- 1. WORLD WAR II 1950-1960s
2. Late 40s and early 50s CARL ROGERS and ABRAHAM MASLOW
Supported the human relations movement through their theories of
motivation 3. CARL ROGERS
- Coined the term UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD.
- Unconditional positive regard is basic acceptance and support
of a person regardless of what the person says or does. Rogers
believes that unconditional positive regard is essential to healthy
development.
- Unconditional positive regard can be facilitated by keeping in
mind Carl Rogers belief that all people have the internal resources
required for personal growth. Rogers' theory encouraged other
psychiatrists to suspend judgment, and to listen to a person with
an attitude that the client has within himself the ability to
change, without actually changing who he is.
- Accdg. To Rogers, the best vantage point for understanding
behavior is from the internal frame of reference of the individual
who strives to enhance its own human condition.
4. ABRAHAM MASLOW
- Abraham Maslow published his theory of human motivation in
1943.
- According to Maslow differing levels of need that must be
satisfied by the individual motivate each human being.
- Abraham Maslow published his theory of human motivation in
1943. Maslow grouped the needs into five different categories
:
- Self-actualization, esteem, love/belonging, safety and
physiological needs.
5.
- A B R A H A M M A S L O W S
- H I E R A R C H Y O F N E E D S
6. Skinner initiated discussions of behaviorisms applicationsBy
organizational settings
- B.F. Skinner was a key contributor to the development of modern
ideas about reinforcement theory.
- Skinner argued that the internal needs and drives of
individuals can be ignored because people learn to exhibit certain
behaviors based on what happens to them as a result of their
behavior.
- Reinforcement theoryis the process of shaping behavior by
controlling the consequences of the behavior.
- In reinforcement theory, a combination of rewards and/or
punishments is used to reinforce desired behavior or extinguish
unwanted behavior.
7.
- Any behavior that elicits a consequence is calledoperant
behavior,because the individual operates on his or her
environment.
- Reinforcement theory concentrates on the relationship between
the operant behavior and the associated consequences, and is
sometimes referred to as operant conditioning.
- The most important principle of reinforcement theory is, of
course, reinforcement. Generally speaking, there are two types of
reinforcement: positive and negative.Positive reinforcement results
when the occurrence of a valued behavioral consequence has the
effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being
repeated. The specific behavioral consequence is called a
reinforcer.An example of positive reinforcement might be a
salesperson that exerts extra effort to meet a sales quota
(behavior) and is then rewarded with a bonus (positive reinforcer).
The administration of the positive reinforcer should make it more
likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the necessary
effort in the future.
- Negative reinforcement results when an undesirable behavioral
consequence is withheld, with the effect of strengthening the
probability of the behavior being repeated. Negative reinforcement
is often confused with punishment, but they are not the same.
Punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific
behaviors; negative reinforcement attempts to increase desired
behavior. Thus, both positive and negative reinforcement have the
effect of increasing the probability that a particular behavior
will be learned and repeated.
8.
- An example of negative reinforcement might be a salesperson
that exerts effort to increase sales in his or her sales territory
(behavior), which is followed by a decision not to reassign the
salesperson to an undesirable sales route (negative reinforcer).
The administration of the negative reinforcer should make it more
likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the necessary
effort in the future.
- REINFORCEMENT THEORY APPLIEDTO ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS
- Probably the best-known application of the principles of
reinforcement theory to organizational settings is called
behavioral modification, or behavioral contingency management.
Typically, a behavioral modification program consists of four
steps:
- (1)Specifying the desired behavior as objectively as
possible.
- (2)Measuring the current incidence of desired behavior.
- (3)Providing behavioral consequences that reinforce desired
behavior.
- (4)Determining the effectiveness of the program by
systematically assessing behavioral change.
- Reinforcement theory is an important explanation of how people
learn behavior. It is often applied to organizational settings in
the context of a behavioral modification program. Although the
assumptions of reinforcement theory are often criticized, its
principles continue to offer important insights into individual
learning and motivation.
9. Peter F. Druckers
- Management by Objectives (MBO) is the most widely accepted
philosophy of management today. It is a demanding and rewarding
style of management. It concentrates attention on the
accomplishment of objectives through participation of all concerned
persons through team spirit. MBO is based on the assumption that
people perform better when they know what is expected of them and
can relate their personal goals to organizational objectives .
- It suggests that objectives should not be imposed on
subordinates but should be decided collectively by a concerned with
the management. This gives popular support to them and the
achievement of such objectives becomes easy and quick.
Management by Objectives (MBO) approach 1954 10. Features Of
Management By Objectives MBO:
- Superior-subordinate participation: MBO requires the superior
and the subordinate to recognize that the development of objectives
is a joint project/activity thus, they must be jointly agreed.
- Joint goal-setting: MBO emphasizes joint goal-setting that are
tangible, verifiable and measurable. The subordinate in
consultation with his superior sets his own short-term goals.
However, it is examined both by the superior and the subordinate
that goals are realistic and attainable.
- Joint decision on methodology: MBO focuses special attention on
what must be accomplished (goals) rather than how it is to be
accomplished (methods). The superior and the subordinate mutually
devise methodology to be followed in the attainment of
objectives.
- Support from superior: When the subordinate makes efforts to
achieve his goals, superior's helping hand is always available. The
superior acts as a coach and provides his valuable advice and
guidance to the subordinate. This is how MBO facilitates effective
communication between superior and subordinates for achieving the
objectives/targets set.
11. Steps In Management By Objectives Planning : (1)Goal
setting: The first phase in the MBO process is to define the
organizational objectives. These are determined by the top
management and usually in consultation with other managers. Once
these goals are established, they should be made known to all the
members. (2)Manager-Subordinate involvement: After the
organizational goals are defined, the subordinates work with the
managers to determine their individual goals. In this way, everyone
gets involved in the goal setting. (3)Matching goals and resources:
Management must ensure that the subordinates are provided with
necessary tools and materials to achieve these goals.
(4)Implementation of plan: After objectives are established and
resources are allocated, the subordinates can implement the plan.
If any guidance or clarification is required, they can contact
their superiors. (5)Review and appraisal of performance: This step
involves periodic review of progress between manager and the
subordinates. Such reviews would determine if the progress is
satisfactory or the subordinate is facing some problems. 12. 1954:
JOHN C. FLANAGANS CRITICAL INCIDENTS TECHNIQUE
- The Critical Incident Technique (or CIT) is a set of procedures
used for collecting direct observations of human behavior that have
critical significance and meet methodically defined criteria. These
observations are then kept track of as incidents, which are then
used to solve practical problems and develop broad psychological
principles.
- CIT is a flexible method that usually relies on five major
areas. The first is determining and reviewing the incident, then
fact-finding, which involves collecting the details of the incident
from the participants. When all of the facts are collected, the
next step is to identify the issues. Afterwards a decision can be
made on how to resolve the issues based on various possible
solutions. The final and most important aspect is the evaluation,
which will determine if the solution that was selected will solve
the root cause of the situation and will cause no further
problems.
- CIT is also widely used in organizational development as a
research technique for identification of organizational problems.
CIT is used as an interview technique where the informants are
encouraged to talk about unusual organizational incidents instead
of answering direct questions.
13. Late 1950s : Douglas McGregor proposed his Theory X and
Theory Y assumptions of the relations between employees and
organizations
- McGregor's X-Y theory is a salutary and simple reminder of the
natural rules for managing people, which under the pressure of
day-to-day business are all too easily forgotten.
- McGregor's ideas suggest that there are two fundamental
approaches to managing people. Many managers tend towards theory x,
and generally get poor results. Enlightened managers use theory y,
which produces better performance and results, and allows people to
grow and develop.
- theory x ('authoritarian management' style)
- The average person dislikes work and will avoid it he/she
can.
- Therefore most people must be forced with the threat of
punishment to work towards organizational objectives.
- The average person prefers to be directed; to avoid
responsibility; is relatively unambitious, and wants security above
all else.
14.
- theory y ('participative management' style)
- Effort in work is as natural as work and play.
- People will apply self-control and self-direction in the
pursuit of organisational objectives, without external control or
the threat of punishment.
- Commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated
with their achievement.
- People usually accept and often seek responsibility.
- The capacity to use a high degree of imagination, ingenuity and
creativity in solving organisational problems is widely, not
narrowly, distributed in the population.
- In industry the intellectual potential of the average person is
only partly utilized.
15. Early 1960's: Fred Fiedler proposed contingency models of
leadership
- The contingency model emphasizes the importance of both the
leader's personality and the situation in which that leader
operates.
- Fiedler relates the effectiveness of the leader to aspects of
the group situation. Fred Fiedler's Contingency Model also predicts
that the effectiveness of the leader will depend on both the
characteristics of the leader and the favorableness of the
situation.
- The basis of Fiedler's contingency model involved assessing a
potential leader with a scale of work style ranging from
task-oriented at one end, to relationship-oriented at the other.
Then contingent on factors such as stress level in the
organization, type of work, flexibility of the group to change, and
use of technology, a customized coordination of resources, people,
tasks and the correct style of management could be
implemented.
- The key to leadership effectiveness is viewed by most variants
of Contingency Theory as choosing the correct style of leader. This
style is dependent on the interaction of internal and external
factors with the organization. For example, the ability to leaders
is dependent upon the perception of subordinates of and by the
leader, the leader's relationship with them, and the degree of
consensus on the scope of a given task.
16.
- Fiedler's theory further posits that most situations will have
three hierarchical aspects that will structure the leader's role.
The first aspect is atmosphere - the confidence, and loyalty a
group feels towards the leader. The second variable is the
ambiguity or clarity of the structure of the group's task. Lastly
the inherent authority or power of the leader plays an important
role in group performance.
- 1964: Vroom proposed VIE theory (valence, instrumentality,
expectancy) of motivation
- This theory assumes that behavior results from conscious
choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure
and minimize pain.
- The theory suggests that although individuals may have
different sets of goals, they can be motivated if they believe
that:
- There is a positive correlation between efforts and
performance,
- Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward,
- The reward will satisfy an important need,
- The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the
effort worthwhile.
17. Vrooms theory is based upon the following beliefs:Valence
Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with
respect to outcomes [rewards]. The depth of the want of an employee
for extrinsic [money, promotion, time-off, benefits] or intrinsic
[satisfaction] rewards). Management must discover what employees
value.Expectancy Employees have different expectations and levels
of confidence about what they are capable of doing. Management must
discover what resources, training, or supervision employees
need.Instrumentality The perception of employees as to whether they
will actually get what they desire even if it has been promised by
a manager. Management must ensure that promises of rewards are
fulfilled and that employees are aware of that.Vroom suggests that
an employee's beliefs about Expectancy, Instrumentality, and
Valence interact psychologically to create a motivational force
such that the employee acts in ways that bring pleasure and avoid
pain. 18. Mid 1960's: David McClelland proposed need for
achievement theory
- In hisacquired-needstheory, David McClelland proposed that an
individual's specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped
by one's life experiences. Most of these needs can be classed as
eitherachievement ,affiliation , orpower .
- Achievement: People with a high need for achievement (nAch)
seek to excel and thus tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk
situations. Achievers avoid low-risk situations because the easily
attained success is not a genuine achievement. Achievers prefer
either to work alone or with other high achievers.
- Affiliation : Those with a high need for affiliation (nAff)
need harmonious relationships with other people and need to feel
accepted by other people. They tend to conform to the norms of
their work group. High nAff individuals prefer work that provides
significant personal interaction. They perform well in customer
service and client interaction situations.
- Power : A person's need for power (nPow) can be one of two
types - personal and institutional. Those who need personal power
want to direct others, and this need often is perceived as
undesirable. Persons who need institutional power (also known as
social power) want to organize the efforts of others to further the
goals of the organization.
19.
- Late 1960's: Frederick Herzberg proposed his two-factor theory
of motivation (motivators & hygiene factors)
- Accdg. To the two factor theory of Herzberg, people are
influenced by two factors. Satisfaction and psychological growth
was a factor of motivation factors. Dissatisfaction was a result of
hygiene factors.
- -HYGIENE FACTORS are needed to ensure an employee does not
become dissatisfied.
- -MOTIVATION FACTORS are needed in order to motivate an employee
into higher performance.
- Typical hygiene factors include:
- *Working conditions, quality of supervision, salary, status,
security, company, job, interpersonal relations.
- Typical motivation factors include:
- *Achievement, recognition for achievement, responsibility for
task, interest in the job and advancement to higher level
tasks/growth.
20. Late 1960's: Edwin Locke outlined his goal setting approach
to motivation
- Locke's theory operates on the premise that individuals create
goals by making careful decisions to do so and are compelled toward
those goals by virtue of the goal having been set. Basically,
Locke's theory states that if an individual sets goals, he will be
motivated to achieve those goals by virtue of having set them.
Goals serve four primary functions:
- (1)By specifying a goal, one must direct focus toward that goal
and away from activities unrelated to that goal.
- (2) The setting of a goal is a behavior-stimulating act.
According to Locke, "high goals lead to greater effort than low
goals." (3)Goals have a positive effect on persistence. However,
there is an inverse relationship between time and intensity.
(4)Goals subconsciously direct the person toward discovering better
ways of doing things, be they calculations or physical acts.
- Locke's theory states that, in order for a goal to be
successful, the person must be committed to it wholly and possess
self-efficacy. This self-efficacy must be boosted initially by the
fact that the person was assigned the task and thus believed to be
capable of its completion.
21. Title VII, section 703a of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
DISCRIMINATION BECAUSE OF RACE,COLOR, RELIGION,SEX,OR NATIONAL
ORIGIN It shall be an unlawful employment practice for an employer
(1) to fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or
otherwise to discriminate against any individual with respect to
his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment,
because of such individuals race, color, religion, sex, or national
origin; or (2) to limit, segregate, or classify his employees or
applicants for employment in any way which would deprive or tend to
deprive any individual of employment opportunities or otherwise
adversely affect his status as an employee, because of such
individuals race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. 22.
1966: KATZ AND KAHN PUBLISHED RESEARCH OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
AND CLASSIC TEXT OUTLINING THEORY Organizational behavior
encompasses a wide range of topics, such as human behavior, change,
leadership, and teams. Organizational Behavior is the study and
application of knowledge about how people, individuals, and groups
act in organizations. It interprets people-organization
relationships in terms of the whole person, group, organization,
and social system. Its purpose is to build better relationships by
achieving individual, organizational, and social objectives. Katz
and Kahn proposed threecategories of behaviour to achieve high
levels of organizational effectiveness: Employees must be hired and
retained;- People must join and remain in the organization Work
role performance must be accomplished in a dependable manner;- they
must perform dependably the roles assigned to them employees must
exceed formal job requirements.- they engage in occasional
innovativeand cooperative behavior beyond the requirements of role
but in the service oforganizational objectives. 23. Katz and Kahn
cataloged several organizational characteristics that support the
open systems theory and have implications for the design of
successful organizations: they recognized the universallaw of
entropy , which holds that all organizations move toward
disorganization or death. However, an open system can continue to
thrive by importing more energy from the environment than it
expends, thus achieving negative entropy. For example, a failing
company might be able to revitalize itself by bringing in a new
chief executive who improves the way the company transforms energic
inputs. Another characteristic of organizations isdynamic
homeostasis , which infers that all successful organizations must
be able to achieve balance between subsystems. For example, a sales
department might grow very quickly if it is very successful or
demand for its products jumps. But if the manufacturing arm of the
company is unable to keep pace with sales activity, the entire
organization could break down. Thus, subgroups must maintain a
rough state of balance as they adapt to external influences. Katz
and Kahn made this same observation with more precision: Within
every work group in a factory, within any division in a government
bureau, or within any department of a university are countless acts
of cooperation without which the system would break down. We take
these everyday acts for granted, and few of them are included in
the formal role prescriptions of any job