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The formation and society of the Aztec to the eve of the Spanish Conquest
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The Mexica or Aztec: The Mexica or Aztec: A Predatory StateA Predatory State
Social, Political, and Economic Social, Political, and Economic OrganizationOrganization
Who Were the Aztec?Who Were the Aztec?
We know they came from somewhere up northWe know they came from somewhere up north—how far north is anyone’s guess—how far north is anyone’s guess
Mythically, they came from “Aztlan, the Land of Mythically, they came from “Aztlan, the Land of the Herons,” of which “Aztec” is a derivationthe Herons,” of which “Aztec” is a derivation
They were mercenaries of the Toltec centered They were mercenaries of the Toltec centered in Tula, although even that is bound up in mythin Tula, although even that is bound up in myth
When Tula fell, the Aztec migrated to an area of When Tula fell, the Aztec migrated to an area of five lakes dominated by Lake Texcocofive lakes dominated by Lake Texcoco
An area dominated by “Epigonal Toltecs”An area dominated by “Epigonal Toltecs”
Epigonal ToltecsEpigonal Toltecs The first were the Otomi-speaking Tepanecs, who The first were the Otomi-speaking Tepanecs, who
founded the city of Atzcapotzalco on the western founded the city of Atzcapotzalco on the western shores of Lake Texcocoshores of Lake Texcoco
The second was Xaltocan, an Otomi-speaking The second was Xaltocan, an Otomi-speaking state on the north shore of Lake Texcocostate on the north shore of Lake Texcoco
The third was the Acolhua who dominated the The third was the Acolhua who dominated the eastern shore of Lake Texcoco, organized also by eastern shore of Lake Texcoco, organized also by ChichimecaChichimeca
The fourth was ColhuacThe fourth was Colhuacán on the southwest part án on the southwest part of the Valley of Mexico, at the cusp between of the Valley of Mexico, at the cusp between Lakes Texcoco and Xochimilco.Lakes Texcoco and Xochimilco.
The fifth was a small state Xicco. The fifth was a small state Xicco.
Aztec NomenclatureAztec Nomenclature Initially, they did not settle at the site of Initially, they did not settle at the site of
Tenochtitlan Tenochtitlan Their names changed from “Chichimec from Their names changed from “Chichimec from
Aztlan” a contemptuous term that meant Aztlan” a contemptuous term that meant “Barbarian”“Barbarian”
To “Tenochca” after a patriarch by that name, To “Tenochca” after a patriarch by that name, who also gave the name to Tenochtitlwho also gave the name to Tenochtitláánn
To “Mexica,” which they adopted after To “Mexica,” which they adopted after attaching themselves to the Colhua of attaching themselves to the Colhua of Colhuacan as mercenaries, calling themselves Colhuacan as mercenaries, calling themselves “Colhua Mexica”“Colhua Mexica”
Formation of the AztecFormation of the Aztec Initially, they did not settle at the site of Initially, they did not settle at the site of
TenochtitlTenochtitlánán After numerous wanderings they settled at a After numerous wanderings they settled at a
swampy site mythically where an eagle was swampy site mythically where an eagle was perched on a nopal cactus devouring a snakeperched on a nopal cactus devouring a snake
First, they served as mercenaries of AtzcapotzalcoFirst, they served as mercenaries of Atzcapotzalco They then switched sides, allied themselves with They then switched sides, allied themselves with
the Acolhua of Texcoco, overthrew Atzapotzalco, the Acolhua of Texcoco, overthrew Atzapotzalco, and eventually formed a triple alliance between and eventually formed a triple alliance between themselves, the Acolhua, and a liberated part of themselves, the Acolhua, and a liberated part of Atzapotzalco called TlacopanAtzapotzalco called Tlacopan
Third, they established hegemony in 1500, 21 Third, they established hegemony in 1500, 21 years before the actual conquest. years before the actual conquest.
Formation and SocietyFormation and Society Bilateral descent does allow for flexibility.Bilateral descent does allow for flexibility. To enjoy a rapid rise from a muddy village settled To enjoy a rapid rise from a muddy village settled
in 1345 or so to an empire less than 200 years in 1345 or so to an empire less than 200 years later, you have to be flexible.later, you have to be flexible.
1427 saw the formation of the Triple Alliance1427 saw the formation of the Triple Alliance So to envision an “Aztec society,” the question So to envision an “Aztec society,” the question
arises just which society are we talking aboutarises just which society are we talking about Berdan describes society at it was on the eve of Berdan describes society at it was on the eve of
the Conquestthe Conquest But were they patrilineal groups in the past? We But were they patrilineal groups in the past? We
don’t know; records were often destroyed by the don’t know; records were often destroyed by the victorsvictors
What Were the Calpulli?What Were the Calpulli?
What is known for sure:What is known for sure: There were 20 “Big Houses” by that nameThere were 20 “Big Houses” by that name They were landholding groupsThey were landholding groups They were organized territoriallyThey were organized territorially They had their own councilsThey had their own councils They had their own templesThey had their own temples They comprised the macehual, or They comprised the macehual, or
commoner, generally peasantscommoner, generally peasants The debate: kin groups or peasant class?The debate: kin groups or peasant class?
Calpulli as Kin GroupsCalpulli as Kin Groups
Kin groups or clansKin groups or clans Reasoning: the Aztecs themselves Reasoning: the Aztecs themselves
were tribal groups at most 300 years were tribal groups at most 300 years beforebefore
What kind? Evidence is lacking?What kind? Evidence is lacking? Indication of a patrilineal bias among Indication of a patrilineal bias among
nobility: preference for “junior lines” in nobility: preference for “junior lines” in allocating economic assets and allocating economic assets and political favors. political favors.
Calpulli as Social and Economic Calpulli as Social and Economic ClassesClasses
Developed into administrative subclassesDeveloped into administrative subclasses Could have been units organizing not only Could have been units organizing not only
peasants but also craftspersons and peasants but also craftspersons and traderstraders
Example: in Texcoco under Hungry Coyote Example: in Texcoco under Hungry Coyote (Nezahualcoyotl), calpulli were organized (Nezahualcoyotl), calpulli were organized featherworkers and goldworkersfeatherworkers and goldworkers
Pochteca (luxury good traders) may also Pochteca (luxury good traders) may also have formed a calpulli; we do know they have formed a calpulli; we do know they were hereditarywere hereditary
Calpulli as Both Kin and Calpulli as Both Kin and ClassClass
Conical clans in which privileges are based Conical clans in which privileges are based on order of birthon order of birth
Kept wealth and privileges in the family, but Kept wealth and privileges in the family, but some members were more equal than otherssome members were more equal than others
Kin trace their ancestry to a founder, real or Kin trace their ancestry to a founder, real or fictivefictive
But through such justification as precedence But through such justification as precedence of birth, the lineal descendants (junior lines) of birth, the lineal descendants (junior lines) get preferential treatmentget preferential treatment
This suggests that unilineal descent might This suggests that unilineal descent might have been dominant at one timehave been dominant at one time
Calpulli and EthnicityCalpulli and Ethnicity As conquests proceeded, Tenochtitlan As conquests proceeded, Tenochtitlan
became more ethnically diverse.became more ethnically diverse. Thus calpulli included not only kin but also Thus calpulli included not only kin but also
“allies” from the conquered provinces“allies” from the conquered provinces Flexibility of kin thus allowed fictive Flexibility of kin thus allowed fictive
(fictional) ties as well(fictional) ties as well Thus, the European Catholic tradition of Thus, the European Catholic tradition of
compradrazgo fit in very well with compradrazgo fit in very well with indigenous society. indigenous society.
Thus their flexibility is not at issue; only Thus their flexibility is not at issue; only their “pristine” characteristics. their “pristine” characteristics.
Calpulli and Land TenureCalpulli and Land Tenure
Land was held in common in the Land was held in common in the calpullicalpulli
System was based on usufructSystem was based on usufruct Peasants “owned” their plot so long as Peasants “owned” their plot so long as
they used it and paid their taxesthey used it and paid their taxes Land reverted back to the commons if Land reverted back to the commons if
the peasant stopped using the land or the peasant stopped using the land or pay the taxespay the taxes
Land could be rented, but not bought or Land could be rented, but not bought or soldsold
Aztec: Kin ReckoningAztec: Kin Reckoning
Reckoned kinship bilaterally; traced Reckoned kinship bilaterally; traced relations through paternal and maternal relations through paternal and maternal side.side.
Kinship terms bilateral: e.g. Kinship terms bilateral: e.g. tlatli tlatli is an is an uncle, whether father’s or mother’s uncle, whether father’s or mother’s brotherbrother
Possibly reflected the extreme instability Possibly reflected the extreme instability one expects from a state in rapid one expects from a state in rapid formationformation
And one in which there are shifting And one in which there are shifting alliancesalliances
Marriage among the AztecMarriage among the Aztec
Marriage was endogamous by class: pipiltin to Marriage was endogamous by class: pipiltin to other pipiltin, macehuallin to other other pipiltin, macehuallin to other macehuallinmacehuallin
There was no other rule of exogamy outside There was no other rule of exogamy outside the immediate familythe immediate family
This meant that marriage could involve one’s This meant that marriage could involve one’s cousin; cross-cousin marriage was not cousin; cross-cousin marriage was not unknownunknown
Polygyny was common among nobility and tied Polygyny was common among nobility and tied in with social class; wives were put to work.in with social class; wives were put to work.
Marriage Alliances and Marriage Alliances and PowerPower
Nobility: Marriage had a political function: female Nobility: Marriage had a political function: female from Texcoco married a male from the from Texcoco married a male from the subordinate Teotihuacan to maintain a tiesubordinate Teotihuacan to maintain a tie
The son of the Teotihuacan ruler would then be The son of the Teotihuacan ruler would then be subordinate to Texcoco because of the “gift” of a subordinate to Texcoco because of the “gift” of a wife.wife.
Marriage was to man’s mother’s brother’s Marriage was to man’s mother’s brother’s daughter—his matrilateral cross-cousin. daughter—his matrilateral cross-cousin.
Failure to repay in Maussian terms means the Failure to repay in Maussian terms means the Teotihuacan nobility would be “beggar” to Teotihuacan nobility would be “beggar” to Texcoco nobility. Texcoco nobility.
This would persist for generations. This would persist for generations.
Aztec Markets: Common Aztec Markets: Common GoodsGoods
There were two kinds of marketsThere were two kinds of markets One dealt in ordinary goodsOne dealt in ordinary goods Markets usually met every five days Markets usually met every five days Trading outside the market was Trading outside the market was
illegal and one could be imprisoned illegal and one could be imprisoned or the goods confiscatedor the goods confiscated
Reason: market transactions were Reason: market transactions were subject to taxatisubject to taxati
Aztec Markets: Luxury Aztec Markets: Luxury ProductsProducts
Texcoco had been a market town long before the Texcoco had been a market town long before the Aztecs assumed powerAztecs assumed power
Markets were a daily affair in Texcoco; major markets Markets were a daily affair in Texcoco; major markets comprising up to 50,000 buyers and sellers met every comprising up to 50,000 buyers and sellers met every fifth day—they were the center of luxury productsfifth day—they were the center of luxury products
A hereditary class of merchants called A hereditary class of merchants called PochtecaPochteca were probably active long before the Aztecswere probably active long before the Aztecs
They occupied a precarious positionThey occupied a precarious position On the one hand, they were vital as sources of On the one hand, they were vital as sources of
military intelligence to the rulers and were protectedmilitary intelligence to the rulers and were protected On the other hand, their economic power were a On the other hand, their economic power were a
threat to the rulers; toward the end, they hid their threat to the rulers; toward the end, they hid their wealth. wealth.
Sociopolitical Organization of Sociopolitical Organization of the Aztecsthe Aztecs
Society: A Twofold DivisionSociety: A Twofold Division Pilli: The noblesPilli: The nobles Macehual: The peasantsMacehual: The peasants However, the peasants themselves were However, the peasants themselves were
stratifiedstratified Macehuales who excelled in battle could Macehuales who excelled in battle could
themselves become noblethemselves become noble This requires some background in the This requires some background in the
principles of political anthropologyprinciples of political anthropology
Social Class: OverviewSocial Class: Overview
General types (Fried)General types (Fried) Egalitarian societies:Egalitarian societies: Social systems with as many valued positions Social systems with as many valued positions
as person capable of filling themas person capable of filling them Exceptions: age, gender, special characteristicsExceptions: age, gender, special characteristics Ranked societiesRanked societies Social systems with fewer valued status Social systems with fewer valued status
positions than those capable of filling thempositions than those capable of filling them Stratified societiesStratified societies Minority control of strategic resourcesMinority control of strategic resources
Stratified SocietiesStratified Societies
Access to strategic resources is unequalAccess to strategic resources is unequal ExamplesExamples Water in irrigation societiesWater in irrigation societies Land in patrimonial (feudal) societiesLand in patrimonial (feudal) societies Claims to capital assets (stocks, bonds) in Claims to capital assets (stocks, bonds) in
capitalist societycapitalist society Capital: goods/services used for Capital: goods/services used for
productionproduction Money, stocks, bonds are also capitalMoney, stocks, bonds are also capital
Emergence of StratificationEmergence of Stratification
Manipulative Individuals/ Manipulative Individuals/ FamiliesFamilies
Form alliances (chimpanzee-Form alliances (chimpanzee-like)like)
Play one faction against anotherPlay one faction against another Form dynasties (bonobo-like)Form dynasties (bonobo-like) Control over Life-Sustaining Control over Life-Sustaining
ResourcesResources Water systems in semi-arid Water systems in semi-arid
regionsregions Agricultural landsAgricultural lands Mechanisms of TaxationMechanisms of Taxation LaborLabor TributeTribute
Political Organization: Basic Political Organization: Basic PrinciplesPrinciples
Power vs AuthorityPower vs Authority Power: compliance by coercion or forcePower: compliance by coercion or force Authority: compliance by persuasionAuthority: compliance by persuasion Legitimacy:Legitimacy: Beliefs rationalizing rule Beliefs rationalizing rule Examples: Divine Right, Peoples Consent Examples: Divine Right, Peoples Consent SanctionsSanctions: reinforcements of behavior: reinforcements of behavior Positive: rewards, recognitionPositive: rewards, recognition Negative: punishment Negative: punishment
Power versus AuthorityPower versus Authority Extreme examplesExtreme examples Power: concentration camps: Power: concentration camps:
Auschwitz (above); Guantanamo Auschwitz (above); Guantanamo (below)(below)
Authority: !Kung, Inuit, Authority: !Kung, Inuit, YanomamoYanomamo
Neither is absoluteNeither is absolute Dictatorships need to persuade: Dictatorships need to persuade:
Nuremberg rallies, Mayday Nuremberg rallies, Mayday paradesparades
Power is evenly distributed in Power is evenly distributed in nonstate culturesnonstate cultures
Legitimacy as Justification Legitimacy as Justification for Political Orderfor Political Order Justification necessary even in Justification necessary even in
authoritarian statesauthoritarian states Monarchies: the divine right to ruleMonarchies: the divine right to rule Soviet Union: Socialist transition to Soviet Union: Socialist transition to
communist economycommunist economy Nazi Germany: Racial purification; Nazi Germany: Racial purification;
delivery of full-employment delivery of full-employment (Nuremberg rallies, above)(Nuremberg rallies, above)
Democratic forms: consent by the Democratic forms: consent by the governed (below, State of the Union)governed (below, State of the Union)
One Myth Behind Mexica One Myth Behind Mexica PowerPower
War Against the Tepenacs of AtzcapotalzoWar Against the Tepenacs of Atzcapotalzo Nobles voted for war; commoners voted Nobles voted for war; commoners voted
for peacefor peace The declaration of the nobles (Wolf, p. 137)The declaration of the nobles (Wolf, p. 137) Commoners’ reply on agreement if the war Commoners’ reply on agreement if the war
were successful (Wolf, p. 137)were successful (Wolf, p. 137) Most likely, a mythical exchange, but this Most likely, a mythical exchange, but this
served as one part of legitimationserved as one part of legitimation
Sociopolitical Organizations: Sociopolitical Organizations: General TypologyGeneral Typology
Bands: Small, informal groupsBands: Small, informal groups Tribes: Segmentary groups Tribes: Segmentary groups
integrated by some unifying factorintegrated by some unifying factor Chiefdoms: Group organized under a Chiefdoms: Group organized under a
chief in a ranked societychief in a ranked society State: Centralized political system State: Centralized political system
with monopoly over legitimized force with monopoly over legitimized force and its use.and its use.
States: Force as Prime States: Force as Prime Mover Mover
Defining CharacteristicsDefining Characteristics A centralized political systemA centralized political system With power to coerceWith power to coerce The operating factor:The operating factor: Monopoly over the use ofMonopoly over the use of Legitimate physical forceLegitimate physical force Supports the apparatus of the stateSupports the apparatus of the state Bureaucracy --Army and policeBureaucracy --Army and police Law and legal codesLaw and legal codes
States: Derivative FeaturesStates: Derivative Features
Administrative structureAdministrative structure Public services --Tax collectionPublic services --Tax collection Resource allocation --Foreign affairsResource allocation --Foreign affairs Delegation of forceDelegation of force Police, all levels --Armed forcePolice, all levels --Armed force LawLaw Civil (dispute resolution)Civil (dispute resolution) Regulatory (trade, economy)Regulatory (trade, economy) Criminal (crime and punishment)Criminal (crime and punishment)
Law: Cross-Cultural Law: Cross-Cultural ComparisonComparison
Codified law: Formally defines wrong Codified law: Formally defines wrong and specifies remediesand specifies remedies
Customary law: Informal sanctions or Customary law: Informal sanctions or dispute resolutiondispute resolution
Restitution or Restorative law: Restitution or Restorative law: emphasizes dispute resolution, emphasizes dispute resolution, damage restitutiondamage restitution
Retributive law: emphasizes Retributive law: emphasizes punishment for crimes committedpunishment for crimes committed
Case Studies: RestitutionCase Studies: Restitution Nuer: Leopard-skin chiefNuer: Leopard-skin chief Function: mediate disputes; Function: mediate disputes;
leopard wrap identifies roleleopard wrap identifies role Cannot force or enforce an Cannot force or enforce an
agreementagreement Authority is spiritualAuthority is spiritual Zapotec in Talea, MexicoZapotec in Talea, Mexico Function: hear cases and Function: hear cases and
negotiatenegotiate Recommend settlementRecommend settlement Enforce agreement by Enforce agreement by
communitycommunity
Case Studies: RetributionCase Studies: Retribution
Criminal LawCriminal Law Murder, Robbery, Murder, Robbery,
OthersOthers Civil LawCivil Law Consumer Law and Consumer Law and
Small CourtsSmall Courts Final Say: Judge or Final Say: Judge or
ArbitratorArbitrator Limitation: Sheer Limitation: Sheer
Numbers of CasesNumbers of Cases
A Trisection of SocietyA Trisection of Society
Relations of Production form the Relations of Production form the basis of sociopolitical systems.basis of sociopolitical systems.
Political superstructure: Political superstructure: government, military, the lawgovernment, military, the law
Ideology: religion, myths, even Ideology: religion, myths, even psychologypsychology
When the base shifts, the rest of When the base shifts, the rest of society changessociety changes
Basic Political Structure of the Basic Political Structure of the MexicaMexica
The nobility expanded its privileges as the The nobility expanded its privileges as the empire developedempire developed
Privileges: Right to wear insignia, special Privileges: Right to wear insignia, special clothingclothing
Marital privileges: polygyny and the political Marital privileges: polygyny and the political and economic power it implied.and economic power it implied.
Had their own special courtsHad their own special courts Sent children to calmecatl, or schools of Sent children to calmecatl, or schools of
religious and ceremonial training, prerequisite religious and ceremonial training, prerequisite for entry into the bureaucracyfor entry into the bureaucracy
Commoners were tillers of the soilCommoners were tillers of the soil Slaves, who had their own privilegesSlaves, who had their own privileges
Aztec Society: A Study of Aztec Society: A Study of MobilityMobility
Remember that the Mexica were still Remember that the Mexica were still in a state of expansion when the in a state of expansion when the Spaniards cameSpaniards came
Unfinished business: The Tlaxcalans, Unfinished business: The Tlaxcalans, the Tarascans, the unconquered the Tarascans, the unconquered lands of southern Mexicolands of southern Mexico
Internally, they were a mobile societyInternally, they were a mobile society Rulers created a “nobility of service” Rulers created a “nobility of service”
as well as a nobility of lineageas well as a nobility of lineage
Nobility of ServiceNobility of Service Distinguished themselves in war or by Distinguished themselves in war or by
tradetrade Term: “Knights” or “Sons of the Eagle”Term: “Knights” or “Sons of the Eagle” Also divided the commoners from those Also divided the commoners from those
relative fewrelative few A source of tension with the nobility of A source of tension with the nobility of
lineage over bureaucratic positionslineage over bureaucratic positions An aristocratic reaction curtailed their An aristocratic reaction curtailed their
privilegesprivileges Stratification became more established Stratification became more established
on the eve of the Conqueston the eve of the Conquest
Religious IdeologyReligious Ideology
Huitzilopochtli (Hummingbird of the Left): Huitzilopochtli (Hummingbird of the Left): the principal godthe principal god
Presided over a world that ended in Presided over a world that ended in cataclysmcataclysm
The last world ended in hurricanes, The last world ended in hurricanes, preceded by rain, sky falling on earth, and preceded by rain, sky falling on earth, and fire; the present one will end in fire; the present one will end in earthquakesearthquakes
To forestall the inevitable end would entail To forestall the inevitable end would entail the blood sacrifice of humansthe blood sacrifice of humans
Gods from the Gods from the PredecessorsPredecessors
Quetzalcoatl: The plumed serpent god who was Quetzalcoatl: The plumed serpent god who was banished to the east.banished to the east.
Tezcatlipoca, (smoking mirror), who displaced Tezcatlipoca, (smoking mirror), who displaced Quetzalcoatl, who demanded blood sacrificed in his Quetzalcoatl, who demanded blood sacrificed in his own right, and often identified with Huitzilopochtliown right, and often identified with Huitzilopochtli
Tlaloc, the rain god, He Who Makes the Plants Tlaloc, the rain god, He Who Makes the Plants Spring Up.Spring Up.
Xipe Totec, the Flayed One, whose skin symbolized Xipe Totec, the Flayed One, whose skin symbolized the old vegetation with the promise of renewalthe old vegetation with the promise of renewal
The pantheon became standardized after the first The pantheon became standardized after the first conquest over the Tepanecconquest over the Tepanec
Even so, one god might be merged with another, Even so, one god might be merged with another, as Huitzilopochtli with Tezcatlipocaas Huitzilopochtli with Tezcatlipoca
Self-Concept of the MexicaSelf-Concept of the Mexica
At the edge of cataclysmAt the edge of cataclysm Individuals were expected to Individuals were expected to
combine bravery with moderationcombine bravery with moderation The ideal Mexica did not drink to The ideal Mexica did not drink to
excess, spoke softly, was sexually excess, spoke softly, was sexually continent. continent.
The Eve of the Conquest: The Eve of the Conquest: Cracks in the Mexica StateCracks in the Mexica State
The Mexica exploited the provinces The Mexica exploited the provinces mercilessly for tribute and sometimes mercilessly for tribute and sometimes sacrificial victimssacrificial victims
Except for these, the provinces were left Except for these, the provinces were left on their own; their own customs, on their own; their own customs, languages, and religions were left alone.languages, and religions were left alone.
This, coupled with the still-independent This, coupled with the still-independent states, may have been their downfall.states, may have been their downfall.
The domination was never absolute, and The domination was never absolute, and the Mexica armies had their limitationsthe Mexica armies had their limitations
The Spaniards were able to exploit these The Spaniards were able to exploit these weaknesses, despite initial failures.weaknesses, despite initial failures.
Comparison with the MayaComparison with the Maya The Maya were competitive city statesThe Maya were competitive city states Even after the collapse, they were Even after the collapse, they were
relatively independentrelatively independent The conquest of the Aztec was largely a The conquest of the Aztec was largely a
one-time event in the Valley of Mexicoone-time event in the Valley of Mexico In contrast, the Spaniards would have to In contrast, the Spaniards would have to
conquer one Mayan state over a long conquer one Mayan state over a long period of attritionperiod of attrition
Even after 1692, there were constant Even after 1692, there were constant uprisings throughout Mexico and uprisings throughout Mexico and Guatemala well into the 19Guatemala well into the 19thth century. century.