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Cultural identitiesA book about British cultural identities immediately raises a number of
questions: Whose Britain? Whose culture? Whose identity? Do a majority
of people in the UK any more think of themselves in terms of bein British
any!ay?
British Cultural Identities is aimed at people interested in these questions"Timeline#$ %oman invasion
&'(( )orman invasion
&*&+ ,ana -arta ./reat -harter0
&+'1 Accession of 2enry 3444
&++5 Accession of 6li7abeth 4
&(&( Death of 8hakespeare
&(#*9+& 6nlish -ivil War
&5&+ Wellinton at Waterloo
&1'& Death of 3ictoria
&1#' -hurchill becomes ,
&1+* Accession of 6li7abeth 44
&11; Death of rincess Diana
*''* Deaths of rincess ,araret
and the
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for eCample= fe! people !ould attribute any sinificance to the t!elfth of
Auust= the openin day of the rouseshootin season" ,oreover television=
!hich didnGt feature for 6liot= !ould appear from @able '"& to be the
main cultural bondin aent bet!een British people"
@he term FBritishG is itself contentious" 4n recent years= partly as a
response to the devolution of political po!er to 8cotland= Wales= and4reland= there has been much questionin of !hat it means to be British"
&&&
1
#'&&
&
*
$&&&
Introduction 34f !e are all British= then !hy should people feel a need to revert to their
previous FnationalitiesG? And if others in the UK have po!er devolved to
them= !hat becomes of the formerly dominant 6nlish?4n eCaminin nationality !e should add the caveat that Britishness is
often used instead of 6nlishness" n William /ladstoneGs tombstone= he
is described as Frime ,inister of 6nlandG 9 inorin Wales= 8cotland= and
4relandH eople from Wales= 8cotland= and )orthern 4reland believe that
makin 6nlishness synonymous !ith Britishness erases their identity" 4f
British and 6nlish are the same= there is no room !ithin the term for other
nationalities !ho live in the British 4sles" %" 8" @homas= the Welsh poet and
cleryman= said FBritain does not eCist for me" 4t is an abstraction forced
on the Welsh people"G Eor him it !as just an aspect of imperialist domination
and he !anted no part of it"
*
$&&&
4 British Cultural IdentitiesTABLE 0.1 Subjects of conversation with friends and family, 1991Subject Percentage of people who ever
talk about subject
Advertisin *
Bi business *
Brinin up children *(
-lothes and fashion &1
-ost of livin #$6ducation *'
/ardenin &(
Ia! and order &(
)eihbours or !orkmates *&
oliticians 5
%eliion (
8port *+
@elevision prorammes #5
@he overnment &1
@rade unions &
)e!spaper articles &12ealth and !elfare services &5
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Unemployment &(
ersonal health *&
)one of the aboveJdonGt kno! $
Source: TOM Attitudes to Advertising Surve= &11&
@he debate has broadened out into questionin !hether !e are
any!ay determined by nation any loner" 8ome commentators suest thatit is easier to define British cultural identity by lookin outside than inside"
@he arument oes that Britain is just another constituent of ,arshall
,cIuhanGs F/lobal 3illaeG 9 the product of various !orld influences=
rather than the outcome of homero!n social developments" Doubtless
there is some truth in this" ne has only to see the popularity of
,cDonaldGs= American branded clothin= or the prevalence of overseas
restaurant cuisines" .Britain has eiht thousands 4ndian restaurants"0 @his
vie! should certainly be borne in mind" DonGt !e live in a lobal culture=
donGt !e enjoy influences from many eoraphical areas and isnGt identity
different for everyone? 8ome people are influenced by the fact of their ae=
by the fact that they live in a bi city= are !ell or badly off financially" 4nshort hasnGt nationality been overridden by FculturalG identity? @his book
seeks to address those questions"
-ultural identity is somethin !hich is partly imposed by oneGs backround
and partly chosen by people" All people have a number of influences
bearin on them= from both )ature and )urture" @hat is= they inherit their
ethnicity= physical abilities= intellience and so on= in lare measure from parents"
But many other FenvironmentalG factors affect their development: for
eCample family= reion= schoolin= reliion= music= etc" determine their eCperience"
@o a deree they form their o!n cultural identities by selection from
a rane of options" 8o for eCample they are Beatles fans or ,anchester United
supporters= or o to opera or !atch films" @hey conform !ith or react aainst
the values of their parents and accept or reject societyGs eCpectations of them"
@hese influences= absorbed !ittinly or un!ittinly= determine identity"
We have used the plural FidentitiesG in our title to make the point that
no sinle mould fits British people" @he population is diverse in all sorts of
!ays and this is one of the strenths of the culture !hich has evolved over
the past t!o thousands years" ,any races and continents have contributed
to its development" Eor eCample most people donGt kno! that in %oman
Britain a arrison of African soldiers= under 8eptimus 8ervius= uarded
2adrianGs Wall" ,odern Britain contains numerous elements= often in
tension !ith one another= but more usually complementary" Eor eCamplemany people !ho else!here have come to blo!s 9 2indus and ,uslims
rotestants and -atholics /reeks and @urks 9 in Britain have for the most
part found !ays of !orkin toether in peaceful coeCistence" @heir likin
for stability= oodquality education= healthcare and robust economic
conditions has overridden their ideoloical differences" ne of the aims of
our study is to identify elements of British culture !hich have brouht
about this benin effect"
British Cultural Identities describes ho! people in Britain see themselves"
4t is concerned !ith the culture they enerate and are in turn formed
*
$&&&Introduction 5
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*
*
$&&&
Introduction 7FIGURE 0.1 Shops or stalls selling national goods and souvenirs from
(a !ngland, (b Scotland, (c "ales or (d Ireland.c0
.d0
by" F-ultureG is meant in its broad sense as shared eCperience 9 that !hich
comes out of a dynamic miC of aes= races= reions= seCes= income levels
and interests" @he identities !hich are produced by this culture are personally
and collectively fluid" Because !hat !e are eCaminin is compleC and
chanin= our conclusions !ill be tentative and eneral" ur constant is the
fact that the people !ho live on the islands are the !ay they are= partly
because they live there"
4n conductin our study= !e !ill look at specific current political=
social= and cultural events" @his !ill enable us to ive basic backroundinformation on Britain: !ho is in po!er= !hat is the racial miC= the si7e of
the population= the key institutions= the main sports= reliions and so on"
We !ill include some succinct contrasts !ith the past to fill out that backround"
%ecent events chosen for eCamination reveal some basic truths
about Britain in the political= social= and cultural arenas and lead us to
emphasise the compleCity of British society and the need for careful
analysis"
Institutional BritainA list of traditional pillars of mainstream Britain !ould identify the key
FofficialG institutions as arliament a leal system !hich enforces the rule
of la! an educational system of ood quality the Anlican -hurch the
Bank of 6nland the 8tock 6Cchane the BB-" @hese are all elements of
a stable society= but eCamination of them doesnGt really bein to tell the
story of the culture= for !hich they are prerequisites" @here are several other
FinstitutionsG !hich are equally or even more influential in peopleGs lives=
and !hose influence= thouh FunofficialG= is !idespread" @here is 2enley
%oyal %eatta .ro!in0 cricket at Iords in Iondon Badminton 2orse
@rials yachtin at -o!es ruby at @!ickenham the /lastonbury pop
festival the 6dinburh Eestival the )ottin 2ill -arnival" )one of these
events is FinstitutionalG but each fiures larely on individualsG psycholoical
calendars and forms part of the cultural menu from !hich some Britishidentities are chosen" @hey are supplemented !ith numerous other sportin
and social entertainments: soccer matches= reyhound and horse racin=
darts tournaments= snooker matches= @o!ns!omenGs /uilds" @hese are all
seen by their fans as indispensable to their individual cultural landscapes"
@his FsemiofficialG British cultural scene has a further supportin
infrastructure of selfreulatin oranisations !hich serve to channel the
talent !hich in another culture !ould not find an outlet" @hese include the
Eootball and Amateur Athletic Associations= private art alleries promotin
the likes of Damien 2irst= @racey 6min and ,artin -reed !ith their sheep
in formaldehyde= bed !ith used condoms= or The !ights "oing On and
Off publishin houses makin the 2arry otter phenomenon possible filmand video production companies= !hich create soaps such asBrookside and
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#olloaks the advertisin and desin industries the music industry= from
small recordin studios to major artist recruitin houses such as 6,4 and
2,3" @hese are part of BritainGs cultural fabric yet they have no official
status and no state fundin"
Popular ulture
ne consequence of eCaminin the nation throuh its official institutionsis that lare cultural areas !ill al!ays be uneCplored" 6thnic communities
!ill have no place" @eenae fashions= clubbin= comics= pubs= around !hich
many peopleGs lives revolve= !onGt et a look in" @he Britain covered in the
myriad specialinterest maa7ines !ill not feature" A more comprehensive
picture of contemporary British culture is likely to emere if !e eCamine
the eCperience of the man or !oman in the street" By and lare= he or she
is eCposed to the culture !hich has !elled up from belo!" @his eCperience
may be read throuh elements of popular culture such as music= maa7ines=
television and film= eCamples of !hich are offered throuhout this book"
opular culture= !hich comes from belo! .soaps= tabloids= Freality
televisionG such asBig Brother0= can be more useful for our analysis thanhih culture .opera= theatre0= because it reflects !idespread= particularly
youthful= public taste and thus enables us to eCplore BritonsG psycholoy=
motivation and aspirations" 2ih culture= on the other hand= is imposed
from above via school curricula= and deliberately inores life as lived
eCperience= and contemporary social trends" @he most vibrant cultural
development in Britain comes from the marins not from the centre" @he
follo!in for eCample have become incorporated into the mainstream: in
music= hip hop and rap in fashion= saris and kimonos in style= dreadlocks=
bodypiercin and tattooin in literature= novels by 2anif Kureishi or
adie 8mith= poems by Benjamin ephaniah"
!"oolin#-oncentration on popular culture also enables us to keep pace more easily
!ith the rapid chanes in society" Eor eCample there have been sinificant
shifts in patterns of education" @he feepayin private schools have al!ays
had a disproportionately sinificant influence throuhout British society
larely throuh their reinforcement of class structures" Ambitious members
of ethnic minorities see Britain as a place !here Fthe old school tieG matters
and= faced !ith latent racial prejudice= see their !ay for!ard as throuh
1
#'&&
&*
$&&&
Introduction $private education" @his is leadin to profound cultural chanes in one of
BritainGs dominant media for social advancement" @here has al!ays been
an ethnicminority presence in such schools= but pupils !ere usually sons
of po!erful overseas dynasties" Eor eCample= in Billy BunterGs school
/reyfriars= in the &1$'sMagnet comic= there !as an 4ndian boy= 2urree
amset %am 8inh= !ho !as the )abob of Bhanipur" @he featurin in
popular culture of such fiures has undoubtedly contributed to the
mystique of the reat public schools= such as 6ton and 2arro!= !hoseprevailin ethos !as nevertheless predominantly !hite= Anlo8aCon=
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rotestant= 6stablishment" @oday= ho!ever= the private sector contains a
much hiher ethnic element than state schools" @his element is FdomesticG
rather than overseas and leads to the reater interation into the corridors
of po!er of British society for some ethnic Britons"
ther factors in the current cultural transformation are: the reneotiation
of the !hole concept of the family the ne! technoloy: computers=mobile phones= the internet= D3Ds" eopleGs daily lives are adaptin to
shifts in career patterns= ne! skills requirements from employers and ne!
entertainments" @he majority of those !ho attend university today for
eCample are takin courses !hich didnGt eCist ten years ao" @here are
deree courses in fashion= tourism= nursin= film= media= football= and pop
music studies= to name a fe!" Eor a conservative country such as Britain
that is a fundamental chane"
%et"o&olo#'4n this period of fluC= !here the only constant is chane= !hat it means to
be British today is markedly different from !hat it meant ten years ao"
6ndurin stereotypes are not a reat deal of help" Eor eCample a &111 pollof youn 6uropeans associated five elements !ith Britain: 8hakespeare=
Iondon= the BB-= @he Beatles= and the %oyal Eamily" @his is very out of
date" Any sinle snapshot of British identity !ill also be blurred" 8o !hat
!e have chosen to do is to look at a number of recent studies of the !ay
people live= and to see ho! helpful they are in eCplainin the !ay our
society !orks" A number of sources have recently offered their particular
take on areas !hich they think are important" We shall look later at four
specific eCamples" Eirstly= every year The Sunda Ti$espublishes a list of
the thousand richest people in Britain" @his is one !ay of makin a judement
about the people !ho live here" 4t assumes that their !ealth reflects
not only their commitment and !ork but also their aspirations= their values=
and their outlook" 8econdly= in ,arch *''& The Observer 8unday ne!spaper
published a study FBritain UncoveredG dealin !ith Fthe !ay !e live
no!: ,oney= !ork= love= seC= crime= youth= race= reliion= education and
#'&&
&
*
$&&&
10 British Cultural IdentitiesinoranceG" 4t contains an eclectic miC of thins happenin on the cultural
scene !hich represent sinificant trends" @hirdly= -hannel + producedAn A%& of Britishness !hich !as another attempt to pin do!n the essence
of contemporary British culture" We !ill= fourthly= look at a list of
F
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in &15$" 8o today= ostensibly= F)e!G Iabour= !hich came into po!er in
&11; on a !ave of euphoria= appears to be very firmly in control and to
have the broad support of the people" 2o!ever= a better indication of ho!
people feel about their country and their politicians miht be the fact that
in both the *''& and the &11; elections= t!o sinleissue mavericks=
standin as 4ndependents= !ere elected !ithout the benefit of any elaborateparty machine" @hese !ere: in &11; ,artin Bell in *''& %ichard
@aylor" Bell= a former !ar correspondent= stood as an 4ndependent on a
FdecencyG manifesto= and defeated the sittin @ory , )eil 2amilton= !ho
had become embroiled in accusations of slea7e" @aylor= a retired hospital
consultant standin on the sinle issue of the do!nsi7in of his local
Kidderminster hospital= unseated a Iabour junior minister by &;=($' votesH
Both Bell and @aylor countered elaborate= sophisticated and eCpensive
political machines= durin electoral landslides" ,ean!hile youn voters are
so disaffected from the !hole political process that= to try to secure their
votes= the parties resorted to teCtin them on their mobile phones durin
the last election"-onclusions !e can dra! from this are that= althouh Iabour is in
po!er= and althouh arliament is soverein and elected by the people=
British voters are still !ary of havin their lives determined by professional
politicians and are prepared to drop them instantly !hen opportunity
knocks" @his sinals a lonstandin distrust= by British people= of professionals
.Disraeli !as BritainGs first fulltime rime ,inister= only in as late
as &5(50 and professionalism .%uby Union retained its amateursstatus
only= until the &11's0" eople have in the past preferred to be overned by
the Fifted amateurG or the aristocrat !hose inherited !ealth made him
*
$&&&
Introduction 11.rarely her0 less likely to be corruptible" )o!= !hen professionalism is more
accepted= they are still prepared to elect people !ho operate !ithout the
benefits and constraints of a party machine"
!oiet'4n the social arena= !hen the
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fair play" 4t favours the vie!s and behaviour of the individual over those
of the herd" -onsequently people resent attempts to manipulate and orchestrate
their private vie!s" @hey !ant to accord themselves and others
freedom= and that includes the freedom of privacy !hen necessary"
(ulture
@he buildin of the ,illennium Dome at /reen!ich !as an attempt by theovernment to sho!case aspects of Britain !hich it felt !ere important" 4t
!as also undoubtedly meant to lend authority to the overnment !hich
produced it 9 a precedent set by the /reat 6Chibition of &5+& at the -rystal
alace in IondonGs 2yde ark" @ony Blair called the Dome Fa triumph of
confidence over cynicismG" @he overnment spent L& billion of taCpayersG
money erectin a tent at /reen!ich and fillin it !ith amusements" @here
!ere several F7onesG includin a FEaith oneG and a FBody oneG !hich !ere
meant to inform and to entertain"
2o!ever= from the beinnin the project !as a disaster" 4t !as
intended to represent Britain= but the people !erenGt consulted and didnGt
&&&
*
$&&&
1) British Cultural Identitiesfeel they had any stake in it" @aret visitor fiures of &* million materiali7ed
as +"# million" eople contrast the Dome !ith the 6den roject in
-orn!all .a hue biodiversity project under eodesic domes0= !hich thrives
and !hich started as a community project" eople sa! the Dome as a
further eCample of money bein syphoned from the reions to be spent in
Iondon" @hey didnGt like bein manaed into visitin it= and= the more they
!ere hectored by overnment ministers to attend= the more reluctant
they !ere to o"
@he lo! attendance fiures illustrate t!o thins: firstly= the miCture
of elements chosen to be celebrated !as a!ry .the Eaith one !as partly
financed by the subsequently disraced 2induja brothers0= secondly= people
do not like to be told= least of all by overnment= !hat they should like=
or !hat they should do" @his rejection of the authority of overnment is a
major aspect of British cultural identity" eople !ill not be bullied" .@he
son F%ule BritanniaG contains the line: FBritons never never never shall be
slavesG"0 @he failure of the Dome project illustrated the po!erlessness of
overnment in a democracy"!port@akin pride in the sportin achievements of oneGs nation is clearly a
sinificant indicator of oneGs attachment to oneGs homeland" @hat this
persists= and even increases= despite political devolution to the reions and
BritainGs interation !ithin 6urope= is a conundrum !hich !ill be eCamined
later on" .@he)ail Telegraph still reports 6urope under FEorein
)e!sG three decades after Britain became a member of the 6uropean
6conomic -ommunity"0
Britain is a country !here interest in sport has al!ays flourished"
@raditionally its sports stars have been lionised: W" /" /race the nineteenthcentury
cricketer %oer Bannister= the first fourminute miler Iinford-hristie= the sprinter= and so on" Britons particularly !elcome the success
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of sportin heroes in football= or soccer= as it is kno!n" @he ame of soccer
is central to BritainGs vie! of itself and is supported fanatically by people
of both seCes= from all social classes= aes= and reions= so for eCample any
soccer match bet!een 6nland and /ermany assumes more than sportin
importance" @here is national lee in rememberin 6nlandGs #9* defeat of
/ermany in &1((" @he commentatorGs F@hey think itGs all over " " " it isno!G became a famous Sun ne!spaper headline after that match .and is
the name of a popular BB- sports qui7 proramme0" After 6nlandGs +9&
victory over /ermany in *''& .follo!in a &9' defeat at Wembley nine
months earlier0 all sorts of enies ood and bad came out of the bottle"
6ven people !ho donGt normally follo! football !ere eCultant" @his !as
&
*
$&&&
Introduction 13reflected on television and radio !here ne!sreaders= male and female= did
not even try to appear dispassionate" @he socalled Fblackeded voiceG=reserved for describin the normal disasters of the ne!s= disappeared in
the reportin" 8port here proved cohesive and positive" @he fact that one
section of British society= rampain 6nlish hoolians= !ent round
,unich after the match chantin FthereGs only one Bomber 2arrisG !ent
larely unnoticed in the British media" verniht there !as a shift
from middleclass apprehension about the prospective behaviour of
British hoolianfans overseas= to a display of triumphalism !here Fa fe!
hotheadsG must not be allo!ed to detract from the very real victory !hich
took place"
*enop"o+ia@he !ay in !hich ne!s is reported reveals much about British readers
and vie!ers" @he coverae of refuees and asylum seekers for eCample
has revealed sharp differences in British attitudes to foreiners and in
enerally accepted notions of !hat it means to be British" Eormer @ory
arty leader William 2aue applied the phrase Fbous asylum seekersG to
refuees= presumably in the belief that it !ould endear him to his follo!ers"
4n practice it raised the aner of opponents and supporters alike" Eor the
former it !as evidence of @ory racism= for the latter it failed to distance
him from the lack of compassion of his predecessorbutone= ,araret
@hatcher"
6vents like this can enable a latent nationalism to arise" @his happensinstantly= and ne!spapers can rally support aainst an FenemyG overniht"
4n &15& the Sun orchestrated hatred for Fthe AriesG over the Ealklands
conflict" ,ost Sun readers !ere una!are !here the Ealkland 4slands !ere=
but they rose to the invitation to be Cenophobic any!ay" @hat 4raqi leader
8addam 2ussein= the 8erb 8lobodan ,ilosevic= or imbab!ean rime
,inister %obert ,uabe could equally be vilified at a momentGs notice indicates
a Cenophobia al!ays ready to be inited in certain sections of the
British public" 6ven the *''& %oyal 3ariety erformance featured a comedian
!ho centred his act around the British hatred of the ErenchH Dislike
of other nationalities is not far beneath the psyche particularly of some of
the older eneration" ,ean!hile the youn and the educated look for theirvalues to!ards 6urope and the U8A"
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@he above eCamples from current affairs sho! ho! compleC a
country Britain is" 4t is difficult to make eneralisations about because
Britain is an amalam of paradoCes" 4t is enerally conformist and conservative
but is also in a constant state of chane" 4t is overned by arliament=
but the peopleGs voice is stron" 4t has a monarch but many people are
&*
$&&&
14 British Cultural Identitiesrepublicans" 4t enerates a lot of popular and much FhihG culture= but also
philistinism and hoolianism" -onstituency of its population also is in fluC"
@he majority of the population is -aucasian= but ("5 per cent of people are
no! from ethnic minorities 9 predominantly from the -aribbean= Africa=
and the 4ndian subcontinent" 4t is hard to embrace such contradictions and
tensions" 4t is much easier to talk about FBritainsG= or for that matter the
F4dentitiesG of our title"
Postmo&ernism4t miht also be arued that modern Britain is no different from any other
developed state" 4n a postmodern !orld of surfaces= public relations= stylistic
fusions= and so on= ne! urban developments are the same every!here"
,anchesterGs @rafford -entre shoppin mall= for eCample= is a collae of
lobal culture" 4t has tro$pe l*oueil art!ork= /reek statuary= Art Deco
mouldins= Whistleresque murals= 3enetian frescos= a mockup of the deck=
deckfurniture= and lifeboats of the Titanic .presumably desined to drede
up imaes of upperclass travel= as !ell as of the teenae= heartthrob film
Titanic= from shoppersG unconscious0" @here is also a fibrelass statue of
8ammy Davis rH @his shoppin mall and others like it= steeped in lobal
FcultureG .or kitsch?0= are no! firmly entrenched on the cultural map for
British youn and old alike" Are these people FconsumersG defined by the
products they are made to buy= or Britons !ho assert their multicultural
identities and individuate themselves by shoppin? @hat is !here our
debate lies"
%e&ia,ore important perhaps than lobal influences is the role played in British
life by homero!n media" 6verythin is no! played out on television"
,oral and ethical dilemmas= from ay rihts and cosmetic surery to
euthanasia and abortion= are illustrated and aired in soap operas" 6veryone
in the public eye= all oranisations= and corporate Britain have .ublic0%.elations0 people to help to manae information flo!" oliticians are
forced to resin in time for The Si+ O*clock ,ews" ,inisters must act
quickly in order to seem decisive= rather than !isely= havin considered in
depth" @he medium dominates the messae" )obody in Britain can claim
to be unaffected by the barrae of noise comin from these eCternal influences"
2o!ever= people do discriminate bet!een !hat they tolerate= !hat
they accept= and !hat elements of the culture .or counterculture0 they
choose for themselves as a buffer aainst the outside !orld"
&
*
$&&&Introduction 15
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Lan#ua#eWe should also be careful !ith lanuae" 4n any discussion of nationalism=
identity= or current affairs= lanuae is never FinnocentG" @he choice of
!ords reveals the underlyin outlook of the speaker" 8o for eCample the
!ord FforeinG in 6nlish is much more hostile than the -trangerJestrangeiro
found in most romance lanuaes or than the /erman ausl.nder" IatentBritish Cenophobia is revealed in the offensive tabloid eCpression Fohnny
EoreinerG" ur chapter FIanuae and 6thnicityG says a lot more about
this= but for no! think about the impact on national relations and culture
of the follo!in uses of lanuae: @o !elsh is to cheat or renee to scotch
is to th!art= to squash= to prevent an 4rish lanyard is an untidy rope" 4n
other !ords the names of the three FsubsidiaryG nations in the British 4sles
have neative connotations in the lanuae of the dominant one" @hus
national prejudice is encoded in the 6nlish lanuae"
Bearin these points in mind= !e !ill no! turn to eCamine the approaches
of the four recent studies referred to earlier= each of !hich uses a list or
key !ords to identify salient characteristics of British people"T"e Sunday Times ri" listEinancial status is clearly one determinant of cultural outlook" @he Sunda
Ti$es evidently believes that= as E" 8cott Eit7erald= said: Fthe rich are differentG"
Wealth affects culture because= even if they are philistines individually=
the rich collectively tend to be patrons of the arts" Eor decades ,aurice
8aatchi has been buyin the !ork of contemporary British artists" As often
as not the rich are distinuished by the flamboyant arishness of their taste=
rather than by their discernment" %uby WaC conducted vie!ers around the
Duchess of MorkGs FdistinctiveG home in a famous television proramme"
@heir sense of identity is determined by the fact that they are rich and therefore
insulated from the constraints and inconveniences of the poor 9 !hich
is the rest of the country" ,any of the latter !ill be public servants 9 teachers=
social !orkers= postal employees= !orkers in the civil service 9 people
defined by their usefulness" 2o!ever the rich= as a roup= !ould rarely claim
that their chief aim is public service" 8o= in the Sunda Ti$es richest thousand
list !e see fortyone people !ho made their money in fashion companies=
includin familiar hihstreet names such as oseph= Erench -onnection
.no! E-UK0 and %ussell N Bromley" @he aim of these companies is the continued
creation of !ealth for the benefit of the families !hich o!n them and
of !aes for the people !ho !ork for them= rather than public service"
;5
1
#'&&
&
*
$&&&
1, British Cultural Identities4n *''&= after the dotcom bubble burst= old money continued to do
rather !ell" @he lando!nin Duke of Westminster .$'' acres of ,ayfair
and Belravia0 !as the richest man in Britain" But that does not mean that
the rise of BritainGs meritocracy is falterin" 4n *''& there !as another dropin the proportion on the list of those !ho inherited their !ealth" nly *#&
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of the thousand in the list inherited their fortunes" @his is the smallest
proportion since the list !as first dra!n up in &155" @hen about ;' per
cent of the t!o hundred entries had inherited their money" @his represents
a sinificant shift in a culture in !hich inherited !ealth plays such a major
part" Einancial chane fuels the process of social and cultural chane" @he
Sunda Ti$esGs focus on money reveals very little about the rich peopleprofiled or the lives of the mass of the population ho!ever= the fact that
most of those on the list are Fhousehold namesG indicates that they are part
of a social community= as !ell as a purely financial British hierarchy"
The Observer- Britain unoere&Whereas the Sunda Ti$esGs list offers a snapshot of a sement of British
society !hose primary motivation and identity is fiscal= The ObserverGs
FBritain UncoveredG supplement takes a FsocioloicalG approach to contemporary
culture and covers a broader spectrum" 4t contains a survey of public
attitudes .(1 per cent are aainst sameseC marriae the most popular
6uropean country is 8pain only &1 per cent of people !ould not take out
private healthcare or educate their children privately= if they had plenty ofmoney0 and behaviour .$; per cent !ould keep a !allet they found !ith
L*'' in it0" 4t also looks at peopleGs activities across the ae rane from
deprived teenaers to pensioners attitudes to !ork dru culture education
and finally eccentricity" @!o sections deal !ith the spiritual state of
the nation 9 broadly speakin= the decline of institutional reliion in favour
of Fhouse churchesG and the appeal to youn ,uslims of traditional 4slam"
As a barometer of Fthe health of the nation=G the supplement is quite
hopeful" 8ociety is chanin= but the fiCed standards from !hich people are
strayin hover in the backround" Eor eCample the journalist Burhan Wa7ir
complains about the severity of his o!n upbrinin in akistan= but reports
that youn British ,uslims are manain to combine the practice of their
reliion !ith the freedom to o clubbin if they !ant to" @he film'ast
Is 'ast .&1110 hihlihts similar dilemmas" @he section on eccentricity
suests the impossibility of pieonholin people" ,iranda 8a!yer= author
of a book on suburbia=Park and /ide .*''&0= meets a pensioner !ho is
feelin !obbly Fbecause heGd taken t!o 6sG .6cstasy tablets0" 4n her vie!=
eccentricity is !hat keeps the culture vibrant and makes Britain interestin=
because unpredictable"
5
1
#'&&&
*
$&&&
Introduction 17The ObserverGs approach is tryin to present a snapshot of the real
Britain as opposed to that of the tourist brochures" 4t is partly limited by
factors surroundin any inquiry based on questionnaires"
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4n *''&= 4an %ussell produced a proramme calledAn A%& of Britishness
for -hannel +" Usin t!entysiC headins= the prorammemakers looked
at various aspects of contemporary Britain" @heir list of topics !as random
and eclectic= and the tone flippant= !ith= for eCample= taCi drivers from the
)orth and 8outh voicin prejudices about either side of the divide"
2o!ever= most vie!ers of a proramme intended for home consumptioncould relate to the items raised" @he list is reproduced in @able '"* and
miht be used for a classroom brainstormin eCercise" ,any of these items
are obvious= but a fe! require eCplanation" Deepfried ,ars Bars and fluorescent
reen peas are northern food delicacies Britons are evidently the
hihestper capita consumers of jisa! pu77les there is an attempt to introduce
the kilt as a fashion arment for men the pedestal !atercloset !as
#'&&
&
*
$&&&
1/ British Cultural IdentitiesTABLE 0.)#n #$% of BritishnessAlcohol )orth98outh divide
Bino lder people
-ockney antomime
Dome
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him" 4t !ould be nice to think that Britain supplies a model of diversity
!hich could be eCported to other postindustrial democracies" 2o!ever=
many people ask the question: ho! lon can Britain remain an oasis of
diversity and tolerance of difference in the face of the homoenisin forces
of lobalisation?
$&&&Introduction )1eroesA pramatic !ay of lookin at British identity and of eCaminin the
aspirations of ordinary people is to look at the kind of contemporary heroes
they have created" @hese heroes reveal a lot about the people !ho have
created them" @hey reflect ho! people !ould like to be themselves= or !hat
they see as admirable in others" As a roup= heroes represent the values of
their culture" 8inificantly this cynical ae has thro!n up many antiheroes
or stae villains= such as F)astyG )ick Bateman from Big Brother= and Anne
%obinson from The 1eakest !ink" revious enerations tended to admire
6stablishment fiures or politicians= such as -hurchill or ,acmillan= buttoday sports people tend to predominate" Eor eCample 8ally /unnell= the
hurdler= is also !ell kno!n outside her sport" thers !ell kno!n enouh
outside their sports to appear in television advertisements are: Erank Bruno
the boCer= /ary Iineker and 3innie ones the footballers= 8teve %edrave
the lympic ro!er and 8teve Davis the snooker player" 8teve %edrave !on
five lympic medals for ro!in at successive lympic ames" 4n *''& it
took him around siC hours to run the Iondon ,arathon because so many
!ell!ishers impeded his proress" As a national hero he embodied virtues
of doedness and determination= ood humour and stability !hich even
the ,@3 eneration of slackers can evidently relate to"
2eroes of the day are decided much more by the youn than they
!ere hitherto= and consequently television and media personalities such as
-arol 3orderman and -hris 6vans tend to feature= as !ell as those from
sports= business= and commerce" 8o no!adays the rane of heroes is much
!ider" 4n order to eCamine this phenomenon= !e !ill consider in more
detail a small number of select prominent eCamples"
Priness ianaAn unlikely hero 9 or heroine 9 !as rincess Diana" 8he !as born into
privilee= the dauhter of 6arl 8pencer and= after her fairytale marriae to
rince -harles= had several palaces to choose from" 8he became a fashion
icon and her appearance !as !idely imitated" @he other side to her !asher compassion for people !ith Aids and her opposition to land mines 9
a product of the militaryindustrial compleC of !hich she herself !as
aruably a part" erhaps for this reason= people sa! the latter as a particularly
principled stand"
8he !as a paradoCical heroine in that her !ealth could have separated
her from people in the street= but it didnGt" 8he !as enuinely liked
by her future subjects: so much so that @ony Blair could make political
capital by callin her Fthe eopleGs rincessG 9 at her funeral" @he arrival of
$&&&
)) British Cultural Identities
rincess Diana !as a !atershed in attitudes to the monarchy" Buckinhamalace completely misread the public mood !ith their reaction !hen she
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!as killed !ith her lover in a car crash in aris in &11;"
eople already kne! from a television intervie! !ith ,artin Bashir
that Diana !as at odds !ith the palace= and= !hen the latter appeared to
be prepared to ive her a lo!key funeral= they !ere outraed" @here !as
a national outpourin of rief" 4t !as a moment !hen the nation came
toether in sorro! because Diana represented values !hich !ere theirs as!ell as hers: compassion for the sick in an uncarin @hatcherite !orld
frustration at restrictions in a society hidebound by hierarchy openmindedness
in a Britain needin to become multicultural an evident belief
in the need for !omen to break out from the stultifyin conventions of
marriae and assert their seCual freedom 9 althouh aruably the latter !as
just the continuation of an upperclass practice made much harder to hide
no!adays from papara77i" 2er funeral !as one of the periodic= unscripted
moments in current affairs !hich unleash enuine feelins of solidarity
amon British people" 4t is as if they !ake up from their traditional passive
conservatism and realise ho! much they really care about certain issues"
@here is a subtle shift in the public mood and in peopleGs relations !ithone another"
4t should also be said that many other Britons !ere totally nonplussed
by this public display of rief" @hey speculated bemusedly on the
spiritual bankruptcy of those !hose emotional lives !ere driven by the need&&&
Introduction )3FIGURE 0.) 'loral tributes outside ensington )alace immediately after )rincess*iana+s deathto hero!orship public fiures" @hey !ere astonished by the uncharacteristically
British public eCpression of emotion" We can conclude that Britain
contains many opposites= and also note that some British heroes are more
unequivocally revered abroad than at home" 8o= DianaGs saintlike media
imae !as dra!n on by the *''& Erench filmA$-lie .directed by ean
ierre eunet0= in !hich the heroineGs life as a doooder is inauurated at
the moment she is !atchin the ne!s report on DianaGs death in aris"
T"e Be2"ams@!o contemporary heroes for youn people are David Beckham= the
,anchester United footballer and 6nland captain= and his !ife 3ictoria"
osh and Becks= as they are called= are style icons and are observed minutely
by the media= their fans= and detractors" 4nBurchill on Beckha$ .*''&0=
for eCample= ulie Burchill said that David displays FDianafaced gravitas
2 2 2 PandQ seems so aristocraticG= !hile P3ictoriaQ is Fso delihtfullycommonG" @he couple feature as key characters inAlistair Mc"owan*s Big
I$pressions on BB-&" osh !as so called !hen formerly a member of the
manufactured roup the 8pice /irls" @oday they are very real trendsetters
9 parents !orry that teenae pop fans !ill copy oshGs !earin of a lip
rin" Boys copy BecksGs haircuts"
@hey both have jobs to do= and theoretically the intense media interest
!hich surrounds them Fjust happensG" Althouh !hat is reported is made
to seem spontaneous and natural= it is in fact the product of an elaborate
public relations campain" 4n Auust *''& the British national press
contained #+' stories about 3ictoria Beckham" @his cannot have been accidental"
Becks has his child BrooklynGs name tattooed in othic script on hislo!er back= !here press photoraphers can see it" As an ambitious youn
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couple they have realised that for them life in the media is money in the
bank" 8o they set about cultivatin their public personas"
4n a sense the Fosh and BecksG phenomenon is too closely orchestrated
to be enuine popular culture= despite its dependence on mass
support" Whereas most youth culture is about iconoclasm= rebellion= and
anarchy= their fame is orchestrated by % firms" osh and Becks are partof a process of the transfer of !ealth and po!er from a previous eneration
to a ne! one" 4n *''&= they !ent by helicopter from their -heshire
mansion to the home of Iord Ieverhulme for the dispersal auction sale of
its contents" @hey spent L*"& million on purchases of antique furniture"
@he effect of this !as to strenthen the position of 6stablishment antiquecollectors
to spread the messae to their o!n fans that the past contains
items of value and to transfer the proceeds of other peopleGs consumerism
into !ealth for their o!n future enerations" 2ence they consolidate the
*
$&&&
)4 British Cultural Identities!ealth of Britain past= !hile enain in processes .pop music and football0
!hich are seen as transitory and ephemeral"
%e&ia ele+ritiesAnother youn contemporary hero !hose career has risen on the strenth
of media publicity is the television chef amie liver" 2e is youn" 2e does
everythin in the eye of the media" 2e !rites for @he Ti$es Maga3ine" 2e
travels to )e! Mork" 2e ets married" 2e entertains his friends" 2e appears
in advertisements" 2e is a talented individual but more important than that
is the publicity machine !hich sells him" 2e is a Fmedia heroG !ho is mainly
valued for his appearance= style= and presentation" 2e lives his life in public
and never seems to have private moments" All his @shirts are ones the
audience !ould like to o!n" @hey are never crumpled" @heir o!ner looks
confident" 2e never appears depressed or havin moments of introspection"
2e is forever cheerful and cuddly" 4n reality such people donGt eCist"
2e has abilities in cookin undoubtedly= but his main skills are in selfpromotion"
2e is the subject of complaints and controversy in liberal
orans such as the "uardian= but mean!hile he is lauhin all the !ay to
the bank= and is evidently the t!entyfirstcentury version of the renaissance
man the people !ant to admire"
$&&&
Introduction )5FIGURE 0.3 *avid and ictoria Bec-ham are the most reported.on individualsin Britain, having completely eclipsed royalty in terms of media interest(/ )opperfoto0eutersBusinessMoun people today particularly esteem achievers in business= commerce=
and finance" @he businessman %ichard Branson is the most admired fiure"
2e is selfmade= rich= 7any and takes part in danerous sports such as
balloonin= and po!erboatracin" 2e has dealt in elements of youth
culture such as -Ds= videos= and D3Ds throuh his 3irin ,eastores"
Moun people admire the mealomania of his ambition 9 he has also o!ned
an airline and a train company 9 as much as the -ity distrusts him for hislack of focus"
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Anita %oddick= !ho founded the Body 8hop= is also admired for the
stances !hich she takes on matters such as the testin of cosmetics on
animals" As a female entrepreneur she is mouldbreakin and serves as a
role model for a youner eneration of !omen !ho !ant to make po!er
and principles a part of their identities"
Einally= a most unlikely *''' overniht heroine= at the ae of t!entyfour=!as Derbyshireborn 6llen ,acArthur" @he yachts!oman came
second in the 4end-e "lobe sinlehanded roundthe!orld race" 4t !as a
phenomenal achievement= and !hat struck a chord !ith people from all
!alks of life !as the fact that she !as not !ell connected nor !ellheeled
and !as not a particularly mediasavvy person" 4n demeanour she !as
modest and didnGt seem particularly confident" 2o!ever she !as obviously
eCtremely selfsufficient and competent= and had !orked sinlemindedly
for her fame" 8he had started as a sailin instructor in 2ull= had lived in a
container in Erance= and ained her achievement on her merits" Eor these
reasons= includin also the nautical connection for an island people= she
appealed to youn and old"Realit' teleision8uch is the po!er of television in Britain= that some heroes can be blatantly
manufactured and presented to the audience= rather than chosen by the
population at lare" @his is done in a semidocumentary format" @he public
are voyeurs !ho see behind the scenes of auditions etc" eople collude !ith
the pretence that they are a part of the prorammemakin and delude
themselves into believin it is all real" @he sense of empo!erment they are
thus iven makes them more likely consumers of the eventual product"
4n *''& an 4@3 seriesPop Stars set about auditionin youn hopefuls from
all over the British 4sles to form a band" @he proramme masqueraded as
a talent competition= and the band !hich !as produced= called 2earG8ay=
!as presented as somethin that rose commercially on its o!n merits" @he
audience !as eCpected to inore the paraphernalia of the production
&&
), British Cultural Identitiesprocess .editin= promotion= staemanaement0" @he roup !as put
toether in front of the vie!ersG eyes !eek by !eek on television= and yet
spectators !ere quite happy to be hood!inked by a process !hich they
!ere bankrollin"
@he series !as very like Freality televisionG= !here peopleGs lives are
turned into soap opera" 8uccessful candidatesG families !ere intervie!ed"We vicariously eCperienced emotions !ith them" And yet the !hole system
of heats and talentspottin !as a sham in the sense that it pretended to
replace a hapha7ard system !here talented siners sink or s!im= dependin
on their luck= !ith one !here merit is all" 8o for eCample -laire Ereeland=
a /laso! call centre supervisor= !as !idely considered the most talented
siner" 2o!ever the verdict of the proramme producer )iel Iythoe !as
3oice: &'" Iooks: $" 8o she !as dropped from the roup"
@he sho! !as really about eneratin interest to fuel a market for
a product !hich it !as creatin" @his !ill ultimately sell -Ds= make
the pop roup stars and the proramme producers rich= and subvert the
previous norm= under !hich it !as consumers= not manufacturers= !hodecided !hat they !anted to consume" A slot !as even found for 2earG8ay
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for the %oyal 3ariety 8ho! in *''&" @he formula is commercially
successful and promoter 8imon -o!ell then did a seriesPop Idol for 4@3
seekin a solo performer"
um+in# &on,any people are made anCious by the loss of quality in television= BritainGs
dominant information medium= illustrated above" @hey see standards of allsorts bein lo!ered in the media enerally= and call it Fdumbin do!nG"
@hey attribute this decline of British cultural standards to deficiencies in
the educational system" Eor years it has been suested that the median
level at !hich television is beamed is the third form at secondary school
.ae: fourteen0" 4f that link is retained= media standards !ill fall even
further= so the arument oes"
6very year /-86 and A level results are reeted !ith complaints from
the ne!spapers that the eCams are ettin easier" @here is a ritual denial
of this from teachers and teachin unions= !ho say that people should ive
credit to the youn for their hard !ork and achievement instead of underminin
their morale" @he overnment supports the eCaminersG line thatstandards have not in fact declined= but the overnment !ould say that=
!ouldnGt it?
6ditorials complain that skills shortaes have arisen because students
have all done undemandin Fne!G courses such as media studies and sports
science" )obody really !ants to hear or address complaints about the
*
$&&&
Introduction )7erosion of standards of quality in education" 8tudents are the last people
!ho !ill complain about so called radeinflation in schools or universities"
Why should they?Private 'e runs a column called FDumb BritainG"
8ample recent eCtracts include:
8teve Wriht %adio *
Wriht: What is the 4talian !ord for motor!ay?
-ontestant: 6Cpresso
/rant 8tott 8ho!= %adio Eorth
8tott: Who is the leader of the Ulster Unionist arty?
-ontestant: /eri 2alli!ell
The 1eakest !ink= BB-&
Anne %obinson: 4n science= !hat is botany the study of?
-aroline G8hea .Big Brother contestant0: Bottoms"4t is temptin to suest that this anCiety about dumbin do!n is a result
of BritainGs diminished economic and military sinificance in the !orld" r
aain= it is one of the effects of devolvin po!er to reions hitherto
controlled by 6nland" A former -hief 8cientific Adviser to the /overnment
said in *''& that universities are underfunded and must not be seen
Fsimply as a substitute for )ational 8ervice to keep younsters off the
dole queueG" Whatever the reason= fears about dumbin do!n of radio and
television prorammes= turnin ideas into sound bites that can be assimilated
by a notvery!elleducated audience is rife= and !e !ill see later
!hether there is just cause for this vie!= or !hether it is a symptom of a
moral panic"@he debate about standards is like an annual ame !hich is never
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satisfactorily resolved and !hich mirrors other social and cultural divides
and anCieties" eople !ho have themselves been to rammar schools and
attended the old universities feel that they !orked harder than the present
eneration and !ere more competent" roressives on the other hand !elcome
the ne! !ays= applaud the slouhin off of BritainGs imperialist past
and attribute complaints to traditional British snobbery and conservatism"essimists suest that the undereducated youn= havin lost interest
in the pursuit of kno!lede= are politically unconcerned and merely
dissipate their eneries in drus= seC= and pointless consumerism" @his is
not so" ne has only to point to the -anadian !riter= )aomi KleinGs antilobalisation
book,o !ogo= !hich sold forty thousand copies to eihteento
thirtyyearolds in less than a year in Britain in *'''"
*
$&&&
)/ British Cultural IdentitiesBritish Cultural Identities struture
2avin revie!ed a number of potential approaches to the question ofBritish cultural identity= !e have chosen to structure our book into seven
chapters" We have headed each chapter !ith a timeline because one needs
to be a!are of FpublicG events !hich shape peopleGs private eCperiences"
After each of the chapters !e have included revie! eCercises !hich allo!
the development of discussion on issues !hich British people themselves
debate" 4n order to inform discussion !e have included some Fcultural
eCamplesG" @hese are items= mainly from popular culture= !hich people
value" @hey include films= television= drama= novels= social commentaries
and other artefacts !hich illustrate the cultural state of the nation" @hey
are not academic references= but sinposts to!ards cultural understandin"
ur first chapter= Flaces and eoplesG= deals !ith the cultural eoraphy
of Britain" eople are products of their bioloy and environment
.)ature and )urture0 and !e try to determine !hat they have in common
9 !hat the British FsystemG produces" @he chapter considers ho! far people
pride themselves on bein from a particular area" @here is a !ell kno!n
)orth98outh divide but there is also a continuin historic rivalry bet!een
Iancashire and Morkshire" eople from -orn!all and Devon .the West
-ountry0 feel they are different from those in Iondon= !hich is three
hundred miles a!ay and yet rules them" Iondoners see themselves as at the
authentic heart of Britain= and so on"
F6ducation= Work= and IeisureG deals !ith the formal and recreationalaspects of livin in Britain" 4t assesses the eCtent to !hich people accept
the shared cultural values !hich schools and universities transmit to them"
4t looks at attitudes to employment= and the trauma for members of a social
roup !ho defined themselves as F!orkinG class but !ho are often no
loner !orkin" 4t asks !hether leisure time in Britain is spent productively=
to promote the physical and psychic !ellbein of the population 9 or is it
just !asteful hedonism?
F/ender= 8eC= and the EamilyG traces the chane in attitudes and
patterns of behaviour of the seCes" 8eC is bioloically= but ender socially
determined" 8o= !here has a questionin of traditional ender roles led
to in modern Britain? Attitudes to seC and seCuality= amon younpeople particularly= are very different from their parentsG" 8o ho! do
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families resolve these potential divisions? @he concept of the nuclear
family has underone profound chane" ,ale authority has been eroded"
,arriae is less common and divorce is prevalent" Where is this leadin in
terms not just of social stability but of ho! people see their family roles
and futures?
4n FMouth -ulture and 8tyleG !e eCamine the !ay in !hichFteenaersG= a concept first identified in the &1+'s= have their o!n codes of&
&
Introduction )$communication= fashion= behaviour= and cultural practices" We also look
at the status of older people in a society becomin more youthoriented"
F-lass and oliticsG deals !ith the question of !hether peopleGs lives
and psyches are conditioned by the socioeconomic rank in !hich they
happen to have been born" @he death of class has been repeatedly
pronounced" We offer another vie!" We also look at the !ay in !hich class
influences votin patterns and the eCtent to !hich people still see themselvesas FpoliticalG or of the riht or left"
F6thnicity and IanuaeG looks at important questions around race=
not just for ethnic minorities= !ho make up ("5 per cent of the British population=
but for speakers of 4rish= 8cots= Welsh= and 6nlish !hose identities
are partly thereby determined" 4t discusses the colonisin nature of lanuae
and its effects on incomers and Britain"
F%eliion and 2eritaeG assesses ho! far people livin in Britain maintain
a spiritual dimension in their lives" %eliious observance appears to be
in decline" But that is not the !hole story" Iinked to the idea of reliious
belief is the collective endorsement of a set of values from the past= !orth
handin on and preserved in the form of heritae" 2eritae is more complicated
than the preservation of historic monuments" 4t involves the idea of
themepark Britain= the )ottin 2ill -arnival= distinctive foods" 4t is very
often about the incorporation of influences from the marins into the eventual
mainstream"
8ome of the questions !e are posin are: Will British culture be annihilated
by= or !ill it incorporate= lobal culture? Why does one cultural
influence= oneGs ender for eCample= override another oneGs 8cottishness=
say? 4s the present eneration in Britain radically different from its parents?
4f so in !hat !ays? 4f not= !hy not? Do the British media reflect or
direct peopleGs vie!s and perceptions? 4s Britain a meltin pot of nationalities=does it allo! and encourae diversity= or is it just conformist and
conservative? What does it mean to be British in the t!entyfirst century?
4f FBritishG is a brand= !hat does it sinify?
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the t!o people battlin for the top position !ere 8hakespeare and
Iennon" @houh they have some thins in common .both men= both in the
arts0= they aruably represent contrastin attitudes to!ards bein British"
*
$&&&
30 British Cultural Identities8hakespeare represents the pinnacle of an 6li7abethan cultural Folden aeG
!hich is often contrasted to the emphasis on quantity as much as quality
in the t!entieth century .mass media= multinational industries= mass
production0" Iennon by contrast represents a different Folden aeG= the
&1('s= !hen values of freedom= liberalism= understandin= and love !ere
promoted by a eneration !hose motto miht have been IennonGs F/ive
eace a -hanceG= and its anthem IennonGs F4maineG .recently voted the
FreatestG number one sinle of all time on a -hannel # poll of vie!ers0"
@he list tells us several thins about the dominant conceptions of Britishness
and of FheroesG= in terms of ender= country= heritae= leadership= and fame"
@he fact that all those appearin in the top ten are no loner livin alsoaruably says somethin about the !ay in !hich the present continues to
live in the shado! of the past"
1 2ow important do you thin- heroes are to a 3sense of identity+4 'romthe descriptions in this chapter, and from your own -nowledge, whatcommon images of !ngland and of Britain have you noticed, and whatcharacteristics do you thin- they represent4) In the ne5t chapter, you will find it suggested that the British, and the!nglish in particular, were being presented in a certain way in 2ollywoodin the 1996s7 Before you read this however, we+d li-e you to considerthe following e5ercises7 8hin-ing of the #merican films you have seen, how many !nglishactors can you remember4 2ave they usually played !nglish characters42ow have the !nglish been stereotyped by 2ollywood, or yourown national film industry, in the past4 In terms of recent 2ollywood films, ames Bond is perhaps the mostfamous !nglish character (first played by Sean Connery, a Scot7"hat other similar larger.than.life images of British people has2ollywood produced4 2ow many of these originated in Britishnovels4 *oes 2ollywood portray British women differently from British men
(you might thin- of *eborah err, oan Collins, :lenda ac-son,ulie #ndrews, !mma 8hompson, or even the #mericans atherine2epburn in The African Queen and Bette *avis in The Virgin Queen43 2ow important do you thin- wider geographical perspectives, such asthose offered by !urope or the Commonwealth, are to understandingBritish identity4 2ow is national culture altered by these larger communities4Can you name fifteen countries that are in the Commonwealth,$&&&
Introduction 31!5ercises and can you list them by (a si;e of population4 (b year of independence4
4 British daily national newspapers are e5tremely varied, from the tabloidpress to the broadsheets, and so are their readerships7 # long.standing
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characterisation of newspapers categorises them in terms of the peoplewho buy them7
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!oc%& Stoc% and T'o Smo%ing Barrels (199E dir7 :uy itchie7 'our c!wan, The )ement Garden (19EA7 *etails adolescents+ response to the deathof their mother in a blea- >idlands environment7 # -ey te5t for unloc-ing @teenagers+ minds7oanna 8rollope, The )hoir (199D7 )resents a typically British conflict betweenappearanceand reality, change and tradition, when a venal *ean wants to close a
cathedral choir school7?ic- 2ornby,About a Boy (199E7 *eals with the problems facing a laddish centralcharacter who thin-s he has his life sorted out7 8he son of one of his girlfriendsintroduces him to his own emotions7 'ilmed with 2ugh :rant78ony )arsons, Man and Boy (D6667 "ritten with autobiographical hindsight, thisnovellaments the myopia of a central character who loses everything through anirresponsiblefling with a colleague7 *iscussed in a prison as Boo- of the >onth, onadio A7:raham Swift, !ast *rders (199G7 # group of four wor-ing.class
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choose7 SeHuel to "op Stars, whose band 2ear+Say produced two hit singles inshort order7This !ife7 :round.brea-ing, documentary.format drama series where a group oflawyersin their twenties live together in a large house7
www7ons7gov7u-0ffice for ?ational Statistics, @ :overnment #gency, produces social, health,economic, demographic, labour mar-et and business statisticswww7statistics7gov7u-08he official @ statistics site7 @p to date and accurateearthstation17simplenet7com0)rincess*iana7html# tribute in sounds and pictures from )rincess *i+s funeral, including !lton ohn+srendition of 3!ngland+s ose+ and by Blair et al. funeral addresseswww7private.eye7co7u-0nline version of very influential satirical maga;ine7 )resents alternative view ofcontemporary Britain
www7bbc7co7u-0history0programmes0greatbritons08he BBC+s 3:reatest Briton+ sitehannel += ,arch *''&
@HE FOLLOWING CHAPTERS EXAMINE BritainGs physical eoraphy=
the British people and the historical evolution of structural features in
the society" @he latter currently take many different forms and si7es
operate on both national and local levels embrace a rane of attitudes and
values and help to promote and condition cultural identities"
@he major formal features= such as arliament= monarchy= la! andovernment= are concerned !ith state or public business and initiate policies
in topdo!n and hierarchical form" But there are many other structures
on both public and private levels of social activity= such as sports= families=
leisure activities= neihbourhoods= popular culture and habitual !ays of
life !hich have their o!n valuesystems" @hey frequently have a bottomup
form and may illustrate more locali7ed= informal and individualistic
characteristics"
@he FBritish !ay of lifeG and British identities are partly determined
by ho! people function !ithin and react to national and local structures=!hether positively or neatively" @hese are not remote abstractions but
directly influence individuals in their daily lives" Eor eCample= overnment
policies affect citi7ens and families commercial orani7ations influence
choices in music= clothes and fashion the media try to shape ne!s values
and aendas sponsorship and advertisin may determine sports activities
and local overnment partly conditions community life" @hese features
cover a rane of practices on both hih and popular cultural levels" @heir
number and variety mean that there are many different F!ays of lifeG in
Britain and all contribute to the diversity and pluralistic identities ofcontemporary society"
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8ocial structures must adapt to ne! situations if they are to survive
and their present roles may be very different from their oriinal functions"Intrdu!tin
4n earlier centuries= 6nland= 8cotland= Wales and 4reland eCperienced very
varied events and conflicts in their historical ro!th" But= since &;'; !hen6nland and Wales !ere united !ith 8cotland as /reat Britain and since
&5'& !hen the United Kindom .6nland= 8cotland= Wales and 4reland0
!as formed= British state structures and a resultin social life have enerally
evolved slo!ly= unevenly and pramatically= rather than by violent
chane"
@hese characteristics have often been attributed to the alleedly
insular and conservative mentalities of island peoples= !ith their supposed
preference for traditional habits and institutions" 8ome influences have
come from abroad" But the absence of any successful eCternal military invasion
of the islands since the )orman -onquest of AD &'(( has allo!ed
6nland= 8cotland= Wales and 4reland to develop internally in distinctive
!ays= despite !ars and disputes bet!een them" @he resultin social principles=
such as parliamentary democracy and reliion= have often been
imitated by other countries= or eCported overseas throuh the creation of
an empire and a commercial need to establish !orld markets for British
oods"
@he development of the British state and its empire historically !as
aided by increasin military and economic strenth so that by the nineteenth
century Britain had become a dominant !orld po!er" But thecountry has eCperienced substantial chanes since the earlier imperial
period and from the midt!entieth century" @oday it is a compleC society
in !hich diversity has created problems as !ell as advantaes"
Britain today may ive an impression of homoeneous or uniform
behaviour" But there are differences in the society= such as the cultural
distinctiveness and separate identities of Wales= 8cotland and )orthern
4reland .leadin to the devolution of some political po!er in &1119*'''0
subsequent demands for local autonomy in some 6nlish reions .such as
the northeast0 disparities bet!een affluent and economically depressedareas throuhout the country .includin the decay and social deprivation
of many innercity locations0 alleed cultural aps bet!een )orth and
8outh political variety .reflected in support for different political parties in
different parts of Britain0 debates on the positions of !omen= minority
roups and ethnic communities .!ith tensions bet!een national identity
and ethnicity0 campains for individual and collective rihts .!ith the
conflict bet!een rihts and responsibilities0 a ulf bet!een rich and poor
.!ith a ro!in underclass of disadvantaed= alienated people0 and
enerationaldifferences bet!een youn and old"
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8uch features illustrate the present divisions in British society" @hey
suest a decline in the traditional deference to authority= consensus vie!s
and national institutions" @he people are no! more )onconformist= multiethnic
and individualistic than in the past" pinion polls suest that the
&'&&&" 4ntroduction
British feel that they have become more aressive= more selfish= less
tolerant= less kind= less moral= less honest and less polite" @heir society is
sometimes portrayed as one riddled !ith mistrust= coarseness and cynicism
in !hich materialism= relativistic values= celebrity !orship and a sensationalist
tabloid media constitute the ne! standards"
Aruably= such developments have led to an increase in antisocial
behaviour= yobbishness= public scruffiness= serious alchohol and dru abuse=
disputes bet!een neihbours= street crime and public disorder" @he tolerant
civic imae of individual liberty and sense of community= !hich foreiners
and the British often have of the country= has suffered" -ritics and politicians
!ant a return to social responsibility= consensus or inclusive politics
and a carin society in !hich individuals feel that they have a place"
,any Britons are !orried about the quality and services of their
society" An opinion poll prior to the *''& eneral election found
!hich issues !ere important for them in decidin !hich party to vote for
.@able '"&0" 8uch issues are of concern to and affect British people on a
personal level in their daily lives"
ressures are consequently placed on social structures and politiciansto reflect and respond more adequately to current !orries" @he performances
of British national and local institutions are viorously debated and
many are found !antin"
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6urope" 4t sheltered behind the barrier of the 6nlish -hannel and its
outlook !as !est!ards and !orld!ide" @oday the psycholoical and physical
isolation from 6urope is chanin= as illustrated by increased
cooperation bet!een Britain and other 6uropean countries and by the
openin .&11#0 of a -hannel rail tunnel bet!een 6nland and Erance" Butthe relationship bet!een Britain and 6urope continues to be problematic=
$&&&
4ntroduction #
and ne! associations have been forced by events and circumstances= rather
than !holeheartedly souht"
Despite such developments and more internal social diversity= there
is still a conservatism in British life !hich reards chane !ith suspicion"
@he Fforces of conservatismG .in @ony BlairGs !ords0 may lead to tension
bet!een the often enforced need for reform and a nostalia for an assumed
ideal past" @hey can cause difficulties for proress and the evolution of
social structures" 2istorical fact demonstrates that the past in Britain !as
not as idyllic as is sometimes imained" But the myth and traditional
patterns of behaviour still hold considerable attraction for many people"
Eundamental chane does not come easily to old cultures such as
Britain= and social structures .or the human beins !ho operate them0 are
often resistant to major alteration" 4t is arued that Britain since the &1+'s
has been un!illin to face larescale reassessment in its social= political=
economic and institutional structures" A relative economic decline since
the late nineteenth century !as joined to a political system and nationalmentality !hich could not cope !ith the reality or needs of the post
&'&&&
$ 4ntroduction
@ A B I 6 ' " & @op issues facin British society= *''&
Per cent2ealth care ;$
6ducation (*
Ia! and order +'
ensions #'@aCation $;
ublic transport $&
,anain the economy $&
Unemployment $'
Asylum seekersJimmiration *;
6urope *(
rotectin the natural environment *(
2ousin *&
Animal !elfare &&Defence &&
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@he constitution and devolution 5
)orthern 4reland ;
@rade unions (
Source:MO/I une *''&
industrial and culturally diverse society that Britain had become" ,uch ofthis decline !as supposedly due to lonterm and lobal events !hich !ere
not reversible" But it is arued that the country still suffers from structural
defects= !hich need radical rethinkin" ramatic evolution and a complacent
attachment to past habits are= in this vie!= no loner sufficient"
Britain does have its problems" @here is continuin social instability=
such as the tension bet!een tradition and moderni7ation a ap bet!een
rich and poor industrial and technoloical chane inadequacies in social
institutions .such as education and health0 alleed lack of overnmental
competence and vision social framentation and an apparent decline in
cohesion and identity"
But= despite the often lurid picture of social decay painted by some
commentators= the essential fabric of British society is not fallin apart"
Biased ideoloical vie!s and a British capacity for selfdeniration and
complaint can encourae unbalanced= sensational vie!s= and events may
be eCaerated beyond their national importance or representative value"
,ost British people no! enjoy reater prosperity and opportunities=
althouh the economy suffered a lobally influenced do!nturn in some
sectors from *''&" But continuin structural and social problems !arn
aainst undue complacency"Assumptions about British life have in fact been stronly questioned
in recent decades" -onservative overnments under ,araret @hatcher
.&1;191'0 tried to reform social structures and promote ne! attitudes"
@hey attempted to reduce the stateGs role in public affairs and replace it by
Fmarket forcesG" @he focus !as upon economic ro!th competition
privati7ation
.state concerns transferred to the private sector0 the creation of
choice and standards in public services such as education and health and
the reform of bodies such as the trade unions= some professions and localovernment" eople !ere encouraed to be more responsible for their o!n
affairs !ithout reliance on the state for support .the Fdependency cultureG0
and to adopt more individual competitiveness and efficiency .the Fenterprise
cultureG0"
8uch policies !ere partially successful on the economic level= but there
!as resistance to the alleed accompanyin selfishness and social divisiveness"
While some people applauded the freedoms of an enterprise culture=
others stronly !ished for more intervention and fundin in public social
services" @his suests that it is difficult to chane BritonsG attitudes andthat many people still look to the state for support in areas such as health=
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education and 8ocial 8ecurity" )evertheless= market prorammes continued
under the -onservative rime ,inister ohn ,ajor .&11'91;0"
,ean!hile= the Iabour arty moderni7ed its policies and moved
to the political centre" 8ince ainin po!er in &11;= the Iabour overnment
under @ony Blair has not deviated from the -onservative economic$&&&4ntroduction %
approach= !hile pursuin cautious policies" 4t has also attempted .not
!ithout opposition0 to moderni7e Britain by creatin a Fne!= youn and
inclusiveG society" 4t is addressin social and economic realities= emphasi7es
personal initiative and responsibility and stresses that hard choices must be
made" But the overnment !ill have to deliver on its *''& election promises
to improve public services" 4t has spent lare amounts of money on education=
health and transport in order to prevent their collapse= raisin fears
of personal income taC rises"
pposition to some overnment prorammes .such as the local
overnment property taC under @hatcher or fuel prices and rural policy
under Blair0 and acceptance of others demonstrate that social chane can
occur in various= often interconnected= !ays" 8ome social structures !ither
a!ay because they are no loner used" thers are reformed internally as
ne! situations arise" Additional forces for chane are opposition political
parties !ith their alternative prorammes interest or pressure roups
eCertin influence upon decisionmakers rassroots movements protestin
at some action or lack of action campains by the media to promote reform
or uncover scandals and the !eiht of public opinion for or aainst officialplans" 2o!ever= overnment initiatives are the sinle most important
factor in determinin structural chane as politicians implement policies or
respond to events"
@he British allo! their overnments a reat deal of po!er in the
runnin of the country" But there is a limit to their tolerance and their
disquiet may be sho!n in public opinion polls= demonstrations and eneral
election results" ,ost politicians are sensitive to the vie!s of the people=
since their hold upon political po!er is dependent upon the electorate"
/overnments usually overn !ith at least one eye on public opinion andenerally attempt to ain acceptance for their policies" @hey have to move
cautiously .even !ith bi majorities in the 2ouse of -ommons like the
Iabour overnment0 and may suffer setbacks in some of their prorammes"
@he British assume= rihtly or !ronly= that they have an individual
independence and liberty !ithin the frame!ork of social institutions and
are quick to voice disapproval if their interests are threatened" rotest is a
natural and traditional reaction= as !ell as bein a safety valve aainst more
serious social and political disruption" But dissension may be neutrali7ed
by the promise of reform= or inored by overnment" Adequate responsesmay not come from the authorities and there is al!ays the daner of more
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serious conflict and public alienation" 2o!ever= peaceful evolution characteri7es
most of British life and radualist chanes reflect the diverse
nature of the society and its attitudes"
But the British are healthily cynical= irreverent= critical and increasinly
apathetic about their state institutions and political leaders"BritishSocial Attitudes5 6788%7 .pp" &*&9*0 suested that F@he PBritishQ publicGs
&'&&&
& 4ntroduction
trust in the pillars of the British establishment is at best hihly qualified
" " " P@heyQ seem intuitively to have discovered that the surest protection
aainst disillusionment !ith their public fiures and po!erful institutions
is to avoid developin illusions about them in the first place"G
@he British today are confrontin cultural and economic realities
different from those of the past" @hey do not enjoy the benefits of earlier
industrial revolutions= such as cheap ra! materials= cheap labour and an
uncompetitive !orld market" @he society has seen a decline in traditional
certainties and become more diverse= mobile= stressful= conflictridden and
individualistic" ld pramatic methods of innovation= !hich illustrate the
British tendency to muddle throuh difficulties !ithout lonterm plannin
or fundamental reform= are no loner sufficient for an era in !hich speciali7ed
education and trainin= hihtechnoloy competence and a need to
respond to international competition are the main determinants"
But aBritish Council9MO/Ipoll in )ovember &111 sho!ed that
many overseas countries see Britain as traditionridden= back!ardlookinand conventional= !ith imaes of monarchy= kilts= castles and aristocracy
predominatin" 4t is arued that Britain must chane this imae and reduce
the ap bet!een such forein perceptions and the countryGs contemporary
reality= !hile preservin its traditional strenths"
n the other hand= a survey by'ncclopaedia Britannica in
)ovember *''& found that most recent schoolleavers in Britain !ere inorant
of some of the key events in British history and a quarter had no
interest in byone days" 2istorical kno!lede !as also sorely lackin
amon adults"E'(lain and e'a)ine t*e +ll,in- ter)s.
insular rassroots pramatic sponsorship
deference conservatism innercity diversity
consensus kilts pluralism ethnic
nostalia autonomy postindustrial moderni7ation
myth dependency nonconformist evolution
enterprise @hatcher yobbishness community
hierarchies homoeneous inclusive apathetic
$&&&4ntroduction /
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6Cercises Write s*rt essa0s n t*e +ll,in- t(i!s.
& 6Camine the vie! that Britain is a quaint= oldfashioned museum piece=
back!ardlookin and conventional"
* What are some of the characteristics that you !ould associate !ith theBritish people and their society?
Abercrombie= )icholas and Warde= Alan .*'''0 Conte$porar British Societ
Cford:
Black!ell ublishers
Blair= @ony .&11(0,ew Britain5 M 4ision of a :oung Countr Iondon: Eourth
6state
6nlish= %ichard and Kenny= ,ichael .eds0 .&1110/ethinking British )ecline
Iondon:
,acmillan
2alsey= A"2" and Webb= " .*'''0 Twentieth;Centur British Social Trends
Iondon:
alraveJ,acmillan
,ar!ick= Arthur .*'''0A #istor of the Modern British Isles 676
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,ost British people identify themselves at one level !ith the larer political
and eoraphical areas in !hich they live" @he countryGs title for
constitutional and political purposes is the United Kindom of /reat
Britain and )orthern 4reland= !ith the short forms FUKG and FBritainG bein
used for convenience" 4t is part of those islands= kno!n eoraphicallyas the British 4sles .but more correctly as the British4rish 4slands0= !hich
lie off the north!est coast of continental 6urope" @he mainlands of
6nland= 8cotland and Wales form the larest island !ith the political title
of /reat Britain" )orthern 4reland shares the secondlarest island !ith
the %epublic of 4reland .4reland or 6ire0= !hich has been independent of
Britain since &1*&9**" 8maller islands= such as Anlesey= the 4sle of Wiht=
the rkneys= 8hetlands= 2ebrides and 8cillies= are also part of the British
political union"
But the 4sle of ,an in the 4rish 8ea and the -hannel 4slands off the
Erench !est coast are not part of the United Kindom" @hey are selfovernin
-ro!n Dependencies !hich have a historical relationship !ith
the British -ro!n and possess their o!n independent leal systems= leislatures
and administrative structures" 2o!ever= the British overnment is
responsible for their defence and forein relations and can intervene if ood
administration is not maintained"
n a smaller level of eoraphical identification= Britain is often
divided up into FreionsG" @hese are not the same as local overnment
&'&&&
24 @he countrystructures .see -hapter $0" @hey can be politicoeconomic structures for
British and 6U purposes assistance and development areas or service
locations for supplies of as= !ater and electricity" @hey are often based=
as in fiure &"$= on former economic plannin reions" 4n &111= %eional
Development Aencies .%DAs0 !ere created in 6nland !hich cover the
same areas"
F%eionalismG and FlocalismG= as cultural factors= are sinificant in
British life= but opinions differ on ho! stron they actually are" @hey can
illustrate a sense of belonin= !hich becomes more evident !ith increasindistance from Iondon and the UK overnment" @hey may reflect a
determination
by reional or local populations to assert their individual identities"
@hese have increased in 8cotland= Wales and .aruably0 )orthern
4reland !ith the devolution of political po!er from Iondon and the
establishment
.&1119*'''0 of a arliament in 6dinburh and Assemblies in
-ardiff and Belfast" But smaller local overnment areas in these countries
may !ell react to centrali7ed po!er in the capital cities" Devolution hasalso provoked demands for reater autonomy in some 6nlish reions such
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as the northeast= and the %DAs may serve as future sites for devolved
reional overnment in 6nland"
4dentification !ith even smaller local areas !as aruably more sinificant
!hen the British !ere a rural people livin in villaes and !ere less
mobile" But today= this identity may still be stronly focused on cities .suchas ,anchester= Iiverpool= /laso!= Belfast= Iondon and -ardiff0 or on
6nlish and Welsh counties rather than the larer reional areas"
P*0si!al +eatures and !li)ate
2istorically= BritainGs physical features have influenced human settlement=
population movements= military conquest and political union" @hey have
also conditioned the location and eCploitation of industry= transport
systems= ariculture= fisheries= !oodlands and enery supplies" @oday they
continue to influence such activities and are tied to public concerns about
pollution= !eather chane= the state of the natural environment and the
quality of food products" 8ome have been affected by overnment policies
.such as privati7ation0 and 6uropean Union directives on ariculture and
fisheries"
4n recent years= the countryside has become a fierce political issue"
,any rural inhabitants= roups such as @he -ountryside Alliance and
farmers feel nelected by the UK central overnment" @hey and others
object to the alleed destruction of the physical environment and the lack
of understandin of country life" 4n Britain= there has historically been a
tension bet!een urban and rural cultures but many people .even in the
@he country 22cities0 feel a traditional .if romantici7ed0 nostalia and identity for the
countryside"
BritainGs eoraphical position is marked by latitude +'R) in southern
6nland and by latitude ('R) across the 8hetlands" 4t thus lies !ithin only
&'R of latitude and has a small and compact si7e !hen compared !ith some
6uropean countries" Met it also possesses a reat diversity of physical
features= !hich surprises those visitors !ho eCpect a mainly urban and
industriali7ed country" @he many beauty spots and recreation areas= such
as the ten )ational arks in 6nland and Wales and areas of natural beautyin 8cotland and )orthern 4reland= may be easily reached !ithout much
eCpenditure of time or effort"
BritainGs physical area covers 1$='*+ square miles .*#*=5#* square
kilometres0" ,ost is land and the rest comprises inland !ater such as lakes
and rivers" 6nland has +'='+* square miles .&*1=($# sq km0= Wales has
;=1(5 .*'=($;0= 8cotland has *1=;11 .;;=&;10 and )orthern 4reland has
+=*'( .&$=#$50" 6nland is sinificantly larer than the other countries and
also has .*'''0 the biest populat
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