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Mesopotamia was a succession of societies• Sumeria (Sumer)• Akkad• First Babylon• Assyria• Second Babylon
Geography• Unpredictable rivers (Tigris and Euphrates)• Delta region extremely fertile• Flat land open to invasion – no natural barriers• By 4,000 BCE at least four major groups had
migrated into Sumeria: Hamites from North Africa, Semites from Arabia, Indo-Europeans from Russia, and Caucasians from Georgia
• Semi-arid climate required extensive irrigation projects
Growth of the state• Irrigation projects required cooperation on
a grand scale and leadership• Farmers banded together in settlements to
manage the environment and for protection• These settlements became compact cities
surrounded by high mud-brick walls• These cities were independent from one
another hence they were city-states
The city-states were often built around existing religious structures – enhancing the close relationship between government and religion
The ziggurat became the focal point of these city-states
Ziggurats - stepped towers topped by temples
Ziggurats were the focal point of the city-state
The Tower of Babel is believed to have been a ziggurat
Sumeria lasted about 1,300 years (3360 – 2400 BCE) There was constant warfare between city-states and
invaders and between city-states themselves Each city-state controlled an area about 100 square
miles There were about 12 major city-states including Ur,
Eridu, Lagash, and Uruk Each city-state was ruled by a priest/leader called a
Patesi who was the highest political, religious, and military authority
Religion• People felt utterly dependent on will of gods due to
harsh life• Originally, each city-state had its own patron god
but later all gods were collected into a hierarchy reflecting Sumerian values
• As male gods became dominant = strengthening of patriarchy
• Afterlife – sad and gloomy place (later used as model for Hell)
Religion and Politics• All land belonged to the gods and kings were their
representatives• Kings and priests afforded special place in society• Theocracy – rule by gods or priests• By the end of Sumeria’s influence, kings were
becoming separate from the priest class
Class System• Kings / priests• Commoners: farmers, artisans, merchants• Slaves
Sumerian Life• Marriage was based on a contract• Males were dominant but females had more freedom than
they do today • Females exerted influence through sexuality • Due to property inheritances, women would be put to death
for adultery
Cuneiform• Oldest writing
system• Original purpose was
economic• Used to record
memoranda, lists of goods, receipts, contracts, etc
• One of first uses was to record beer recipe
Cuneiform- first system of writing
Cuneiform tablet with envelope
Writing was reserved for the wealthy classes
Writing systems beget literature
Oldest literature was epic poem The Epic of Gilgamesh
Poem relates story of Gilgamesh, ruler of Uruk, who seeks out survivor of great flood in quest of eternal youth
Trade links with Egypt and Harappa Adopted use of silver as means of exchange “Invented” the wheel and pioneered use of carts and
chariots Sumerian mathematics based on 12, 60, and 360
(clock and circle) Sumerian astronomical charts basis for modern
astronomy Invented quadratic expressions
Conquered Sumeria = Akkad first empire
Some centralization of power
Sargon I = first emperor
Absorbed / took on Sumerian culture
Political• Akkad was overthrown
by Amorites• Sumerian language
disappeared – replaced by Amorite Semitic language
• Made capital at Babylon• Old Babylon overthrown
by invading Kassites and Hittites
• Period of chaos followed for about three centuries
Hammurabi• Founder of the Old
Babylonian Empire• Most known for his
code of lawso based on two 282
lawso principles: lex talonis
and class
Political• Conquered Kassites and
brought all of Mesopotamia under their control
• Noted for brutality and ruthlessness
• Largest Mesopotamian empire in landmass
• Conquered Egypt for short period
• Assyria brought down by invading Medes and Chaldeans
Political• Established by
Chaldeans who made capital at Babylon
• King Nebuchadnezzar
• Hanging gardens• Continued
Sumerian culture• Conquered by
the Persians
Other Middle Eastern Societies
Hittites• Iron
Israelites• Two kingdoms• Judaism
Phoenicians• Alphabet• Trade colonies
(Carthage)
1. What was the world’s first writing system?
2. What was it developed for?
3. Who were literate in Mesopotamia? Why?
4. What was the first piece of literature? What was it about?
5. What was the basic political unit of Mesopotamia?
6. What was the focal point of the Mesopotamian city-state?
7. How did geography affect the development of Mesopotamian religion?
8. How did geography affect the development of Mesopotamian civilization?
9. What was the first empire? Who created it?
10. What was the Code of Hammurabi? What was it based on?
11. Who laid the foundations for our modern alphabet?
The characteristic political organization of the Tigris – Euphrates civilization was
a. Democracy
b. Large, durable empires
c. Village-level government
d. Regional city-states
e. Hunting bands
Geography• Isolated• Huang He (“China’s Sorrow”)• Vulnerable northern borders• Western desert• Himalayas• Vietnam• Pacific Ocean• Arable land – culture of conservation
Yangshao• Slash-and-burn agriculture• Domestication of animals• Silk production
Longshan People• Permanent settlements with walls• Occupational specialization
Xia Dynasty – mythical?
Writing• Oracle Bones• Ideographic symbols • Primary purpose was
religious
Bronze• Sophisticated
metallurgy skills• Controlled by
elites• Used for
religious rituals and weapons
1. What was an early form of Chinese writing?
7. What area of China was most conflicted?
8. What form of art was used in Chinese religious rituals?
9. What is considered the first major Chinese civilization?
10. On what major river was Chinese civilization first established?
Which river valley civilization was most completely destroyed by invasion?
a. Huang He
b. Indus
c. Nile
d. Tigris-Euphrates
e. Mekong
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