalaya

within the altitudinal gradient varying from 1400 m-2600 m above msl. The highest

IVI value was for Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex Rehder, whereas the lowest value for

the same was registered for Q. leucotrichophora at 2300 m above msl. Kala and

Uniyal (1999) also studied the structure of forest vegetation along an altitudinal

gradient (2550 m-3600 m) in the Valley of Flowers and its adjoining areas. Based

upon the IVI values, three major vegetation types i.e. Himalayan moist upper

temperate forest (2550 m-3000 m), sub-alpine fir forest (3000 m-3250 m) and sub-

alpine birch forest (3300 m-3600 m) were identified. During investigations, average

tree density was found to increase with the altitude whereas, the average basal area of

tree species showed a decreasing trend with the increase in altitude. Rawat and Pant

(1999) investigated structure of Chir pine community along two aspects and four

elevational zones in Gharwal Himalaya. The findings indicated that the Chir pine

prefers sunny slopes with xeric conditions. Besides, an attempt had also been made to

summarize general physiographic and structural details of Chir pine forests on

different aspects.

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Various qualitative parameters along the gradients and regeneration behavior of the

tree species in Western moist temperate Himalayan forests of Uttarkashi were

discussed and detailed by Pande (2001). Similarly, Pande et al., (2001) studied the

effect of plants species diversity and other parameters on vegetation analysis in moist

temperate forest of Kedarnath Forest Division by dividing the whole area into 8 sub-

sites as per the aspect and altitude ranging from 1800 m-2800 m above msl. Pande et

al., (2002), also described plant species diversity and various parameters of vegetation

analysis in a moist temperate Western Himalayan forest ecosystem located in

Chamoli, Garhwal Himalaya. For this study whole of the area was divided into eight

sub-sites depending upon the altitude ranging from 1800 m-2820 m above msl.

Similarly, Rawat (2001) investigated phyto-sociological of woody vegetation along an

altitudinal gradient in montane forests of Narainbagar, Chamoli district of Gharwal

Himalaya with an altitudinal range of 1700 m-2100 m above msl and concluded that

the maximum number of trees, saplings and seedlings species were present in upper

slopes whereas minimum number was recorded for the lower slopes. Diversity index

and concentration of dominance values confirmed the temperate nature of forests

whereas, Pant and Samant (2007) after conducting a study in a biodiversity rich

Mornaula Reserve Forest between 1500 m-2200 m analyzed the structure,

composition of the forest communities including richness of economically important,

native, endemic and rare-endangered species and prioritized communities for their

conservation. From 123 sampled sites, 289 species (37 trees; 37 shrubs and 215 herbs)

and 31 forest communities have been recorded. The density of trees ranged from 340-

2438 Ind ha-1 and TBA from 19.52-234.31 m2 ha-1.

After carrying out the studies in temperate forests Gairola et al., (2008) revealed that

from low to high altitude strata, size and density of trees declined sharply and further

observed that the density of sapling and seedling do not follow the trend as that of

trees but exhibit site/location specific trends. Shrubs and herbs were also not found

exhibiting uniform patterns across altitudinal range of the sites. It was revealed during

the study that sub-alpine forests are potentially prone to the adverse effects of climate

change, study also provided important baseline information for future evaluation of

the impact of climate change on sub-alpine forest communities. Bhatt and Purohit

(2009) also conducted a study in the temperate Himalayan forests of Joshimath area in

Chamoli district of Uttarakhand to understand the effect of altitudinal variations on

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structure and composition of the vegetation and to record the floristic diversity and

economic utilities of the plants in the study area. Rana and Samant (2009) identified

13 habitats, 23 forest communities and 24 alpine communities from Manali Wildlife

Sanctuary and accordingly, each of the habitat and community was evaluated for site

representation, altitudinal distribution, species richness, native, endemic socio-

economically important and threatened species. While assessing the status of plant

diversity along altitudinal gradients varying from 3300 m to 4500 m above msl in

Murti Panag valley of Rakchham-Chitkul Wildlife Sanctuary in district Kinnaur,

Himachal Pradesh clear cut changes in the number and plant species composition

were observed from one altitude to another (Verma and Kapoor, 2011). Singh and

Samant (2010) also made an attempt to; (i) identify the habitats and communities; (ii)

evaluate habitats and communities for species richness, native, endemic, economically

important and threatened species; (iii) prioritize habitats and communities for

conservation in the Lahaul valley of proposed cold desert biosphere reserve.

The above studies and explorations made in the past straightway point out that the

plant species have wide ecological amplitude along the gradients and accordingly are

capable of bringing great fluctuations in environmental conditions whereas, species

with narrow amplitudes are restricted to areas where the environment is relatively

stable. Accordingly, quantitative assessment of the plant species in general and of

important and threatened plant species in particular of different altitudinal zonation is

quite important for devising suitable strategies for their conservation, as also

attempted through the present studies.

2.6. Nativity and Endemism

Number of endemic and native species existing in a particular area gives an idea about

how important it is from floristic and conservation point of view. Higher the number

of species endemic and native to an area more emphasis is essentially required to be

given to conserve the diversity of the area. Some studies were carried out in the past

by different researchers keeping the importance of endemic and native species in

mind. Chatterjee (1939) while carrying out intensive studies on the flora of India and

Burma also enlisted endemic flora. Mathew et al., (1993) presented an account of the

endemic flora in the North Eastern Transuaal escarpment, South Africa. Serrill (2006)

discussed the importance and ways to restore native plants on Catalina Island

whereas, Behera et al., (2002), reported that high plant endemism occurs in the

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hotspots while carrying out investigations in the Subansiri area of the eastern

Himalaya. The distribution of vascular plant species richness and endemic richness

along the Himalayan elevation gradient in Nepal was discussed by Vetaas and

Grytnes (2002).

While studying the effect of anthropogenic disturbances on the distribution of

endemic plants existing in Bolivian montane forest, Kessler (2001) reported

maximum plant community endemism occurred at intermediate intensities of

anthropogenic disturbances whereas, measuring and mapping endemism and species

richness and its application on the flora of Africa was discussed by Kier and Barthlott

(2011).

A step forward, Rao (1972) explored angiospermic genera endemic to the Indian

Floristic Region and its neighbouring areas and enlisted them. Continuing with his

work, Nayar (1980) also explored endemic genera (Angiosperms) and also discussed

the patterns of distribution in India. The biological aspects of endemism in higher

plants were discussed by Kruckerberg and Rabinowitz (1985) while Vir Jee et al.,

(1989b) discussed the cyto-geography of some endemic taxa of Kashmir Himalaya.

Dhar and Samant (1993) conducted a study on the endemic diversity of Indian

Himalaya and discussed their nativity, distribution pattern and habitat specificity. In

his studies, Samant (1999) investigated diversity, nativity and endemism of vascular

plants in a part of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve and subsequently, Samant et al.,

(1996b) dealt with the conservation of rare endangered plants in this Biosphere

Reserve. Moving a step ahead, Dhar et al., (1996) carried out a survey in Indian

Himalaya and reported endemic plant diversity in the study area.

The hotspots of endemic plants in India, Nepal and Bhutan were discussed by Nayar

(1996). He also tried to explain the distributional range and environment favouring

the endemic population. Dhar et al., (1997b) studied the diversity, endemism and

economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya. On the same analogy,

Samant et al., (1998a) conducted a study on the diversity, distribution and potential

values of medicinal plants of the region. Continuing with his work, Samant (1998)

reported 279 fodder species from Western Himalaya belonging to 185 genera. Samant

et al., (1998b) studied the biodiversity status of Askot Wildlife Sanctuary and

reported 1262 species of vascular plants out of which 432 (34.2%) taxa are native to

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Indian Himalaya of which 24 are endemic and 235 are near endemics. Samant et al.,

(2000a) also dealt with the diversity, nativity and endemism of vascular plants in

Pindari area of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve-II followed by his work on the

diversity, nativity and endemism of vascular plants in Valley of Flowers National

Park (Samant et al., 2001b). Subsequently, Joshi and Samant (2004) also studied the

site/ habitat characteristics, community diversity and distribution pattern, vegetation

composition (richness of native and endemic species) structural patterns, economic

importance of forest communities and community priorities in the buffer zone of

Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve.

Pandit et al., (2007) discussed that unreported yet massive deforestation leads to loss

of endemic biodiversity in Indian Himalaya and also suggested conservation measures

to support these plants. An attempt to document the indigenous uses of tree species of

the Pir Pinjal Biodiversity Park of Baba Ghulam Shah Badshah University was made

by Pant and Verma (2008) and accordingly, recorded a total of 28 species belonging

to 24 genera and 19 families being used traditionally to cure various diseases and

having other uses. Out of these, only 6 species were natives and 22 were non-native to

the Indian Himalayan Region.

On the similar lines Singh and Samant (2010) made an attempt in Lahaul Valley of

Himachal Pradesh so as to identify the habitats and communities to further evaluate

them for species richness, native, endemic, economically important and threatened

species and to prioritize habitats and communities for conservation. In the recent

studies carried out in the Tirthan Wildlife Sancturay (Thakur, 2012) it was seen that

out of a total of 707 plant species recorded in the sanctuary area. 456 species were

found native to the Himalayan Region while the remaining 251 species were recorded

to be as the non-natives. Further analysis of the study revealed that, out of these

plants18 species were endemic and 124 species were near endemic to the Indian

Himalayan Region (IHR). A total of 510 species those were further quantified,

revealed that 68.52 per cent species were found native to the Himalayan region. While

17.48 per cent of the total and 27.07 per cent of the native species were near endemic

and 2.53 per cent of the total and 3.93 per cent of the natives were endemic to the IHR

in this sanctuary. When categorized, it was seen that nativity per cent for trees, shrubs

and herbs was 75.6, 83.3 and 60.0 per cent respectively whereas, among these native

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species, 36.4 per cent of trees, 31.9 per cent shrubs and 25 per cent herbs were near

endemic. Endemic species were represented only 4.55 per cent in herbs.

2.7. Rarity

Ayensu (1981) conducted a study on the assessment of threatened plant species in the

United States and prepared an inventory of these plants. A wide approach was

adopted by Oldfield et al., (1998) who proposed the list of threatened trees of the

world. Similarly, Celep and Dogan (2007) after studying the natural flora of lower

Tersakan Valley in Northern Turkey, reported 457 taxa of 301 genera belonging to 74

families and 54 of these determined to be threatened according to IUCN Red List

Categories.

Jain and Rao (1983) carried out a study on the assessment of threatened plants of

India while Given (1996) discussed the reasons and causes of plant extinction and

also gave an approach to conserve them. Samant et al., (1996b) carried out similar

investigations on the conservation of rare endangered plants in Nanda Devi Biosphere

Reserve. Subsequent studies on the diversity, distribution and potential values of

medicinal plants of Indian Himalaya were accomplished by Samant et al., (1998a).

Rawal and Dhar (1997) dealt with conservation implications of timber-line flora of

Kumaun Himalaya whereas, the status and conservation of rare and endangered

medicinal plants in the Indian trans-Himalaya was discussed by Kala (2000). Samant

and Pal (2003) studied the diversity and conservation status of medicinal plants of

Uttaranchal whereas, Pant and Samant (2007) conducted a study in a biodiversity rich

Mornaula Reserve Forest between 1500 m-2200 m above msl so as to analyze the

structure, composition of the forest communities including richness of economically

important, native, endemic and rare endangered species and prioritize communities

for conservation.

Samant et al., (2007b) identified total of 643 species of medicinal plants from the

state of HP. The plants were first classified according to nativeness, endemism, rarity

and prioritized for cultivation. Sharma, 2008 categorized a total of 137 plant species

as threatened in the Hirb and Shoja catchments of Kullu district in Himachal Pradesh.

Rana and Samant (2011) assessed the threat categorization and conservation

prioritization of floristic diversity in the Manali Wildlife Sanctuary, Himachal

Pradesh. Similar attempt was made by Singh and Samant (2010) to identify the

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habitats, communities and threatened species and also to prioritize them for

conservation in Lahaul Valley of Himachal Pradesh. On similar lines Badola and Pal

(2003) identified the threatened medicinal plants in Himachal Himalaya and discussed

the ways of their conservation with particular reference to Himachal Himalaya. As a

result of the study in the Tirthan Wildlife Sanctaury, Thakur (2012) identified a total

of 157 plants belonging to 105 genera and 56 families as threatened in the region.

2.8. Prioritization of Species, Habitats and Communities

Some of the plant species growing in a particular area are used in one way or the other

by the communities living around. In the process, there is a tremendous pressure on

these plant species for various purposes. Besides, the highly valued species are highly

exploited and that too indiscriminately thereby, leading to the degradation of their

niche and in some extreme cases even their extinction.

Keeping this in view, efforts were made by various researchers in the past so as to

suggest specific ways to conserve the species in their natural habitats/ niche. Giam et

al., (2010) identified Angola, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya,

Laos, Madagascar, Myanmar, Nepal, Tajikistan and Tanzania as the countries in

greatest need of conservation assistance and made policy recommendations that aim

to mitigate climate change, promote plant species conservation and improve the

economic conditions and quality of governance in countries with high conservation

need.

Earlier attempt made by Ram and Singh (1994) in the alpine meadows of Central

Himalayas stressed for the conservation of ecology in these locations. The eco-

development planning at Great Himalayan National Park for biodiversity conservation

and participatory rural development was discussed by Pandey and Well (1997) at

length. Moving a step ahead, Johnsingh et al., (1998) presented a detailed account of

the prioritization of area for biodiversity conservation of alpine zone in Trans and

Greater Himalaya in India. Analogous to the work done by Ram and Singh (1994) an

attempt to study ecology and conservation of alpine meadows in the Valley of

Flowers National Park, Garhwal Himalaya was made by Kala (1998). Continuing

with their work in the field of ecology Samant et al., (2002a) also conducted a study

on structure, composition and changes of the vegetation in Nanda Devi Biosphere

Reserve of West Himalaya. Joshi and Samant (2004) dealt with assessment of forest

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vegetation and conservation priorities of communities in a part of Nanda Biosphere

Reserve. They also studied the site/habitat characteristics, community diversity and

distribution pattern, vegetation composition (richness of native and endemic species)

structural patterns, economic importance of forest communities and community

priorities in the buffer zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve.

An attempt for conservation assessment and management prioritization for the wild

medicinal plants of Northeast India was made by Ved et al., (2005). On the analogy of

the above work, Gupta (2006) conducted a survey in Sarbari Khad watershed of Kullu

district, Himachal Pradesh and discussed in detail about the assessment of diversity

and conservation prioritization of economically important plants for socio-economic

development of the inhabitants. Similarly, an intensive study about the assessment of

floristic diversity and conservation status of plants in Kais Wildlife Sanctuary of

Himachal Pradesh in North-western Himalayas was discussed in detail by Lal (2007).

Likewise, Semwal et al., (2007) discussed the current status, distribution and

conservation of rare and endangered medicinal plants of Kedarnath Wildlife

Sanctuary, Central Himalayas. Sharma (2008) prioritized communities and habitats

based on Conservation Priority Index (CPI), in the Hirb and Shoja catchments of

Kullu district in Himachal Pradesh. While, Rana and Samant (2009) identified 13

habitats, 23 forest communities and 24 alpine communities from Manali Wildlife

Sanctuary and accordingly, each of the habitat and community was evaluated for site

representation, altitudinal distribution, species richness, native, endemic socio-

economically important, threatened species and prioritization. They also assessed the

threat categorization and conservation prioritization of floristic diversity. Singh et al.,

(2009) put an emphasis on diversity, indigenous uses and conservation prioritization

of medicinal plants in Lahaul valley. On the similar lines, Singh and Samant (2010)

also made an attempt to conserve and prioritize the habitats and forest communities in

the Lahaul Valley of Proposed Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve. Rana and Samant

(2011) discussed the diversity, indigenous uses and conservation status of medicinal

plants in Manali Wildlife Sanctuary and a total of 270 plants belonging to 84 families

and 197 genera were recorded and were prioritized for conservation.

In continuation to it, Samant et al., (2011) made an attempt to analyze nativity,

endemism and rarity and suggested strategy for the conservation and management of

these species in Indian Himalayan Region (IHR). Total 36 species representing trees

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(18 spp.), shrubs (07 spp.), herbs (08 spp.) and ferns (01 spp.) were recorded. Thakur

(2012) prioritized communities and habitats based on Conservation Priority Index

(CPI) in the Tirthan Wildlife Sanctuary of Kullu district in Himachal Pradesh.

2.9. Previous Record of Floristic Assessments in Shimla Water Catchment

Sanctuary and in the Vicinities

Expect for the little documentation of the plant species as listed in the management

plan of the Shimla Water Catchment Sanctuary, no detailed work pertaining to

floristic studies has been carried out at Shimla Water Catchment Sanctuary but

literature concerning studies on flora in Shimla town has been discussed here. Collett

(1921) ‘Flora Simelensis’, described 1326 species belonging to 639 genera under 113

families from Shimla region, covering about 800 km2, with ranges of distribution

varying between 1580 m-3500 m above msl. This century old flora still holds its way

as a major work for the identification of plants of sub-tropical, temperate and sub-

alpine parts & forests of the state. The pioneer plant collectors from this region were

Royle (1839-1840), Brandis (1874) and Parker (1918, 1938). Burkill (1965) gave an

account of the spring flora of Shimla Hills.

Singh et al., (1991) carried out detailed investigation on the phytosociological

parameters of tree vegetation in three selected sites around Shimla, Himachal Pradesh

and on the basis of IVI values formation of the plant communities like Quercus

incana-Rhododendron arboreum (Site-1); Cedrus deodara-Pinus roxburghii-Quercus

incana (Site-2) and Picea smithiana-Pinus roxburghii (Site-3) were recorded at four

different slopes (hilltop, upper slope, lower slope and hill base).The vegetation

showed mainly contiguous distribution pattern followed by random and then regular.

2.10. Hydrological functions of Forested Watersheds

Forests being important from biodiversity point of view also occupy the front seat

being the best land cover under given hydrological and ecological circumstance,

thereby, leading towards maximizing water yield and regulating the seasonal flows.

Besides this, forested watersheds generally offer high quality water as undisturbed

forest with under storey, leaf litter and organically enriched soil. In addition to it, the

availability and quality of water in many regions of the world however, are getting

more and more threatened by its overuse, misuse and pollution. Moreover, climate

change is also altering forest’s role in regulating water flows thereby influencing the

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availability of water resources (Bergkamp et al., 2003). Therefore, relationship

between the forests and water is a critical issue that must be accorded high priority

especially in view of the overgrowing menace of climate change. Accordingly, a key

challenge being faced by the land, forest and water managers is to maximize the wide

range of multi-sectoral forest benefits without any deterrent to water resources and

ecosystem functions.

The International Year of Freshwater, 2003 and the Third World Water Forum in

Kyoto, Japan, (2003) helped, drive the incorporation of this understanding of bio-

physical interactions between forests and water into policies. The International Expert

Meeting on Forests and Water, held in Shiga, Japan in November 2002 in preparation

for these events, highlighted the need for more holistic consideration of interactions

between water, forest, land uses and socio-economic factors in complex watershed

ecosystems (Megahan, 1977; Cassells et al., 1984; FAO, 1996, 1999; Hamilton, 2004;

Thang and Chappell, 2004). They included measures to protect soil water and nutrient

status, the recharge of major aquifers, micro-climate and evaporation, and river

resources. To generate data base in terms of ecological and socio-cultural aspects i.e.

physical aspects/ land use, extent of water spread and its water quality, vegetation

status of catchment area and surrounding of Prashar lake in Mandi district, Himachal

Pradesh, an attempt was made by Attri and Santvan (2012). Objectives of the study

were to determine the importance of this wetland for the local people and the threats

to the high altitude wetland were identified and adequate measures for their

conservation and management were suggested.

Many municipalities (certainly not all) cite maintenance of a pure water supply as a

reason for introducing forest protection or reforestation. In the United States, all states

are required under federal law to have a Source Water Assessment, which promotes

the idea that protecting drinking-water at the source is the most effective way of

preventing drinking-water contamination (NRDC, 2003). The city of New York is

famous for its use of protected forests to maintain its high-quality water supply.

Similar examples are found in many tropical and sub-tropical regions. The Mount

Makiling Forest Reserve south of Manila, the Philippines is a 4244 ha area of forest

administered and managed by the University of the Philippines. More than 50 percent

of the reserve is forested, and its watershed ecosystem supplies five water districts and

several water cooperatives serving domestic, institutional and commercial water

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41

users. Other examples of major cities drawing some or all of their drinking-water

from protected areas include Mumbai, Jakarta, Karachi, Singapore, Colombia; Brazil,

Zimbabwe etc.

Shimla Water Catchment Sanctuary also holds its importance not only from its

immense floristic diversity but also from its hydrological function. The sanctuary is

drained by a number of seasonal and streams perennial streams and it is known to

supply water for Shimla city from past more than 100 years. The water level has been

found decreasing every year due to certain reasons as climate change, anthropogenic

pressures, outdated water harvesting techniques etc. as reported by (Singh and

Kandari, 2012)

Taking clues from the work done in the past by the various researchers as also

highlighted in the present chapter, efforts have been made to weave in the results

obtained out of our study under separate chapters for meeting the proposed objectives.

Accordingly, the subsequent chapters highlight the relevant issues one by one. The

following chapter gives a fair idea about the climate, geology, topography,

biodiversity (floral and faunal) etc. of the study area so as to have an imaginary

picturesque of the site.

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