EDM6210 Education Policy and Society Lecture 7 Education Policy and Social Integration: Project of State Formation Wing-kwong Tsang wktsang

EDM6210Education Policy and Society

Lecture 7Education Policy and Social Integration:

Project of State Formation

Wing-kwong Tsangwww.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/~wktsang

「他們殺我們漢族人，我們也要殺他」

漢人刀棍上街復仇

2009年 07月 08日

新疆烏魯木齊發生維吾爾族人騷亂事件後，當地漢維兩族人的矛盾和衝突進一步升級。昨日，有數千名漢人組織自衞隊，手持菜刀、木棍、斧頭等武器，上街示威，有人沿途高喊：「我們漢人不是好欺負的。」有漢人為報復，大肆破壞維族人的商店，武警等隨即施放數十枚催淚彈驅散漢人示威者。當局為避免情況惡化，宣佈烏魯木齊由昨晚 9時至今早 8時實施宵禁，並派解放軍進駐，候命平定局面。

■ 2010年 10月 20日

觀點

別拿學生滿足政治任務

【明報專訊】

回歸以降，香港就有一把聲音老是認為青年人的「國家認同」不足，因此必須要加強加強再加強國民教育，而最方便的就是由學校裏做起。「國民教育」已連續 4 年在施政報告中有專項介紹，而今年施政報告恐怕最能滿足這種無止境的需索——政府打算於中小學設立德育及國民教育科，會有考試；又會增加學習《基本法》及相關內容的時數。除此之外，還會將國內交流團的數量加碼，讓每個學生會有至少一次機會回國內交流。國民教育轉型為愛國主義教育，似乎為期不遠。

「國民」蓋過「公民」

這種對國民教育的執著，更似是一種威權對青年人無能為力的焦慮。03 年七一青年人蜂擁上街反對 23 條，使這種「國民教育不足」的聲音崛起；而今年 80 後青年躁動，恐怕也成了要「教育青年更愛國」的理由。掌握意識形態的傳播，用愛國推動青年人的和諧，是內地行之已久的方法；過去香港將國民教育作為公民教育的一個分支，如今正式妹仔大過主人婆，「國民」蓋過「公民」。

除卻可以免費旅遊這因素外，到底有多少學生認為自己需要「國民教育」這一科？或者說，有多少學生認為寶貴的教學時間應該這樣分配？國民教育是一個純粹由上而下的創造出來的產物，其資源雖愈益得到傾斜，卻無法解釋為何「國民」身分的重要性可以凌駕「公民」及「世界公民」。唯一可解的，就是為了服膺於政治需要，希望透過教育增強愛國意識，而非獨立和批判的思考，或如劉曉波的公民意識。這種教育方法不但在資訊爆炸的新媒體時代效用成疑，也和通識教育所提倡的思考訓練背道而馳。要滿足政治任務，可否別拿莘莘學子作犧牲品？明報記者: 林輝

■ 2010年 11月 02日

觀點梁恩榮

如何培育「批判性愛國者」

【明報專訊】

近期特區政府的施政報告提出「教育局會邀請課程發展議會檢視中、小學的德育及公民教育課程架構，進一步加強國民教育內容，使這個課題成為獨立的『德育及國民教育科』，預計可於 2013/14 學年推行」（第 160 段）。這建議引起公民社會的強烈反彈，他們提出很多的擔憂，例如國民教育的潛在排他性，建議應同時強化人權教育和全球公民教育來平衡這些潛在的危機。他們也指出政府一直大力提倡歌功頌德式的國民教育，只側重國家的發展及繁榮，並沒有針對中國的現實狀况進行客觀分析，缺乏批判思維的取向。如今，政府把國民教育進一步納入正規課程，若然仍是採用上述的取向來教授國民教育，他們擔心此舉將會令學生被迫接受一套具政治灌輸作用的國民教育，最終成為盲從的順民。他們反建議國民教育應以培育「批判性愛國者」（criticalpatriot）為目的。

教學時盡量避免灌輸

要培育「批判性愛國者」，首要在教學時盡量避免灌輸。其實，任何與價值有關的教育都要注意灌輸這問題。灌輸是指：「在一個不對等的關係下，強者以單向、不容討論的注入法，來傳遞某些信念或觀點，意圖使對方在不理會證據下接受其信念或觀點。」灌輸的問題在於它阻撓學習者從不同的角度來理解事物，甚至藉着激動他們的情緒，阻撓其對事物的理性分折，以達到使他們在不理會證據下接受其信念或觀點；這些做法，極不利於培育批判思考。香港回歸祖國 10 多年，港人的國家認同雖有上升，但從中央政府來看則仍偏低，故此特區政府要盡快加強港人的國民身分認同。為了達到目的，特區政府採用歌功頌德式的國民教育，來傳遞國家的正面形象。這些做法包括在探討中國的問題時，只採用一些正面的資料，不採納較持平或持不同意見的觀點。當觸及一些負面的觀點、相反的論據時，則盡量迴避，

2010年 11月 09日

觀點黃均瑜

國民教育走進課堂仍然是禁忌嗎？

【明報專訊】

每當特區政府建議加強國民教育，總會招來謾罵與批評。今年施政報告提出「進一步加強國民教育內容，使這個課題成為獨立的『德育及國民教育科』」，社會上隨即出現反對論調。本來，香港社會言論自由，各人都有表達意見的自由和空間，但如果論點來來去去都離不開「洗腦論」和「狹隘論」，那麼，這只顯示出香港儘管已經回歸了13 年，不少事物雖然都在開放、在進步，但在某些論者心目中，國民教育似乎依然停留了在歷史某一時空。

高唱「洗腦論」

無疑侮辱同儕專業水平

回歸以來，香港政府一直倚重非政府機構推動國民教育，自己則扮演撥款者的角色，好處是不同機構可以舉辦不同類型的活動，形式靈活多樣。但不足之處是不夠規範化，各有各表述，不能保證每個學生均受到相同的教育。如今將國民教育列入正規課程，能夠補足過往的缺失。

國民教育走進課堂，同時也反映了教師對國民教育的看法。香港的教師都受過高等教育和專業訓練，如果論者擔心出現「洗腦」的情况，無疑是對本港教育工作者投以不信任的一票，認定教師將會不辨是非、盲目地向學生灌輸思想。更難令人信服的是，連一些教育界領袖也高唱「洗腦論」，這無疑是侮辱了同儕的專業水平。要知道，專業不是靠別人賜予的，必須靠業界自強，如果連業界也妄自菲薄，豈不悲哉？論者一方面期望教師培養學生獨立思考，另一方面卻擔心教師黑白不分，這豈非精神分裂？

2010年 11月 09日

觀點黃均瑜


……

事實上，推動愛國並不等於否定中國有落後和不足之處，國家政府的工作報告也不迴避這些問題。正因為看到國家仍有落後與不足，才有施展抱負的空間。論者怪罪國民教育沒有高唱國家的黑暗面，其實國家的負面信息媒體每日都會有，自不需我們代勞。關鍵是所有結論都應該在相對充分的正面和反面理由支持下才能作出。

因此，在作出價值判斷的過程中，全部正面或全部負面的信息無助於學生對事物作出正確的判斷。最重要是通過親身接觸，通過資訊與數據的蒐集，讓學生自己作出結論。如果發現國家現况未如理想，那麼，立志推動國家發展，才是國民教育的成果。

在過去一段很長的日子裏，在課室推動國民教育是一種禁忌，如今回歸了 13 年，這禁忌仍要保留嗎？

作者是香港教育工作者聯會主席

Why Education Policy and Society?

■ 2010年 10月 14日

要聞 > 要聞

中學設基本法校內試

校長有讚有彈家長憂死背法律

【明報專訊】施政報告建議整合現時德育、公民教育和國民教育課程，在

2013/14學年開始會正名為獨立的「德育及國民教育」學科，更要求增加課時

教授《基本法》，並設校內試作考核，教育局會建立基本法試題庫供學校使

用。有校長擔心增加基本法課程加重教師壓力，家長亦指措施要求學生死背

基本法條文，失去學習趣味。

網上試題庫教材供下載

現時一般學校已有不少國民教育活動，零星散佈於課外活動和周會聚會，

教育局邀請課程發展議會檢視中小學德育及公民教育課程架構後，昨在施政

報告中建議於 2013/14年把課程「升格」為獨立「學科」，並增加教授《基本

法》時數及設校內考試，但不會成為文憑試科目。教育局會編制《基本法》

試題庫及教材套，供學校安排學生上網或下載考題後應試。

中小生獲資助參加交流

報告又建議擴大內地交流團，提出全港中小學生，一生都有一次機會獲半

價資助參與交流團。「薪火相傳」計劃亦於 2015/16起增 4000個名額，與志

願團體合辦更多內地交流活動。準教師也會獲政府資助到內地參加專業研習

班，了解國情。

福建中學（小西灣）校長黃均瑜對新措施表示歡迎，他表示以往非官方機

構舉行較輕鬆的基本法推廣，包括舊曲新詞、問答比賽等吸引少數人參加，

台灣等地的國民教育則較理直氣壯，學校會定期升國旗、唱國歌，他說﹕「現

在回歸 13年，學校是時候推行規範化的國民教育，在乎推行方法是否能軟硬

2010年 11月 09日

觀點黃均瑜


【明報專訊】

每當特區政府建議加強國民教育，總會招來謾罵與批評。今年施政報告提出「進一步加強國民教育內容，使這個課題成為獨立的『德育及國民教育科』」，社會上隨即出現反對論調。本來，香港社會言論自由，各人都有表達意見的自由和空間，但如果論點來來去去都離不開「洗腦論」和「狹隘論」，那麼，這只顯示出香港儘管已經回歸了13 年，不少事物雖然都在開放、在進步，但在某些論者心目中，國民教育似乎依然停留了在歷史某一時空。

高唱「洗腦論」

無疑侮辱同儕專業水平

回歸以來，香港政府一直倚重非政府機構推動國民教育，自己則扮演撥款者的角色，好處是不同機構可以舉辦不同類型的活動，形式靈活多樣。但不足之處是不夠規範化，各有各表述，不能保證每個學生均受到相同的教育。如今將國民教育列入正規課程，能夠補足過往的缺失。

國民教育走進課堂，同時也反映了教師對國民教育的看法。香港的教師都受過高等教育和專業訓練，如果論者擔心出現「洗腦」的情况，無疑是對本港教育工作者投以不信任的一票，認定教師將會不辨是非、盲目地向學生灌輸思想。更難令人信服的是，連一些教育界領袖也高唱「洗腦論」，這無疑是侮辱了同儕的專業水平。要知道，專業不是靠別人賜予的，必須靠業界自強，如果連業界也妄自菲薄，豈不悲哉？論者一方面期望教師培養學生獨立思考，另一方面卻擔心教師黑白不分，這豈非精神分裂？

2010年 11月 09日

觀點黃均瑜


……

事實上，推動愛國並不等於否定中國有落後和不足之處，國家政府的工作報告也不迴避這些問題。正因為看到國家仍有落後與不足，才有施展抱負的空間。論者怪罪國民教育沒有高唱國家的黑暗面，其實國家的負面信息媒體每日都會有，自不需我們代勞。關鍵是所有結論都應該在相對充分的正面和反面理由支持下才能作出。

因此，在作出價值判斷的過程中，全部正面或全部負面的信息無助於學生對事物作出正確的判斷。最重要是通過親身接觸，通過資訊與數據的蒐集，讓學生自己作出結論。如果發現國家現况未如理想，那麼，立志推動國家發展，才是國民教育的成果。

在過去一段很長的日子裏，在課室推動國民教育是一種禁忌，如今回歸了 13 年，這禁忌仍要保留嗎？

作者是香港教育工作者聯會主席

Ethnicity, Citizenship & Nationality in Social Integration of Modern Societies

Ethnic group States Nation

Ethnicity Citizenship Nationality

Kin Clans RegionsLocalities Languages Religions

Social Integrations

Commonalities Differences

Schooling & Education

Nation-State as the Universal-Global Unit of Social Integration

Theory of state formation and education policy as means for state formation

Theory of nation building and education policy as means for nation building

Theory of citizenship development and education policy as means for citizenship constitution

Understanding the Concept of the State

Max Weber’s Definition of the State

“Today, however, we have to say that a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. Note that ‘territory’ is one of the characteristics of the state. Specifically, at the present time, the right to use physical force is ascribed to other institutions or individuals only to the extent to which the state permits it. The state is consider the sole source of the ‘right’ to use violence.”

(Weber, 1946, p. 78)


Charles Tilly’s Definition of the State

An organization which control the population occupying a definite territory is a state insofar as (1) it is differentiated from other organizations operating in the same territory; (2) it is autonomous; (3) it is centralized; and (4) its division are formally coordinated with one another.

(Tilly, 1975, p. 70)


The constituent features of modern state The definitive territory The definitive subjects Monopoly of use of force and sovereign power The establishment of internal and external

public authority


Charles Tilly’s conception of “Stateness”

The level and degree of stateness can be “measured by formal autonomy, differentiation from nongovernmental organizations, centralization, and internal coordination” of a government. (Tilly, 1975, p.34)


Marxist’s conception of the state “The executive of the modern state is but a committe

e for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie.” (Marx & Engels, 1848)

“The state is an organ of class rule, an organ for the oppression of one class by another; it is the creation of ‘order’ which legalizes and perpetuates this oppression by moderating the conflict between the classes.” (Lenin, 1917)

Althusser’s instrumentalist perspective Repressive state apparatus Ideological state apparatus

Theories of State Formation

Stein Rokkan’s theory of state formation From primordial peripheral community to central establishme

nt Four trajectories of functional differentiations

Economic-technological differentiation and the establishment of CitiesCross-local commercial-industrial organization

Military-administrative differentiation and the establishment of Military Organizations for control of external conflict

Judicial-legislative differentiation and the establishment of JudiciaryOrganizations for management of internal conflict

Religious-symbolic differentiation and the establishment of ChurchCross-local script religion

PrimordialLocal Community

Economic-TechnologicalDifferentiation

Cities: Cross-LocalCommercial-Industrial

Organization

Military: OrganizationFor Control of

External Conflicts

Judiciary: OrganizationFor Management of

Internal Conflicts

TerritorialCenters

Churches:Cross-Local

Script Religions

Religious-SymbolicDifferentiation

Judicial-Legislative

Differentiation

Military-AdministrativeDifferentiation


Charles Tilly’s theory of state formation: Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 900-1992 (1992) Accumulation and concentration of coercion, and the growth

and formation of the state Accumulation and concentration of capital, and the formation

and growth of cities Coalition and conflict within the state

Class coalition and struggle in the realm of exploitation Coalition and struggle between state authority and citizenship in

the realm of domination


Charles Tilly’s theory of state formation: Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 900-1992 (1992) Coalition and conflict among states: The mechanism of war p

reparation and making Dialectic relationship between capital accumulation and warm

aking Dialectic relationship between coercion accumulation and wa

rmaking

Dynamics of geopolitics and inter-state system in Europe

Accumulation of coercion

Concentration of coercion

Concentration of Capital

Accumulation of Capital

Growth of States

Growth of Cities

Form of State

Class Coalition and Struggle

Coalition & Struggle between State & Citizenship War

Preparation & Making

Geopolitical Situation

Tilly’s Conception of State Formation


Pierre Bourdieu’s Theory of State Formation Definition of the State

“Using a variation of Max Weber’s famous formula, that the state is an X (to be determined) which successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical and symbolic violence over a definite territory and over the totality of the corresponding population.” (Bourdieu, 1999, p. 56)


Pierre Bourdieu’s Theory of State Formation Definition of the State

“The state is the culmination of a process of concentration of different species of capital: • capital of physical force or instruments of coerc

ion

• economic capital,

• cultural &/or information capital, and

• symbolic capital.” (p. 57)


Pierre Bourdieu’s Theory of State Formation Project of constitution of physical & fiscal efficacy

of the state Accumulation of physical capital

• Internal physical capital accumulation: Policing system

• External physical capital accumulation: Army (Military) system

Accumulation of economic capital • Constitution of taxation and fiscal system


Pierre Bourdieu’s Theory of State Formation Project of constitution of symbolic efficacy of the st

ate Concentration of informational capital: “The state concent

rates, treats, and redistributes information and, most of all, effects a theoretical unification. Taking the vantage point of the Whole, of society in its totality, the state claims responsibility for all operations of totalization (especially thanks to census taking and statistics or national accounting) and of objectivation through cartography (the unitary representation of space from above) or more simply through writing as an instrument of accumulation of knowledge (e.g. archive), as well as for all operation of codification as cognitive unification.” (p. 61)


Pierre Bourdieu’s Theory of State Formation Project of constitution of symbolic efficacy of the state

Concentration of cultural capital: “The state contributes to the unification of the cultural market by unifying all codes, linguistic and juridical, and by effecting a homogenization of all forms of communication, including bureaucratic communication. Through classification systems inscribed in law, through bureaucratic procedures, educational structures and social rituals, the state molds mental structures and imposes common principles of vision and division, forms of thinking that are to the civilized mind. … And it thereby contributes to the construction of what is commonly designated as national identity.” (p. 61)


Pierre Bourdieu’s Theory of State Formation Project of constitution of symbolic efficacy of the s

tate Constitution of symbolic capital:

• “Symbolic capital is any property (any form of capital whether physical, economic, cultural or social) when it is perceived by social agents endowed with categories of perception which cause them to know it and to recognize it, to give it value.” (p. 62)

• Concentration of juridical capital

• Nomination of state nobility

Conception of Citizenship: Membership in the Modern State

Reinhard Bendix’s Definition of Citizenship: Individualistic and plebiscitarian membership befor

e the sovereign and nation-wide public authority Development of citizenship: “the codification of the

rights and duties of all adults who are classified as citizens”. (Bendix, 1964, p.90)


T.H. Marshall’s Thesis of Citizenship and Social Class Contradictory trajectory of development of

capitalism and citizenship Capitalism is an institution based upon the principle of

inequality, which is in turn built on uneven distribution of property and/or property right

Citizenship is an institution based upon the principle of equality, which is built on equal citizen status and its derivative rights

Development of citizenship is construed by Marshall as means of abating social class conflict


T.H. Marshall’s Thesis … The trajectory of citizenship development

Development of civil rights in the 18th century and the constitution of the Court of Justice and the Rule of Law

Development of the political rights in the 19th century and the constitution of the parliamentary system and the democratic state

Development of the social rights in the 20th century and the constitution of the social service departments and the welfare state


Wesley Hohfeld’s Conception of Rights Rights as Liberties Rights as Claims Rights as Powers Rights as Immunities Classification of Citizenship Rights with Hodfeld’s

Conception


Classification of Citizenship Obligations Legal, Political, Social and Participation

Obligations Support, Caring, Service and Protection

Obligations


Justification of Citizenship Obligations Instrumentalist Perspective: Obligations as exchan

ges for Acceptance and/or Recipience of Rights Communitarian Perspective: Accepting Obligations

as Legitimacy


Obligations as Moral Requirements Classification of zones of action

Indifference Moral requirement Superrerogation

Three instances of scale Scale of obligation Scale of recipience Scale of action

Why were state educational system constructed throughout Europe in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries?

Mass Education Policy & the Formation of Modern State: A Historical Account

Prussia 1716: Fredrick William I made attendance at village schools c

ompulsory for all children not otherwise provided with instruction

1763: Fredrick II (Fredrick the Great )issued General Regulation for Village School at the end of the Seven Year War (1756-1763), in which Prussia and England defeated Austria and France

Compulsory state-directed education as means for national unification of Prussia

1806: The defeat by the Napoleon and the humiliating Treaty of Tilsit elicited the call for the provision of universal, state-directed, compulsory education as means for nation building


Austria 1774: Under the rule of Joseph II, universal compulsory

education law was passed after the defeat in the Seven Year War by Prussia and England

1866: The defeat by Prussia led to definite effort to establish a state-controlled and secular schooling system

Denmark 1721: Frederick IV proclaimed to build a genuine national

education system The loss of Norway and Sweden in 1809 symbolized the

fall from the status as a major European power, the state passed the law of introducing compulsory education for children between the age seven and fourteen.


France 1791: The 1791 Constitution called for the establishment of

a system of free instruction common to all citizens. Napoleon rose to power and developed secondary and

higher education as a means to produce effective elites from the military and governmental apparatus.

Democratizing and secularizing trends in education were repressed as the result of the 1840 Revolution and the subsequent regime of the Louis Napoleon in 1892.

After the defeat by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, by 1881 the Third Republic established a universal, free compulsory primary school system


England 1807: First attempt to extend public aid to parochial schools

for the mass was defeated in the House of Lords. 1870: Elementary Education Act 1870 mandated the

provision of elementary education to all but stopped short of decreeing compulsory education. The Act could be interpreted as responses to a number of political instances, e.g. the 1867 political reform enfranchising the working classes, the rise of the unified Germany and the United States in the late 1860s threatened British industrial supremacy, and the 1867 Paris Exhibition, at which English products compared unfavorably with those of other countries.

1944: Introduction of 9-year compulsory education


The Thesis of the Political Construction of Mass Education The rise of European model of national society The rise of nation-state and the intensification of

inter-state conflict The Reformation in Christianity and counter-

Reformation The rise of the exchange economy


Elements of the European Model of a national Society

1. Myth of the individual

2. Myth of the nation as an aggregate of individuals

3. Myth of progress (national & individual)

4.Myth of socialization and life-cycle continuity

5. Myth of the state as the guardian of the nation

Institutionalization of the Nation-State & the interstate System

Expansion of theexchange Economy

Reformation &Counter-reformation

State Educational System as Means of National Mobility

Education as a World Culture Institution Ontological basis of modern education

primary unit: individual child organizational unit: school role unit within organization: principal, teacher and

student institutional unit: nation-state

Structural basis of modern education free, egalitarian, compulsory and rational professionalized personnel standardized and certified product


Education as a World Culture Institution Legitimation basis of modern organization

enhances labor productivity creates good citizenship provides opportunities for self-fulfillment increase national well-being, security, political stabi

lity facilitates democracy, liberty and equality


Education Policy and the Contradiction of the Welfare State

Current Education Reform and the Neo-Liberal and Competition State

Documents

EDM6210 Education Policy and Society Lecture 7 Education Policy and Social Integration: Project of State Formation Wing-kwong Tsang wktsang