1 EDM 6210 Education Policy and Society Lecture 3 Education Policy and Social Differentiation: The...

EDM 6210EDM 6210Education Policy and SocietyEducation Policy and Society

Lecture 3Lecture 3Education Policy and Social Differentiation:Education Policy and Social Differentiation:

The Class-Structure AnalysisThe Class-Structure Analysis

Wing-kwong TsangWing-kwong Tsanghttp://www.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/~wktsanghttp://www.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/~wktsang

“One of the objects of class theory has been to identify the principal line of social cleavage within a given system ——the structural ‘fault’ running through society to which the most serious disturbances on the political landscape are thought to be ultimately traceable.” (Parkin, 1979, p.3)

2011年 01月 24日

遊行抗通脹

【本報訊】本港通脹急劇升溫，關注綜援檢討聯盟等多個團體昨日發起遊行，批評特區政府與大企業官商勾結，大財團壟斷公共事務令市民生活百上加斤。遊行隊伍由維園出發先後前往長實及新世界兩大財團總部外抗議，再前往禮賓府，要求政府在下月公佈的財政預算案設立紓困措施。

數百名參與遊行人士先後包圍新世界大廈及長江中心，有示威人士更戴上新世界主席鄭裕彤及長實主席李嘉誠的面具（圖），表達不滿兩大財團壟斷多項公共事業，為謀取暴利加劇通脹。遊行人士在長江中心外燒毀一份「官商勾結秘密協議」的道具，象徵要打破官商勾結、壟斷的局面。

二百人遊行抗議通脹

(星島 )2011 年 1 月 24 日星期一

(綜合報道 )

(星島日報報道 )十多個民間團體發起遊行，批評大財團壟斷公營事業，限制價格下降，政府置之不理，令基層市民生活困難。遊行團體希望當局檢討綜援，追上通脹增幅。約有二百人參與遊行，他們帶備橫額及標語，沿途高叫「抗通脹、保基層，及反對剝削」等口號，又派代表身穿虎紋衣服，寓意「通脹猛於虎」。回應團體關注高通脹問題，勞工及福利局局長張建宗表示下月一日開始，綜援標準金額會上調百分之三點四，如果通脹的情況加劇，政府可能會提早在年中再檢討綜援，希望能追上通脹的影響。

“Sociology has only one independent variable, class.” (Stinchcombe, quoted in Wright, 1979, p.3)

Class Analysis

Class Structure Analysis: Formulation of the Problem

Three approaches to structure of class Three approaches to structure of class inequalityinequality

– Gradational approach to class structure Gradational approach to class structure – Relational approach to class structure Relational approach to class structure

• Weberian structure of class relation Weberian structure of class relation • Marxist structure of class relationMarxist structure of class relation

– Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of social spacePierre Bourdieu’s theory of social space

MarxistMarxistClass Structure AnalysisClass Structure Analysis

Marist’s Class Structure Analysis

• Marx’s Legacy on Class

(Wright, 1985, p.6)

• Wright’s formulation of Marxist class analysis agenda

– Two dimensions of class analysis• Theoretical objects of class analysis

• Levels of abstraction

– The research agenda of the Analytical Marxists

• Wright’s formulation of Marxist class analysis agenda

– The research agenda of the Analytical Marxists

Theoretical Object of Analysis

Level of Abstraction Class Structure Class Formation

Mode of Production

Polarized class relations Epochal struggle between classes

Social Formation

Co-exitence of classes based in different modes of production and different stages of development of a given mode

Class alliances

Conjunction Institutional variability in class relations in given jobs

Concrete class organizations: parties, shop floor organization unions

• Wright’s conception of contradictory class location (1979)

– Re-conceptualization of class relation• Economic ownership of means of production• Possession of means of production

– Control over physical means of production

– Control over the labor power of others

– The class structure with contradictory class locations in advanced capitalism

15(Wright, 1979, p.75)

(Wright, 1979, p.76)

(Wright, 1979, p.76)(Wright, 1975, p.63)

• Wright’s conception of assets of exploitation (1985)

– Re-conceptualization of class relation• Relation of means of production

• Relation of authority

• Relation of scarce skills

(Wright, 1985, p.83)

• Wright’s conception of assets of exploitation (1985)

– Re-conceptualization of class relation• Relation of means of production

• Relation of authority

• Relation of scarce skills

– Three-dimensional class structure in advanced capitalism

21(Wright, 1997, p.24)

22(Wright, 1997, p.25)

• Wright and Burawoy’s conception of class reproduction

– Class reproduction: The fundamental question in class analysis

“What are the mechanisms that explain the capacity of capitalists to actually appropriate surplus labor from workers? …How is it…that capitalists manage to get workers to perform sufficient actual labor effort to produce a profit above the cost (wages) of that labor-power?”

– Bowles and Gintis’s thesis of “Contested Exchange”

• The threats of being fired

• Surveillance– Bureaucratic control – Fordism: Deshilling and intensification of work– Neo-Fordism– Post-Fordism

• Wages : Cost of losing the job

• Trade-off between surveillance and wages

– Wright and Burawoy’s two-dimension mechanism

• Cognitive mechanisms underlying explanation of behavioral compliance

– Strategic rationality

– Behavioral norms

– Evaluative norms

• Immediate rational basis for behavioral compliance

– Domination

– Asymmetrical reciprocity

27(Wright, 1994, p.76)

WeberianWeberianClass Structure AnalysisClass Structure Analysis

Weberians’ Class Structure Analysis

• Giddens’ theory of class structuration and basic constituents of Weberians’ class structure analysis

– Class structuration as “process whereby economic classes become social classes” (Giddens, 1981, p. 105)

“We speak of a class when (1) a number of people have a common and specific causal component of their life chances, in so far as (2) this component is represented exclusively by economic interests in the possession of goods and opportunities for income, and (3) is represented under the conditions of the commodity or labor markets. This is class situation…. Class situation is, in this sense, ultimately market situation.”

(Weber, 1978, p. 927-28)

“A ‘social class’ makes up the totality of those class situations within which individual and generational mobility is easy and typical” (Weber, 1978, p.302).

“A ‘social class’ exists only when these class situations cluster together in such a way as to create a common nexus of social interchange between individuals” (Giddens, 1982, p. 49)

Social Classes

(Weber, 1978, p. 305)

• Giddens’ theory of class structuration and basic constituents of Weberians’ class structure analysis

– Class structuration as “process whereby economic classes become social classes” (Giddens, 1981, p. 105)

– Construction of socioeconomic index as measures of economic class

– Mobility-table analysis as measures of social class

– Status attainment analysis as measures of class structuration

•Socioeconomic status measure– Constituents of SES measure: Occupation,

education and income

Occup = ß0 + ß1 Edu + ß2 Inc + r

– Duncan’s socioeconomic index– Nam and Powers’s approach to SES meas

•Social mobility analysis– Class schema

• Duncan’s 17-category class schema• Class schema of the Oxford Social Mobility

•Social mobility analysis– Class schema

• Duncan’s 17-category class schema• Class schema of the Oxford Social Mobility

– The structure of the mobility table

Sons’ Class Positions Fathers’ Class Position

1 2 3 4 5

The Structure of Mobility Table

Sons’ Class Positions Fathers’ Class Position

1 2 3 4 5

Upward Mobility

Downward MobilityClass

Inherit

•Class structuration in Hong Kong – Construction a SES index for Hong Kong

•Class structuration in Hong Kong – Construction a SES index for Hong Kong – In search of the class schema for HK

•Class structuration in Hong Kong – Construction a SES index for Hong Kong – In search of the class schema for HK– Mobility-table analysis of HK

• Origin and destination: Status attainment analysis

(Oxford Mobility Study)

(Wisconsin Model)

Education as Mechanism of Class Reproduction:

The Marxist Theories

Louis Athusser (1971) Ideology and Ideological State Apparatus

• Repressive state apparatusRepressive state apparatus• Ideological state apparatusIdeological state apparatus

– School as an essential ideological state School as an essential ideological state apparatus in reproduction of labor powerapparatus in reproduction of labor power

“Unlike social formations characterized by slavery or serfdom, this reproduction of the skills of labour power tends decreasingly to be provided for ‘on the spot’, but is achieved more and more outside production: by the capitalist education system, and by other instances and institutions.

What do children learn at school? …They learn to read, to write and to add – i.e. a number of techniques, and a number of other things as well, including elements of ‘scientific’ or ‘literary culture’, which are directly useful in the different jobs in production. Thus they learn ‘know-how’.

But besides these …children at school also learn the 'rules' of good behaviour, i.e. the attitude that should be observed by every agent in the division of labour, according to the job he is ‘destined’ for: rule of morality, civic and professional conscience, which actually means rules of respect for socio-technical division of labour and ultimately the rule of the order established by class domination.” (Authusser, 1971, p. 132)

Bowles and Gintis' thesis of the rise of mass education in the US

• In In pre-capitalistpre-capitalist and colonial American and colonial American – Elite education was restricted to a selected few Elite education was restricted to a selected few

and it serves as "the aristocratic penchant for and it serves as "the aristocratic penchant for conspicuous intellectual consumption." (1976, conspicuous intellectual consumption." (1976, p. 156)p. 156)

– Education for the fortunate few was "narrowly Education for the fortunate few was "narrowly vocational, restricted to preparation of children vocational, restricted to preparation of children for a career in the church, the 'learned for a career in the church, the 'learned professionals', or the still inconsequential professionals', or the still inconsequential state bureaucracy." (1976, p. 156)state bureaucracy." (1976, p. 156)

• In In early capitalistearly capitalist economy economy– Mass education as means of to resolve Mass education as means of to resolve

institutional crisis of US early capitalist institutional crisis of US early capitalist economy and migrant societyeconomy and migrant society

• Mass education as means of assimilation, Mass education as means of assimilation, integration and control of transient, even foreign, integration and control of transient, even foreign, elements came to constitute a major segment of the elements came to constitute a major segment of the population in US Urban areas in the 19population in US Urban areas in the 19thth century century

• Apparent visibility of inequality of wealth in urban Apparent visibility of inequality of wealth in urban areasareas

• Erosion of traditional simple legitimizing ideologies, Erosion of traditional simple legitimizing ideologies, i.e. the divine right of king and the divine origin of i.e. the divine right of king and the divine origin of social ranksocial rank

• Universal franchise in electionUniversal franchise in election

• In early capitalist economyIn early capitalist economy– Contributions of mass schooling to social Contributions of mass schooling to social

assimilation and controlassimilation and control• Schooling inculcates work attitude necessary for Schooling inculcates work attitude necessary for

oppressive factory in primitive capital accumulation oppressive factory in primitive capital accumulation in US capitalism in US capitalism

• Mass schooling as representation of ostensible Mass schooling as representation of ostensible openness of the US society openness of the US society State-sponsored State-sponsored education as means to inculcate acceptance of education as means to inculcate acceptance of public authority of the Federal and state Governmentpublic authority of the Federal and state Government

• Schooling in Schooling in corporate capitalismcorporate capitalism for differentiate for differentiated labor forced labor force

– Class politics in Urban School Reform in the early 20Class politics in Urban School Reform in the early 20thth c centuryentury

– The education-stratification effect of progressive educatThe education-stratification effect of progressive education movement ion movement

• Progressive education principle Progressive education principle "Needs of the child" repl "Needs of the child" replaced common school ideal aced common school ideal

• The rise of vocational educationThe rise of vocational education

– The invention of objective educational testing and the inThe invention of objective educational testing and the institutionalization of educational tracking by "scientific" stitutionalization of educational tracking by "scientific" designdesign

– The expansion and stratification of higher education in tThe expansion and stratification of higher education in the mid 20he mid 20thth century and the proletarianization of white-c century and the proletarianization of white-collar workers ollar workers

Bowles and Gintis' thesis of class-reproduction function of education

• Education stratification reproduce class Education stratification reproduce class stratificationstratification

– Stratified schooling system reproduced the Stratified schooling system reproduced the stratified thestratified the technical and cognitive skill of technical and cognitive skill of laborlabor

– Stratified schooling system reproduced Stratified schooling system reproduced differentiated personalitiesdifferentiated personalities necessary for the necessary for the modes of control in capitalist labor processmodes of control in capitalist labor process

– Legitimizing the economic inequalityLegitimizing the economic inequality of of capitalism and inculcating the value of capitalism and inculcating the value of possessive individualism possessive individualism

– Constituting and reinforcing the Constituting and reinforcing the fragmented fragmented and stratified consciousnessand stratified consciousness of the of the subordinate economic classessubordinate economic classes

• The The Correspondence principleCorrespondence principle in capitalist in capitalist schoolingschooling

– The The structure correspondencestructure correspondence between the between the social relations of the schooling system and social relations of the schooling system and those of capitalist workplace those of capitalist workplace

– ““The structure of the The structure of the social relationssocial relations on on education…inures the students to the education…inures the students to the discipline of the workplace” discipline of the workplace”

– It “develops the types of It “develops the types of personal demeanorpersonal demeanor, , modes of self-presentation, self-image, and modes of self-presentation, self-image, and social-class identifications which are the social-class identifications which are the crucial ingredients of job adequacy”. crucial ingredients of job adequacy”.

• The Correspondence principle in capitalist The Correspondence principle in capitalist schoolingschooling

– The The hierarchical relationshierarchical relations between administrators a between administrators and teachers, teachers and students, and among stund teachers, teachers and students, and among students replicate the hierarchical division of labor andents replicate the hierarchical division of labor and vertical authority lines in the workplace. d vertical authority lines in the workplace.

– The The alienating featuresalienating features in schooling learning prepa in schooling learning prepare students for the alienating features in the Fordist re students for the alienating features in the Fordist labor processlabor process

– The “The “destructive competitiondestructive competition among students thro among students through continual and ostensibly meritocratic ranking augh continual and ostensibly meritocratic ranking and evaluation” nurtures the fragmented and stratifind evaluation” nurtures the fragmented and stratified consciousness in the workplace and legitimatize ed consciousness in the workplace and legitimatize the economic inequality in capitalismthe economic inequality in capitalism

• Differentiation of correspondence principles Differentiation of correspondence principles between the education stratification and the between the education stratification and the occupational hierarchy occupational hierarchy

Educational Hierarchy Occupational Hierarchy

Patient, compliant, obedient, docile

Dependable, Self-disciplined,

Self-sufficient

Independent, Creative, Aggressive

Rule Following

Rule Implementing

Rule Setting

Goal Setting

• Differentiation of correspondence principles Differentiation of correspondence principles between the education stratification and the between the education stratification and the occupational hierarchy occupational hierarchy

• The correspondence principles between the social The correspondence principles between the social relations in family and those in schools relations in family and those in schools

72Educational Hierarchy Occupational Hierarchy

Patient, compliant, obedient, docile

Dependable, Self-disciplined,

Self-sufficient

Independent, Creative, Aggressive

Rule Following

Rule Implementing

Rule Setting

Goal Setting

Debate on Reproduction Theory of Education

• Resistance theorists’ critique on structuraliResistance theorists’ critique on structuralist reproduction theory st reproduction theory

– The rediscover of the knowledgeability of the aThe rediscover of the knowledgeability of the agentsgents

– The resistance capacity of both students and tThe resistance capacity of both students and teacherseachers

The rediscover of the knowledgeability of the agents

“Reproduction theorists have overemphasized the idea of domination in their analysis and have failed to provide any major insights into how teachers, students, and other human agents come together within specific historical and social contexts in order to both make and reproduce the conditions of their existence. … Human subjects generally “disappear” amidst a theory that leaves no room for moments of self-creation, mediation, and resistance. These accounts often leave us with a view of schooling and domination that appears to have been pressed out of an Orwellian fantasy; schools are often viewed as factories or prisons, teachers and students alike act merely as pawns and role bearers constrained by the logic and social practices of the capitalist system.”

(Giroux, 1983, p.259)

– The incoherence in the structure capitalist systThe incoherence in the structure capitalist systemem

The incoherence in the structure capitalist schooling system

“In resistance accounts, schools are relatively autonomous institutions that not only provide spaces for oppositional behavior and teaching but also represent a source of contradictions that sometimes make them dysfunctional to the material and ideological interests of the dominant society. Schools are not solely determined by the logic of the workplace or the dominant society; they are not merely economic institutions but are also political, cultural, and ideological sites that exist somewhat independently of the capitalist market economy. …Moreover, instead of being homogeneous institutions operating under the direct control of business groups, schools are characterized by diverse forms of school knowledge, ideologies, organizational styles, and classroom social relation.”

(Giroux, 1983, p.259)

– The incoherence in the structure capitalist systThe incoherence in the structure capitalist systemem

– The dialectic and contradictory nature of capitaThe dialectic and contradictory nature of capitalist systemlist system

• Revision of the reproduction theory: StructRevision of the reproduction theory: Structural contradictions thesisural contradictions thesis

– Bowles and Gintis’ conceptions of sites and prBowles and Gintis’ conceptions of sites and practiceactice

• Differentiating sites: Family, state, and capitalist proDifferentiating sites: Family, state, and capitalist production duction

• Differentiating Practices: cultural, political, appropriaDifferentiating Practices: cultural, political, appropriative, and distributive practicestive, and distributive practices

• Structural delimitations of sitesStructural delimitations of sites• Transportation of practices across sitesTransportation of practices across sites

– Carnoy and Levin’s conception of education in Carnoy and Levin’s conception of education in democratic-capitalist societydemocratic-capitalist society

Carnoy and Levin’s conception of education in democratic-capitalist society

“Girous (1981) and Apple (1982) call on Gramsci’s dialectical concept of hegemony and counterhegemony in arguing that schools reproduce class but the practices of schooling…are resisted by counterhegemonic tendencies in working-class youth, young women, and minorities. However, counterhegemony as Gramsci defined it is necessarily rooted in social and political movements, as in 1968 in France and Mexico or in 1970 in the United States. The relation between movements and resistance to the hegemonic “hidden curriculum” in schools is not spelled out by Apple and Giroux.”

(Carnoy & Levin, 1985, p.160)

“Our view is that resistance is embedded in social conflict, and social conflict outside the schools has historically shaped the class-structured schooling now being resisted by some subordinate groups. …The constant struggle to expand democratic rights, both political and economic, also takes place within education, expanding the role of schools in the process of social mobility and in the more equitable treatment of subordinate groups. Therefore, social conflict shapes educational change over time. Resistance to ideologically based curricula and other schooling practices has to be set in the context of this conflict. Such resistance is not independent of the struggle going on outside the school.”

“The schools are an arena of conflict because they have the dual role of preparing workers and citizens. The preparation required for citizenship in a democratic society based on equal opportunity and human rights is often incompatible with the preparation needed for job performance in a corporate system of work. …One the one hand, schools must train citizens to know their rights under the law as well as their obligations to exercise these rights through political participation. …On the other, schools must train workers with the skills and personality characteristics that enable them to function in an authoritarian work regime. This requires a negation of the very political rights that make for good citizens.”

Education as Mechanism of Class Reproduction:

The Weberian Theory

Weber’s thesis on The Typological Position of Confucian Education

Types of Educational System

Classifying Characteristics

Educational Content Heroic/Magical Cultivation Specialized expert Training

Legitimate Base Charismatic Authority

Traditional Authority

Legal-Rational Authority

Collin’s theory of political economy of culture

• Distinction between productive labor and political Distinction between productive labor and political laborlabor

– ““Productive laborProductive labor is responsible the material production is responsible the material production of wealth.”of wealth.”

– ““Political laborPolitical labor sets the conditions under which the sets the conditions under which the wealth is appropriated. To the extent that one is paid for wealth is appropriated. To the extent that one is paid for one’s productive contribution, this does not happen one’s productive contribution, this does not happen automatically but because political labor has shaped the automatically but because political labor has shaped the organizational structure and the labor market to make organizational structure and the labor market to make this possible.” (Collins, 1979, p. 50)this possible.” (Collins, 1979, p. 50)

• Distinction between material property and Distinction between material property and positional propertypositional property

– Material propertyMaterial property refers to one’s possession of material refers to one’s possession of material and financial asserts which can generate wealth.and financial asserts which can generate wealth.

– Positional propertyPositional property refers to one’s possession of the refers to one’s possession of the capacity or authority to determine how wealth are capacity or authority to determine how wealth are distributed among productive positions in organization distributed among productive positions in organization and in labor market at large, and more fundamentally and in labor market at large, and more fundamentally among class positions in a class structure. among class positions in a class structure.

• Cultural market and cultural currencyCultural market and cultural currency– Cultural market refers to the field in which cleavage Cultural market refers to the field in which cleavage

lines (i.e. distinctions) among positional groupings (e.g. lines (i.e. distinctions) among positional groupings (e.g. status groups) are constituted, alliances among them status groups) are constituted, alliances among them are formed, and closures and barriers restricting inter-are formed, and closures and barriers restricting inter-grouping mobility are set. In short, grouping mobility are set. In short, cultural market is cultural market is where the definition of the positional property of a given where the definition of the positional property of a given society is institutionalizedsociety is institutionalized..

– Cultural currency refers to the Cultural currency refers to the most commonly accepted most commonly accepted cultural goodscultural goods in a given market. Collins asserts that in a given market. Collins asserts that educational qualifications in the form of credentials educational qualifications in the form of credentials have risen to the position of universally accepted have risen to the position of universally accepted cultural currency in modern societies.cultural currency in modern societies.

• Professionalization and the constitution of Professionalization and the constitution of monopoly of expertisemonopoly of expertise

– Professionalization of supply• Institutionalization of professional knowledge

• Institutionalization of professional practice

• Institutionalization of professional career

– Professionalization of demand– Professionalization of work-organization

Lecture 3Lecture 3Education Policy and Social Differentiation:Education Policy and Social Differentiation:

The Class-Structure AnalysisThe Class-Structure Analysis

1 EDM 6210 Education Policy and Society Lecture 3 Education Policy and Social Differentiation: The...

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