Lingwistyka

1.Branches of linguistics in the macrolinguistic perspectiveMICROLINGUISTICS – covers only matter related to language, without taking any consideration of linguistic

factors. It is impossible to talk about language, to separate it from other mental process of cognition.

MACROLINGUISTICS – it takes into consideration other branches of science. About how the extralinguistic branches/factors influence language.

Socilinguistics studies the relations between language and society: how social factors influence the structure and use of language. Psycholinguistics is the study of language and mind: the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquistion, comprehension and production of language. Neurolingistics is the study of language processing and language representation in the brain. It typically studies the disturbances of language comprehension and production caused by the damage of certain areas of the brain. Stylistics is the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features. It usually refers to the study of written language, including literary text, but it also investigates spoken language. Discourse analysis, or text linguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used. It deals with how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units. Ethnolinguistics-like sociolinguistics, but considers culture, ethnics, the way of life, how this way of life influences language and where we can find examples of it. Deals with language games/rituals/rites/ways and norms of behavior.Typological lnguistic - deals with categorizing styles of languages or branches into types and families, ex. those, which developed from the same source (ex. from Latin). Those types don’t have to be related, are distinguished on factors (almost on anything)Computational linguistics is an approach to linguistics which employs mathematical techniques, often with the help of a computer. Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. Applied linguistics is primarily concerned with the application of linguistic theories, methods and findings to the explanation of language problems which have arisen in other areas of experience.

2. Dichotomies in the divisions of linguisticsDichotomy – the separation that exists between two groups or things that are completely opposite to and different from each other.

Linguistics developed not earlier than in VIII/IX century and firstly linguist was associated with a person of philosopher.First investigations were connected with teaching languages; they noticed that certain languages are so similar that it couldn’t be a coincident. Latin was a very common language in the past and seen as a model one, nations used some pieces of Latin in their lang. Then a discovery was made that Asian family of lang. has a similarity with European ones.Linguistics started to analyze languages, it started to divide into several branches which their Characteristic is dichotomy:

1) a) Descriptive – looks at particular language and describes it, its phenomena, provides datab) General – about language in overall, looks for phenomenon, bases on hypothesis, looks at parts of speech.

General Descriptive

2) a) Theoretical – more less the same as general ling.b) Applied – concerned with practical application of theoretical findings /teaching, writing, handwriting, dictionaries, study of signs, artificial languages/.

1) a) Synchronic – contemporary state of a language at present, photograph in a particular moment, not interested in ethymology but they’re related now.b) Diachronic – study of a language development, history of a language, development of the first language in a child, changes in a route of history

they do not show the complete description

3. Levels of linguistic investigation according to the unit of description

1) phonology – how the sound are interpreted, how put together in communication systems, focuses on phonemes and their systems, every single language has its own phonology

2) phonetics – describe real sound of language:how produce sounds – articulatorywhat they sound like – aquistics + properties of sound waveshow we hear them – auditory

articulatory: like biology, about organsaquistics: can be measured by equipment, pictures, computers, diagrams, time, vibrationsauditory: which aspects of sounds are more important? on which we focus?

Phoneme – individual sound of lang.

3) morphology – focuses on morphemes (units of meaning), on certain concepts and forms – how they’re linked, how they build blocks of words; how morphemes are put together to build a word; internal structures of words – how they’re built.

4) syntax /składnia/ - how words are being formed to phrases, phrases into sentences; deals with parts of speech and functions.

5) discourse analysis – all texts and dialogs – how they’re organized, how do they make sense, who speaks when, exchanges of phrases (polite).

6) Semantics – interested in meanings, how lexical items are put together and related, abstract motions, doesn’t take a context of use

7) Pragmatics – use of language, situational factors influence language

4. Unique features of language as contrasted with animal communicationFirst feature- unique for humans teetch which are upright and no slauting outwords. The positon of teeth is very important. We can produce sounds like f, v, QSecond feature- lips, involved in production of most sounds. Flexibility is crucial and only humans have it. we have more mussle structure than animals. Sounds like b, p, mThird feature- human mouth. Is relatively small and can be open and closed rapidly, so the tempo of speech can differFourth feature- tongue which is very flexibleFifth feature- larynx called voice box. It contains vocal courds. Position of human larynx is much lower than that of other spicies. Creates longer cavity called the pharynx and acts as a resonator. Makes sound louder.Sixth feature- brain. Is extremely complexed. There is an evidence that ot has specialised finctions put in each hemispheres. Lg. functions are largely confined in the left hemisphere of the brain.

Most animals (including people) use “body language” as well as sound and smell in order to communicate with one another. Here are some of the ways animals express themselves.Many animals communicate by smell: they release pheromones (airborne chemicals) to send messages to others. Pheromones play an important part in reproduction and other social behavior. They are used by many animals, including insects, wolves, deer, and even humans!Animal communication is any behaviour on the part of one animal that has an effect on the current or future behaviour of another animal. The study of animal communication, called zoosemiotics (distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study of human communication) has played an important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition.Some people believe that it is possible for humans and animals to communicate through telepathy.For linguistics, the interest of animal communication systems lies in their similarities to and differences from human language:1. Human languages are characterized for having a double articulation (in the characterization of French linguist André Martinet). It means that complex linguistic expressions can be broken down in meaningful elements (such as morphemes and words), which in turn are composed of smallest meaningless phonetic elements, or phonemes. Animal signals, however, do not exhibit this dual structure.2. Animal utterances are generally reflexes of external stimuli and thus are not produced intentionally. They cannot refer to matters removed in time and space (a possible exception is the information conveyed in honeybee dance language).3. Human langage is learned, while animal communication systems are known largely by instinct.

4. Human languages combine elements to produce new messages (a property known as creativity). This is not possible in animal communication systems.5. In contrast to human language, animal communication systems are not able to express conceptual generalizations.A language is a method of communication and is a method used by human beings to describe their experiences. Human spoken languages can be described as a system of symbols (sometimes known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word language is also used to refer to common properties of languages.Language learning is normal in human childhood. Most human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others. There are thousands of human languages, and these seem to share certain properties, even though every shared property has exceptions.There is no defined line between a language and a dialect, but it is often said that a language is a dialect with an army and a navy, a statement credited to Max Weinreich.Humans and computer programs have also constructed other languages, including conlangs such as Esperanto, Interlingua and Klingon, programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms. These languages are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages.

5. The components and nature of native speaker’s linguistic knowledgeKnowing a language means knowing a lot. Learning takes a lot of time. You can learn to swim faster than learn language. We are learning our language form the moment we are born even in pregnancy period. Vocabulary we learn through the whole life. There are words that are not existed before (komórka), and we do not know about new words in a future. Native Speaker Linguistic Knowledge (NSLK) encompasses certain rules of use of language which contain words and expression that may change all time. The sound system-phonotactic constrains-possible combination of sounds connected with language is part of our native speaker knowledge. We can judge if certain combination of sound are possible or not in our language. There are much more sounds than we can produce knowing only Polish language. English has different sounds and learning English we are aware of them. The sound system is very important component of NSLK, but also structure of syllables, stress placement, intonation. Intonation can change the meaning of the words. Yes? Yes! Next - grammar of the language - how to make words - create new vocabulary items, how to connect words in phrases & sentences, it is another factor. It internalize relatively early. About age of 5-6 the children have entirely acquire syntactic component of the language. They understand the construction of sentences and phrases, they know the rules. It is certain finite number of rules enables us to make any sentence-\infinite nr of them\. We are able to understand the sentences we have never heard before. Before 5-6 children are trying to find the rules and constructions by themselves. -Pani idała (iść) poszła. This is subconscious knowledge. Because you don’t have to know subject, object, auxiliary, preposition itd. You can use the language without this knowledge- it is good for scientists, school children (when they learn about the language). The linguistic knowledge is subconscious (podświadoma). We use language automatically do not think about processes in our minds. But we are able to supply missing elements. As native speakers of language we are able to make the grammatical judgment - when given certain construction we evaluate as good or not, comparing with our internalize grammar, even not being explicitly taught about grammar.A different thing from grammaticality is acceptability, because grammaticality is an agreement of the rules of grammar, acceptability is judged against different criteria: -our tolerance for a known language forms (we are more tolerant towards sb who is learning lg /foreigner/ than towards native speaker). We can accept it. What else can we accept? Our patience, tiredness, effort of our mind to analyze certain structure, e.g.”insurance policy”- too complicated to understand. In E-mail correspondence people don’t use capital letters (it’s acceptable) e.g. multiple embedding /powbijane w siebie zdania/ of sentences-example---the rat, the cat, the dog chassed scratched, bit me. = it could be paraphrased as;’ the rat which the cat that the dog chassed, scratched, bit me’ here relative pronounce had been omitted. It is gram. but unacceptable. Scientist discuss if language is(1) separate section of our mind or(2) form of our general cognitive knowledge. Ad (2) is more likely.

6. Linguistic competence versus linguistic performanceLinguistic competence is the knowledge of adjectives adverbs and so on that we can build sentences with. Concept identified by Noam Chomsky, to refer to the level of knowledge of a given language necessary for a speaker to be able to produce an infinite number of novel sentences Linguistic performance is the ability to use this knowledge in production, comprehension.

7. Prescriptive versus descriptive grammarDescriptive grammar- it doesn’t tell you how to speak but it describes your basic linguistic knowledge, describes how it is possible for you to speak and understand. Tells you what you know about the sounds, words, phrases, and sentences of your lg. speakers share the knowledge of grammar and this knowledge allows them to communicate.

Prescriptive grammar- prefer giving practical advice about using language: straightforward rules to help us avoid making errors. The rules may be over-simplified at times, but they are meant to keep us out of trouble--the kind of trouble that may distract or even confuse our readers.

8. Grammatical categories and grammaticalizationGrammatical categores traditionally called parts of speech. Also known as synthactic categories. Expressions of the same grammatical category can generally substitute one for another without loss of grammaticality. Grammaticalization- the change whereby lexical terms and constructions come in certain linguistic contexts to serve grammatical functions, and, once grammaticalized, continue to develop new grammatical functions.

9. Theories about the origin of languageThere are many different theories about the orign of lg. we can’t approve or disapprove any of them. Those are:The devine source theory- lg. is gift from god ot gods. I Christianity it’s a story of god and adam. In hndu lg is given by the godess sarasvati wife of brahma creator of universe.The natural sound theory- primitive words could have been imitations of nature. Sounds which early men an women hearned around them. Onomatopeic word like echo natural sounds(buzz, splash)The oral-gesture theory- links physical gestures and orally produced sounds used hends and then mouth (miming) to communicate.Glossogenetic- fouses on biologis bases of the formation and development of human lg. physical aspects of human not shared with other spicies. Change from horizontal to upright posture which in consequence give humans ability to acqure other features with intern facilitated speech.There are two types of theories of the origins of language: the continuity approach (nature) and the discontinuity (nurture) approach. The continuity approach has often labeled itself Darwinian, and looked for predecessors of language, typically in animal communication systems. It claims that language is too complex to have evolved without any precursors. The discontinuity approach argues that language is unique to humans with no precursors among nonhuman animal communication systems.

10. Major assumptions of Ferdinand de Saussure’s theory of languageSaussure has two basic, and famous, principles: 1) The arbitrary nature of the sign; and 2) The linear nature of the signifier. The sign is arbitrary because "the bond between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary." The idea of "sister" is not linked to the sound of the word "sister." The link between the idea and the sound--or the signified and the signifier--is a matter of societal convention. The German word Schwester and the Spanish word hermana each refer to the idea of "sister," but the sounds of the respective signifiers are nothing alike. The signifier is of a linear nature because "auditory signifiers have at their command only the dimension of time." It "represents a span, and the span is measurable in a single dimension"--that of time.        Saussure also distinguishes between what he calls langue--the system of a language, the language as a system of forms--and parole--actual speech, the speech acts that are made possible by the language.

11. The concept of linguistic signThis is the unit saussere defines through its intrinsic and relational properties. The linguistic sign is as element constituted of two faces: the signified(signifie) and signifier(significant). These two sides aspects or faces of the sign are identified as an acoustic image and a concept so intimately associated that it is impossible, or futile to study one in isolation form the other. Both sides of linguistic sign are defined in psychic or psychological terms: the signified, because it’s a concept, and the acoustic image as signifier since he finds even the most detailed phonetics accounts must be incomplete while phonic distinctions are readily imaged in writing. This definition places the sign as a unit outside the cope of empirical observation, while the relationship already discussed between phonetic and phonological aspects or the same.Lg. consists of linguistic signs which are combination of 2 inseprable elements. He claims that a linguistic sign exists only when there is:

a. a concept - signifie - mental concept- signified- a word, phrase

b. acoustic image - signifiant - the phonological aspect- signifier (signifying)- word image – visual or acoustic

Characteristics of linguistic sign:

- it’s arbitrary- it’s linear- it’s mutable (changeable) – there may be a change in the concept (preach – ‘kazać & order ‘kazać’) or a

change in acoustic image- both: signifier & signified have mental character- they are indivisible – like both sides of the sheet of paper

12. Major assumptions of Noam Chomsky’s theory of languageChomsky postulated a syntactic base of language (called deep structure), which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e., a series of (possibly universal) rules that generates the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence, and a series of rules (called transformations) that act upon the phrase-structure to form more complex sentences. The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that, after the addition of words and pronunciation, is identical to an actual sentence of a language.

13. Deep and Surface Structures, Phrase Structure Rules and TransformationsTransformation- syntactic rule that applies to an underlying phrase structure tree or sentence and derives a new structure by moving and inserting elements. Phrase structure rules-principles of grammar that specify the constituency of syntactic categoriesDeep structure- - the underlying level of a sentence , a sentence structure is represented in an abstract way and reveals how its meaning should be interpreted. It is not what actually sentence means. any phrase structure tree generated by the phrase structure rules of a transformational grammar. The basic syntax structure of grammar.

- is an abstract level of structure that is close to meaning- specifies the logical roles of phrases: logical subject is the NP dominated by S whereas logical object

is the NP dominated by VP- is formed by phrase structure rules.

Surface structure- - there is a more concrete representation , giving the string of morphemes that closely corresponds to what we could hear if the sentences were spoken. the structure that results from applying the transformational rule a deep structure. It is syntactically closest to the actual utterances.

- is a superficial level of structure that is close to sound - describes the ordering of words and phrases - is formed by transformational rules: these are movement rules that relate sentences with the same deep

structure

14. Major assumptions of the cognitive theory of language

15. phonetics versus phonologyPhonetics - the general study of speech sounds. It is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones) as well as those of non-speech sounds, and their production, audition and perception, as opposed to phonology, which operates at the level of sound systems and abstract sound units (such as phonemes and distinctive features). Phonetics deals with the sounds the mselves rather than the contexts in which they are used in languages. Phonetics has three main branches-articulatory phonetics, concerned with the positions and movements of the lips, tongue, vocal tract and folds and other speech organs in producing speech.-acoustic phonetics, concerned with the properties of the sound waves and how they are received by the inner ear-auditory phonetics, concerned with speech perception, principally how the brain forms perceptual representations of the input it receivesPhonology- description of a systems and patterns of speech sound in lg. is a subfield of linguistics which studies the sound system of a specific language (or languages). phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages. The principles of phonological theory have also been applied to the analysis of signed languages, with gestures and their relationships as the object of study.

16.articulatory, acoustic and auditory phoneticsArticulatory phonetics- is the study of how speech sounds are made or articulated. In studying articulation, the phonetician is attempting to document how we produce speech sounds. That is, articulatory phoneticians are interested in how the different structures of the vocal tract, called the articulators (tongue, lips, jaw, palate, teeth etc.), interact to create the specific sounds.Acoustic phonetics- deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air. Acoustic phonetics investigates properties like the mean squared amplitude of a waveform, its duration, its fundamental frequency, or

other properties of its frequency spectrum, and the relationship of these properties to other branches of phonetics, and to abstract linguistic concepts like phones, phrases, or utterances.Auditory phonetics- the study of the perception of speech sounds by the ear also called perceptual phonetics. The branch of phonetics that is specifically concerned with a hearer's perception of sounds, especially speech sounds.

17.the reasons for differences between spelling and pronunciation in the english lg.the differances are due to borrowing words from other languages and the complicate developement in the history of english language. English is a mixture of Saxon, Viking, French and Latin, so it has different spelling systems mixed together. 1. gradual changes in pronunciation, such as the Great Vowel Shift, account for many irregularities. The Great Vowel Shift was a major change in the pronunciation of the English language, generally 2. accomplished in the 15th century, although evidence suggests it began as early as the 14th century.relatively recent loan words from other languages generally carry their original spellings, which are often not phonetic in English. Inconsistencies in the Romanization of languages using alphabets not derived from the Latin alphabet (e.g., Chinese) has further complicated this problem.3. some prescriptionists have had partial success in their attempts to normalize the English language, forcing a change in spelling but not in pronunciation.

18. homophones, homographs, homonymsHomophones- when two or more written forms have the same pronunciation. Like bear/bare or to/too/two.Homonyms- when one form spoken or written has two or more unrelated meanings like: bank(institution) and bank(in a park), race(etnic group) race(sport competition).Homographs- are those words which have one spelling but two pronunciations and two distinct meanings or usages.

19.international phonetics alphabeth, diacritics and types of transcription.international phonetics alphabeth - The aim of it was to devise a system for transcribing the sounds of speech which was independent of any particular language and applicable to all languages. A phonetic script for English created in 1847 by Isaac Pitman and Henry Ellis was used as a model for the IPA. The IPA is used in dictionaries to indicate the pronunciation of words, has been used as a basis for creating new writing systems for previously unwritten languages. The IPA is used in some foreign language text books and phrase books to transcribe the sounds of languages which are written with non-latin alphabets. It is also used by non-native speakers of English when learning to speak English. types of transcription- (recording script; orthographic transcription; morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic representations; citation-phonemic representation; broad phonetic or phonotypic transcription; narrow phonetic transcription; acoustic-phonetic transcription; physical transcription; prosodic transcription; non-linguistic and other phenomena. )

phonetic transcriptions phonemic transcriptions1. - should be enclosed in square brackets "[ ]". 1. phonological contrasts may be enclosed in slashes "/ /"2. to objectively capture the actual pronunciation of a word

2. phonemic transcriptions are model dependent

3. there is flexibility in how closely sounds may be transcribed

3. phonemic transcriptions may also be broad or narrow A transcription that gives only a basic idea of the sounds of a language in the broadest terms is called a "broad transcription"; in some cases this may be equivalent to a phonemic transcription (only without any theoretical claims). A close transcription, indicating precise details of the sounds, is called a "narrow transcription".

diacritics- s an ancillary glyph added to a letter, or basic glyph. The term derives from the Greek διακριτικός (diakritikós, "distinguishing"). Some diacritical marks, such as the grave and acute, but not the cedilla, are often called accents. Diacritical marks may appear above or below a letter, or in some other position such as within the letter or between two letters.

20.the notion of phoneme, phone and allophone.Phoneme- the smallest meaning-distinguishing sound unit in the abstract representation of the sounds of a language. it function contrastively it means thet you can exchange one phoneme in a word and it changes into another wors with different meanng.. Its an abstract notion a sound type which is repreented by single phonetic symbol. Phone- are phonetic units and appear in square brackets. there are many different versions of that sound type regularly produced in actual speech. Different verion of phoneme.

Allophone- When we have a group of several phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme, we add the prefix ‘allo-’ (one of a closely related set).COMAPRISON:A phoneme is manifested as one or more phones (phonetic sounds) in different environments. These phones are called allophones.

21. articulatory features of English consonants.Consonants are created when the airflow is directly restricted, or obstructed. As such, pulmonary air cannot escape from the oral cavity without creating audible friction. It should be noted that the line between vowels and consonants cannot be clearly drawn. In English, there are also intermediate instances: (a) liquids, and (b) glides. Each consonant can be distinguished by several features:[4]

The manner of articulation is the method that the consonant is articulated, such as nasal (through the nose), stop (complete obstruction of air), or approximant (vowel like).

The place of articulation is where in the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant occurs, and which speech organs are involved. Places include bilabial (both lips), alveolar (tongue against the gum ridge), and velar (tongue against soft palate). Additionally, there may be a simultaneous narrowing at another place of articulation, such as palatalisation or pharyngealisation.

The phonation of a consonant is how the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. When the vocal cords vibrate fully, the consonant is called voiced; when they do not vibrate at all, it's voiceless.

The voice onset time (VOT) indicates the timing of the phonation. Aspiration is a feature of VOT. The airstream mechanism is how the air moving through the vocal tract is powered. Most languages have

exclusively pulmonic egressive consonants, which use the lungs and diaphragm, but ejectives, clicks and implosives use different mechanisms.

The length is how long the obstruction of a consonant lasts. This feature is borderline distinctive in English, as in "wholly" [hoʊlli] vs. "holy" [hoʊli], but cases are limited to morpheme boundaries. Unrelated roots are differentiated in various languages such as Italian, Japanese and Finnish, with two length levels, "single" and "geminate". Estonian and some Sami languages have three phonemic lengths: short, geminate, and long geminate, although the distinction between the geminate and overlong geminate includes suprasegmental features.

The articulatory force is how much muscular energy is involved. This has been proposed many times, but no distinction relying exclusively on force has ever been demonstrated.

All English consonants can be classified by a combination of these features, such as "voiceless alveolar stop consonant" [t]. In this case the airstream mechanism is omitted.Some pairs of consonants like p::b, t::d are sometimes called fortis and lenis, but this is a phonological rather than phonetic distinction.

22. articulatory features of English vowels

Vowels-voiced sounds in the formation of which the air passes through the larynx & mouth without obstruction-there’s no friction, no closure, no narrowing-in a lg system they function as syllabic centre (nucleus) – a syllable must contain at least 1 vowel-vowels change more rapidly than consonants

Vowel sounds are divided into:a. monophthongs

single vowel soundb. diphthongs

double vowel sound formed by gliding from 1 vowel position to another they are treated as one unit

c. thriphthongs triple vowel sounds formed by gliding from 1 through another to a third vowel position hardly ever occurs in connected speech

23. places of articulation of English consonantsBilabials- are sounds produced with active use of upper and lower lips. P,b,mLabiodentals- sounds produced when we tough lower lip upper teeth. V,fDentals- sounds are produced when tip of the tongue toughs place just behind upper front teeth. Q, Alveorals- sounds are formed when tip of the tongue toughs place called alveoral ridge. T,d,s,z,n,l,r

Alveo-palatals- sounds are produced with tongue at the very front of palate just behind alveoral ridge.Palatals- sounds produced with the tongue in the middle of the palate. JVelars- produced when the back of the tongue is pressed against the velum. K,g,Glottals- produced without any active use of the tongue or other parts of the mouth. When glottis is open and air passes through without any manipulation. h 24. manner of articulation of English consonantsStops(plosives)- produced by some form of complete stopping of the air steam, very briefly and then letting it go abruptly p,b,t,k,g,d,Fricatives- production envolves almost blocking the air steam and having the air pushed through the narrow opening as a result a type of friction is produced f,v,Q, ,s,z, , Affricatives- are produed if you combine breath stopping of the air stream with an obstructed release which cause some friction. t ,d .Nasals- are produced when the velum is lowered and the air steam is allowed to low out through the nose. M,n, .Approximants- are sounds which articulation is strongly influenced by the following vowel sound with the tongue moving or gliding to or from the position of a nearby vowel. W,j,h,l,r.

25. the voiced-voiceless, oral-nasal and central-lateral position.Voiced-the vocal courds are drown together, the air from the lungs, repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating vibration effect. Voiceless- when the vocal courds are spresaa apart the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Oral-nasal- is a vowel that is produced with a lowering of the velum so that air escapes both through nose as well as the mouth. The term stands in opposition to the term "oral vowel" refers to an ordinary vowel without this nasalisation.Central-lateral-

26. cardinal vowelscardinal vowel is a vowel sound produced when the tongue is in an extreme position, either front or back, high or low. The current system was systematised by Daniel Jones in the early 20th century. are a set of reference vowels used by phoneticians in describing the sounds of languages.

27. what are allophonic rulesis a phonological rule that says which allophone realizes a phoneme in a given phonemic environment. In other words, an allophonic rule is a rule that converts the phonemes in a phonemic transcription into the allophones of the corresponding phonetic transcription. Those rules are formal description of what speakers normally do. More than two dozen allophonic rules have been identified for English Include rules that account for aspiration, devoicing, vowel length and nasalization.

28. types of coarticulation is English (what is coarticulation)Coarticulation in phonetics refers to two different phenomena: the assimilation of the place of articulation of one speech sound to that of an adjacent speech sound. For example, while the sound /n/ of English normally has an alveolar place of articulation, in the word tenth it is pronounced with a dental place of articulation because the following sound, /θ/, is dental.the production of a coarticulated consonant, that is, a consonant with two simultaneous places of articulation. An example of such a sound is the voiceless labial-velar plosive /k\ p/ found in many West African languages.Types of corticulation have bee described: left-to-right or carry-over coarticulation and right-to-left or anticipatory coarticulation. The English word “spoon” can be used to illustrate both types. In their canonical forms /s/, /p/ and /n/ do not have lip-rounding; /u/ is specified for lip-rounding. When the word ‘spoon’ is spoken, however lip-rounding occurs in all segments. Thus anticipatory coarticualton occurs for the segments /s/ and /p/ while carry-over coariculation appears in the segment /n/. both types of coarticulation can appear In fingerspelling.( Eg. The fingerspelled letter a is not specified for movement; z Is made with a zigzag movement. When the word maze is fngerspelled the movement of the z spreads into the a segment.)

29.Phases in the articulation of plosives, the fortis-lenis distinction.The fortis-lenis distinction is usually thought of as the voiced/voiceless distinction in consonants. This is the distinction between the initial sounds in pit- bit, to-do, few-view, sue-zoo.Plosive sounds are made by forming a complete obstruction to the flow of air through the mouth and nose. The first stage is that a closure occurs. Then the flow of air builds up and finally the closure is released, making an explosion of air that causes a sharp noise. Try to slowly say /p/ to yourself. You should be able to feel the build up of air that bursts into the /p/ sound when you open your lips. It should be noted that a plosive cannot be prolonged or maintained so that once the air has been released, the sound has escaped.

30.major allophonic variants of English plosives1. p,t k (voiceless stops) when syllable initial becomes aspirated when it comes after a syllable boundary eg. [thest]2. p,t,k (voiceless stops) have before them a glottal stop when they occur after a vowel and at the end of a syllable eg. [piʔn]3. t becomes a glottal sto when it occurs before [n] eg. [beaʔn]4. t, d is omitted when it is between two consonants eg. best game5. t,d,(ale też : s, z, n, l) become dental when they occur before a dental sound eg. Eighth6. p, b, t, d, k, g become unexploded when they occur before a stop eg. apt, act7. all voiceless become longer at the end of a syllable8. k, g become more front when they occur before a front vowel eg. key

31. major allophonic variants of English nasals and approximants1. w, r, l, j become voiceless when they are after aspirated stops eg. play, twin 2. r, l become syllabic when they occur immediately after a consonant and at the end of a word eg. razor 3. l becomes velarised when occurs after a vowel and before another consonant or at the end of a word eg. file ( to jest chyba to DARK L)

32.articulatory differences between plosives, fricatives and approximants

33. the notion of aspiration, syllabic consonants, nasal and lateral release.aspiration is the strong burst of air that accompanies the release of some obstruents. To feel or see the difference between aspirated and unaspirated sounds, one can put a hand or a lit candle in front of his or her mouth, and say tore and then store. One should either feel a puff of air or see a flicker of the candle flame with tore that one does not get with store. In English, the t should be aspirated in tore and unaspirated in store. A period of voicelessness after the stop articulation and before the start of a voicing for the vowel. Voiceless stops are aspirated at the beginning of a syllable. At the end of words stops are not aspirated. Voiced stops are completely unaspirated.Syllabic consonants- A syllabic consonant is a phonetic element that normally patterns as a consonant, but may fill a vowel slot in a syllable. Consonants that last longer that they would normally do, they become the centre of a syllable when there is no vowel eg. prison [prizn] these are: l, r, m, n, ŋExamples: The final nasals in /pattern/ ; The final nasals in /bottom/nasal release is the release of a plosive consonant into a nasal stop. Such consonants are also called prestopped nasals. Syllabic n is most common after alveolar plosives and fricatives; in the case of t and d followed by n the plosive is nasally released by lowering the soft palate, so that in the word 'eaten' i:tn, for example, the tongue does not move in the tn sequence but the soft palate is lowered at the end of t so that compressed air escapes through the nose.Lateral realise- Syllabic j is perhaps the most noticeable example of the English syllabic consonant, though it would be wrong to expect to find it in all accents. It occurs after another consonant, and the way it is produced depends to some extent on the nature of that consonant. If the preceding consonant is alveolar, as in 'bottle' and 'muddle' the articulatory movement from the preceding consonant to the syllabic l is quite simple. The sides of the tongue, which are raised for the preceding consonant, are lowered to allow air to escape over them (this is called a lateral release. The tip and blade of the tongue do not move until the articulatory contact for the l is released.

34. allophonic processes affecting vowels in English.There are many other allophonic processes in English, like lack of plosion, nasal plosion, partial devoicing of sonorants, complete devoicing of sonorants, partial devoicing of obstruents, lengthening and shortening vowels, and retraction.

Aspiration – strong explosion of breath. In English a voiceless plosive that is p, t or k is aspirated whenever it stands as the only consonant at the beginning of the stressed syllable or of the first, stressed or unstressed, syllable in a word.

Nasal plosion – In English a plosive (/p, t, k, b, d, g/) has nasal plosion when it’s followed by nasal, inside a word or across word boundary.

Partial devoicing of sonorants – In English sonorants (/j, w, l, r, m, n, ŋ/) are partially devoiced when they follow a voiceless sound within the same syllable.

Complete devoicing of sonorants – In English a sonorant is completely devoiced when it follows an aspirated plosive (/p, t, k/).

Partial devoicing of obstruents – In English, a voiced obstruent is partially devoiced next to a pause or next to a voiceless sound, inside a word or across its boundary.

Retraction – in English /t, d, n, l/ are retracted before /r/.

Because the choice of allophone is seldom under conscious control, people may not realize they exist. English speakers may become aware of the difference between two allophones of the phoneme /t/, namely unreleased [t ̚] and aspirated [tʰ], if they contrast the pronunciations of the following words:

Night rate: [ˈnʌɪt ̚.ɹʷeɪt ̚] (sans word space between . and ɹ) Nitrate: [ˈnaɪ.tʰɹ �eɪt ̚]

35.Suprasegmental featresprosody refers to intonation, rhythm, and vocal stress in speech. The prosodic features of a unit of speech, whether a syllable, word, phrase, or clause, are called suprasegmental features because they affect all the segments of the unit. These suprasegmental features are manifested, among other things, as syllable length, tone, and stress. is a vocal effect that extends over more than one sound segment in an utterance, such as pitch, stress, or juncture pattern.Intonation – is the variation of pitch when speaking Many languages use pitch syntactically, for instance to convey surprise and irony or to change a statement to a question. Such languages are called intonation languages. English is a well-known example pitch, defined as the frequency of vibration of vocal cords).  Pitch is measured in hertzes.  Physiologically, pitch tends to be higher in woman than in men, and higher before puberty than after puberty.  Also, the pitch of women's voices tends to lower with old age; the pitch of men's voices tends to get higher with age Tone – is the use of speech in language to distinguish words. All languages use intonation to express emphasis, contrast, emotion, or other such nuances, but not every language uses tone to distinguish lexical meaning . There are two basic types of tones in tone languages.Register tones are measured by contrasts in the absolute pitch of different syllables.  Register tones may be high, mid, or low.  (Cf. the IPA symbols for register tones.)  Many West African languages use contrasts of high mid and low tones to distinguish word meaning: Zulu, Hausa, Yoruba.  See text pp 204-205.  Contour tones are tones involving a pitch shift upward or downward on a single syllable.  Many languages of East and Southeast Asia use contour tones, the best known being Mandarin Chinese Accent or stress is another suprasegmental feature.  It is a meaure of relative volume of sound between syllable peaks.  Auditorily, we hear an accented syllable of a word as relatively louder than the unaccented syllables.  Acoustically, this difference can be measured in decibels. Syllable – a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds . It is typically made up of vowels and consontants

36. Stress-timed versus syllable-timed languagesIn a stress-timed language, syllables may last different amounts of time, but there is perceived to be a fairly constant amount of time (on average) between consecutive stressed syllables. Stress-timing is sometimes called Morse-code rhythm. Stress-timing is strongly related to vowel reduction processes.

a tendency for stresses to occur at regular intervals the reduction of unstressed syllables the total duration of the utterance depending on the number and position of stressed syllables

Syllable-timed language is a language whose syllables take approximately equal amounts of time to pronounce. It can be compared with a stress-timed language, where there is approximately the same amount of time between stressed syllables. Learners whose first language can be described as syllable-timed often have problems recognising and then producing features of English such as contractions, main and secondary stress, and elision.

a tendency for syllables to occur at regular intervals no strong stress pattern no marked reduction of unstressed syllables

total duration of the utterance depending on the number of syllables

37. The structure of a syllable and phonotactic constraints in EnglishPhonotactic rules determine which sounds are allowed or disallowed in each part of the syllable. English allows very complicated syllables; syllables may begin with up to three consonants (as in string or splash), and occasionally end with as many as four (as in prompts). Many other languages are much more restricted; Japanese, for example, only allows /n/ and a chroneme in a coda, and has no consonant clusters at all, as the onset is composed of at most one consonant.There are languages that forbid empty onsets, such as Hebrew and Arabic (the names transliterated as "Israel", "Abraham", "Omar", "Ali" and "Abdullah", among many others, actually begin with semiconsonantic glides or with glottal or pharyngeal consonants).

Phonotactics is the micro-level study of the structure of syllables that aims to explore how well-formed the syllables of a language are. A macro-level study of the syllables that aims to examine the constraints on the combinatory possibilities of syllables, their positions of occurrence and possible order in the word is called Syllabotactics.

We assume that each lexeme has a phonological structure consisting of a sequence of syllables, each syllable having the conventional structure shown below:

Onset – is the part of a syllable that precedes the syllable nucleus (vowel ) obligatory in some language Rhyme(Rime)- are variants of the same word , consists of nucleus and optional coda Coda – compromises the

consonants sounds of a syllable that folllow the nucleus which is usualyy vowel The combination of a nucleus and a coda is called a rime. A coda is not required in syllables.

Nucleus (peak) – is the central part of a syllable , mostly cvommonly a vowel , In an addition to a nucleus a syllable may begin with onset and end with coda

but the only part of a syllable that is mandatory is the nucleus

38. Types and functions of intonation in EnglishRising intonation means the pitch of the voice increases over time; falling intonation means that the pitch decreases with time. A dipping intonation falls and then rises, whereas a peaking intonation rises and then falls.

39. Linking and intrusive /r/ in EnglishThe linking R occurs in most (but not all) non-rhotic dialects of English. In dialects that possess linking R, if a word that ends with /ɹ/ precedes a word that begins with a vowel, /ɹ/ will be realized at the onset of the next word. Thus, for example, the R in here would not be pronounced in here they are (because it is followed by a consonant), but it would be pronounced in here I am. Likewise, the R at the end of far would only be pronounced if the next word begins with a vowel, as in far away or far off. In other words, in a non-rhotic dialect with linking R, [ɹ] is retained only if it is followed by a vowel, including across word boundaries.In a dialect with intrusive R, an epenthetic [ɹ] is added after a word that ends in a non-high vowel or glide if the next word begins with a vowel, regardless of whether the first word historically ended with /ɹ/, and even though its spelling does not end with an R. For example, intrusive R would appear in Asia[ɹ] and Africa or the idea[ɹ] of it: Asia and idea did not historically end in /ɹ/, and are not pronounced with an [ɹ] in other circumstances, but the [ɹ] is inserted epenthetically to prevent a hiatus. Intrusive R also occurs within words before certain suffixes, such as draw[ɹ]ing or withdraw[ɹ]al.

40. Coalescence and elision in EnglishCoalescence is a phonological process by which two neighboring sounds merge into a single sound that has properties of each of the two original sounds. Often, the resulting sound has the place of articulation of one of the source sounds and the manner of articulation of the other.Elision is the omission of one or more sounds (such as a vowel, a consonant, or a whole syllable) in a word or phrase, producing a result that is easier for the speaker to pronounce. Sometimes, sounds may be elided for euphonic effect.

41.lexigography and the dictionaries of EnglishPractical lexicography is the art or craft of writing dictionaries.Theoretical lexicography is the scholarly discipline of analyzing and describing the semantic relationships within the lexicon (vocabulary) of a language and developing theories of dictionary components and structures linking the data in dictionaries. This is sometimes referred to as metalexicography. General lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that provide a description of the language in general use. Such a dictionary is usually called a general dictionary or LGP dictionary . Specialized lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of specialized dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that are devoted to a (relatively restricted) set of linguistic and factual elements of one or more specialist subject fields, e.g. legal lexicography

42.the problem with definition of term wordThe precise definition of what a word is depends on which language the definition is for, and the dividing line between words and phrases is not always clear. In most writing systems, a word is usually marked out in the text by interword separation such as spaces or word dividers used in some languages such as Amharic. In other languages such as Chinese and Japanese, and in many ancient languages such as Sanskrit, word boundaries are not shown.Even in writing systems that use interword separation, word boundaries are not always clear; for example, even though ice cream is written like two words, it is a single compound because it cannot be separated by another morpheme or rephrased like iced cream or cream of ice. Likewise, a proper noun is a word, however long it is. A space may not be

even the main morpheme boundary in a word; the word New Yorker is a compound of New York and -er, not of New and Yorker. In English, many common words have historically progressed from being written as two separate words (e.g. to day) to hyphenated (to-day) to a single word (today), a process which is still ongoing, as in the common spelling of all right as alright.

43.the notions of lexeme, word-form, phonological word, grammatical wordLexeme- is an abstract unit of lexicon which comprises all its morphologicl word-forms and all meaning pertaining to it. is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughly corresponds to a set of words that are different forms of "the same word".Word-form-contextual realization of a lexicon. The phonological or orthographic sound or appearance of a word that can be used to describe or identify something. The word form is the graphic form of a word, the word as it is written. In this sense gos is a different word from gossos, because they are written in a different manner, even if they correspond to a single entry in a dictionary. In the way the corpus processor is implemented even differences between upper and lower case matter; a query searching for the word gos  will not find the word form Gos. You could use a regular expression (if you are familiar with them), like [gG]os+o?s?, but this is not necessary since CUCWeb can be searched for lemmataPhonological word- is a piece of speech which behaves as a unit of pronancuation according to criteria which vary from language to language , in english this criteria is that phonological word contains only one main stress.

a particular sequence of letters or phonemes it is often referred to as the word-form it is composed of expression elements

Grammatical word - is one of the several forms that may be assumed by a lexical item for gramatical purposes. totally abstract entities they are realized by phonological words e.g. down – realizes at least 2 grammatical words: down the hill; the soft down of his cheek

44.the notions of morpheme, morph, allomorph.Morpheme- the smallest meaningful element in the lg. utterancesTypes of morphemes:-Free morphemes like town, dog can appear with other lexemes (as in town-hall or dog-house) or they can stand alone, or "free".-Bound morphemes like "un-" appear only together with other morphemes to form a lexeme. Bound morphemes in general tend to be prefixes and suffixes. Morphemes existing in only one bound form are known as "cranberry" morphemes, from the "cran" in that very word.-Inflectional morphemes modify a word's tense, number, aspect, and so on. (as in the dog morpheme if written with the plural marker morpheme s becomes dogs).-Derivational morphemes can be added to a word to create (derive) another word: the addition of "-ness" to "happy", for example, to give "happiness".Morph- is textual context, sensitive realization of the morpheme.Allomorph- is a variant form of a morpheme. The meaning remains the same, while the sound can vary.

45.types of conditioning allomorphyALLAMORPHES CAN BE:

PHONETICALLY CONDITIONED: (-ed) = walked (-t); stayed(-d); wanted(-id)

(-s) = tells(-s); reads(-z);

watches(-iz)

LEXICALLY CONDITIONED: ox-oxen child-children

(-s) => (-en)GRAMATICALLY CONDITIONED: okno, stoły, konie, sędziowie => gender difference

46. inflection versus derivationDerivation - can be set to deal with the methods of forming new lexemes from the already existing ones. Work-worker. Process of creating new lexemes from other lexemes, for example, by adding a derivational affix. It is a kind of word formation. Derivational affixes usually apply to words of one syntactic category and change them into words

of another syntactic category. For example, the English derivational suffix -ly changes adjectives into adverbs (slow → slowly).Inflection- concerns the production of word forms corresponding to a given lexeme. inflection is associated with the marking of such morpho-syntactic categories as: number, person, gender, aspect, tense, voice. Process of adding inflectional morphemes (atomic meaning units) to a word, which may indicate grammatical information (e.g., case, number, person, gender or word class, mood, tense, or aspect). Words generally do not appear in dictionaries with inflectional morphemes. But they often do appear with derivational morphemes.

47.concatenative morphological processesConctinative consists in putting together 2 or more distinct meaning bearing elements.Compounding-consists in putting together 2 or more lexical items representing major syntactic categories. Noun-noun: homework, verb-noun: hangman, adj-noun: software, participle-noun: outlaw, participle-verb: income.Incorporation -morphology device. Its purest and most typical form is known as noun incorporation and as such it can be defined as verb forming process where by a nominal stem is fused with a verbal stem to yield a larger derived verbal stem. Incorporation is unknown in English.Affixation- the most frequent and wide spread method of producing morphologically complex words in human lg. it may be defined as a combination of a bound derivational or inflectional morpheme with a stem or rood. This morpheme added to the stem is called affix. Here are different types: prefixation(attachment of bound morpheme to the front of base form-unkind), suffixation(adding suffix to the base form at the end of it-domek), interfxation(confix-term covers both suffixed and affixes. Interfix is a confix that follows one stem and procedes another.-śrubokręt), infixation(describes a morphological process where a bound morpheme inflectional or derivational is inserted into the base form usually into a rood form-kango-bloody-roo), corcumfixation(it’s a kind of affix that does not devide the rood but is devded by itself-gefragt), transfixation(it’s defined as another kind of discontinuous affix. It cuts across the rood morpheme so that they are both combined like two interlocking-k-t-b=katab,kitaab,kutub).

48.non-concatinative morphological procesesProceses involve modifying in a systematic way the internal composition of a single lexical item.Reduplication-process which involves repetition of the whole bse element rood or steme or just a part of it.complete reduplication-kitab=kitab-kitab(book, various books), partial reduplication-tawa=tatawa(laugh, one who will lough)Internal modification- denotes a morphological proess which typically consists in replacing within a word a particular phonological segment woth another word. Vowel modification- begin-began, ring-rang; consonant modification- belief-believe, defence-defend; mixed modification- catch-caught, teach-tought.Conversion-marchand- not so different from affixation. Addition of so called zero morpheme to the base. Cook(V)-cook(N)Banner- change n a calss of a form without any corresponding change of form.Back derivation- formation of a new lexeme by delation of a suffix or supposed suffix from form. Begger-to beg, editor-to edit.

49. word-manufacturing processes.The essential feature of word manufacturing is that the new lexeme it produes originate outside the morphological component of the grammar.Clipping- a word or more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form ad(advertisement) flu(influenza).

Back-clipping- the final element of the word is truncated. dorm-dormitory, photo-photography.Fore-clipping- initial part of a word is truncated. Phone-telephone, plain-aeroplain.Mixed-clipping- both initial and final parts of a word are truncated. Flu-influenza, fridge-refridgerator.Clipping-compounds- hi-fi

Blending- denotes a process of word-coinage where phonetic fragments of two or more morphemes are put together to make single lexical item. Fragments used to blend are the beginning of one word and the end of another like: Brunch=breakfast+lunch. There are also such blends that two words partially overlap a section in both of them, like: slanguage=slang+language.Acronimization- a new word is created from the initial letters or syllables of a group of words. Ths is process of creating new names for scientific discovery, organization, offices.

Letter-word- created from initial letters, include words such as: AIDS, NBA, NASASyllable-words- created from initial syllables, include words: Benelux, fortrain.

Analogical formation- cration of a single new lexeme on the basis of already existing one. Transmotion=promotion, demotion; to higher=to lower.

50. the notion of suppletion, zero morph and empty morphSuppletion- is the replacement of one stem with another, resulting in an allomorph of a morpheme which has no phonological similarity to the other allomorphs. go-went, good-better-best . Suppletion in a particular language, as

demonstrated below, occurs overwhelmingly in lexical items which arise particularly often. Many suppletive forms are known to learners of languages simply as irregular.Zero morph- it has no form but it has some meaning attached to it. 1 fish, 2 fish (zero morph)Empty morph- a form without corresponding meaning. Blue|berry, cran|berry.

51.types of affixesAffixes are divided into several types, depending on their position with reference to the root:

- Prefixes (attached before another morpheme)- Suffixes (attached after another morpheme)- Infixes (inserted within another morpheme)- Circumfixes (attached before and after another morpheme or set of morphemes)- Interfixes (semantically empty linking elements in compounds)- Suprafixes (also superfix, attached suprasegmentally to another morpheme)- Simulfixes (also transfix or root-and-pattern morphology, discontinuous affix interweaved throughout a

discontinuous base)- Duplifix (little used term referring to affix composed of both a reduplicated and non-reduplicated element, see

Reduplication and other processes)

Affixes are bound morphemes by definition. Prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes. There also has been a proposal of a somewhat different type of affix, a disfix or subtractive morpheme, which subtracts phonological segments from bases. Affixes are central to the process of concatenation

52.types of compounds Noun-noun compoundsMost natural languages have compound nouns. The positioning of the language, i. e. the most common order of constituents in phrases where nouns are modified by adjectives, by possessors, by other nouns, etc. While Germanic languages, for example, are left-branching when it comes to noun phrases (the modifiers come before the head), the Romance languages are usually right-branching. Verb-noun compoundsA type of compound that is fairly common in the Indo-European languages is formed of a verb and its object, and in effect transforms a simple verbal clause into a noun.This construction exists in English, generally with the verb and noun both in uninflected form: examples are spoilsport, killjoy, breakfast, cutthroat, pickpocket, dreadnought, and know-nothing.Also common in English is another type of verb-noun (or noun-verb) compound, in which an argument of the verb is incorporated into the verb, which is then usually turned into a gerund, such as breastfeeding, finger-pointing, etc. The noun is often an instrumental complement. From these gerunds new verbs can be made: (a mother) breastfeeds (a child) and from them new compounds mother-child breastfeeding, etc.A special kind of composition is incorporation, of which noun incorporation into a verbal root (as in English backstabbing, breastfeed, etc.) is most prevalent (see below).Verb-verb compoundsVerb-verb compounds are sequences of more than one verb acting together to determine clause structure. They have two types:

In a serial verb, two actions, often sequential, are expressed in a single clause. For example, Ewe trɔ dzo, lit. "turn leave", means "turn and leave", and Hindi जा�कर दे�खो� jā-kar dekh-o, lit. "go-CONJUNCTIVE PARTICIPLE see-IMPERATIVE", means "go and see". In each case, the two verbs together determine the semantics and argument structure.

Serial verb expressions in English may include What did you go and do that for?, or He just upped and left; this is however not quite a true compound since they are connected by a conjunction and the second missing arguments may be taken as a case of ellipsis.

In a compound verb (or complex predicate), one of the verbs is the primary, and determines the primary semantics and also the argument structure. The secondary verb, often called a vector verb or explicator, provides fine distinctions, usually in temporality or aspect, and also carries the inflection (tense and/or agreement markers). The main verb usually appears in conjunctive participial (sometimes zero) form. For examples, Hindi निकल गया� nikal gayā, lit. "exit went", means 'went out', while निकल पड़ा� nikal paRā, lit. "exit fell", means 'departed' or 'was blurted out'. In these examples निकल nikal is the primary verb, and गया� gayā and पड़ा� paRā are the vector verbs. With a few exceptions all compound verbs alternate with their simple counterparts. That is, removing the vector does not affect grammaticality at all nor the meaning very much.

Compound adpositions

Compound prepositions formed by prepositions and nouns are common in English and the Romance languages (consider English on top of, Spanish encima de, etc.). Japanese shows the same pattern, except the word order is the opposite (with postpositions): no naka (lit. "of inside", i.e. "on the inside of").

53. the notion of base, stem, rootStem - in linguistics, is the combination of the basic form of a word (called the root) plus any derivational morphemes, but excluding inflectional elements. This means, alternatively, that the stem is the form of the word to which inflectional morphemes can be added, if applicable. For example, the root of the English verb form destabilized is stabil- (alternate form of stable); the stem is de·stabil·ize, which includes the derivational affixes de- and -ize, but not the inflectional past tense suffix(e)dThe definition of stem usually includes the possibility of zero derivation, so in fact any root is also a stem. That is, if X is a root, then the stem X is the root X plus a zero derivational affix. base is a synonym for root word.Base

the root or a stem of a word or a derivative the uninflected form of a verb any form to which affixes of any kind can be added (general concept) a lexeme from which another, complex lexeme is formed; any form to which any affixes can be added(both derivational and inflectional) e.g. UNTOUCHABLES

derivational prefix derivational suffix inflectional ending

UN TOUCH ABLE S

Root=base stem=base

root a morpheme which doesn’t necessarily survive as a word itself from which words have been made by the addition of prefixes or affixes or by any other modification the innermost morpheme, it’s not further analyzable into meaningful elements; it can be also called free

morpheme; some words can be morphologically simplex as they are only the root (monomorphemic)

stem the root or main part of a word, to which inflections or formative elements can be added concerns only inflectional morphology it is that part of a word which remains when all inflectional suffixes have been removed (e.g. pl. –s )

54. content word and function word Function words- or grammatical words are words that have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. Words which are not function words are called content words or lexical words: these include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and most adverbs, though some adverbs are function words (e.g. then, why). Dictionaries define the specific meanings of content words, but can only describe the general usages of function words. By contrast, grammars describe the use of function words in detail, but have little interest in lexical words.Function words may be prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, grammatical articles or particles, all of which belong to the group of closed class words. Interjections are sometimes considered function words but they belong to the group of open class words. Function words may or may not be inflected or may have affixes.Content word

it’s an open class of words these are words belonging to the major parts of speech classes open class means that an unlimited number of new words can be created & added to this class these are adjectives, nouns, adverbs, lexical verbs, numerals they have dictionary meaning

function word it’s a closed class of words no new elements can be added these are words like pronouns, auxiliaries, modal verbs, conjuctions, prepositions they have no lexical meaning

55.Obligatorily bound and potentially free morphs

56.Bound bases and portmanteau morphsA portmanteau morph is a single morph that is analyzed as representing two underlying morphemes.Example(French,)au ‘to (him)’ from a ‘to’ + le ‘masc. art’du ‘of (him)’ from de ‘of’ + le ‘masc. art’57.The category of aspect and tense in EnglishAspect is a somewhat difficult concept to grasp for the speakers of most modern Germanic languages, because they tend to conflate the concept of aspect with the concept of tense. Although English largely separates tense and aspect formally, its aspects (neutral, progressive, perfect and progressive perfect) do not correspond very closely to the distinction of perfective vs. imperfective that is common in most other languages. Furthermore, the separation of tense and aspect in English is not maintained rigidly. One instance of this is the alternation, in some forms of English, between sentences such as "Have you eaten yet?" and "Did you eat yet?". Another is in the past perfect ("I had eaten"), which sometimes represents the combination of past tense and perfect aspect ("I was full because I had already eaten"), but sometimes simply represents a past action which is anterior to another past action ("A little while after I had eaten, my friend arrived"). (The latter situation is often represented in other languages by a simple perfective tense. TENSE refers to the absolute location of an event or action in time, either the present or the past. It is marked by an inflection of the verb: 

David walks to school (present tense) David walked to school (past tense) 

Reference to other times -- the future, for instance -- can be made in a number of ways, by using the modal auxiliary will, or the semi-auxiliary be going to: 

David will walk to school tomorrow David is going to walk to school tomorrow. 

Since the expression of future time does not involve any inflecton of the verb, we do not refer to a "future tense". Strictly speaking, there are only two tenses in English: present and past.  ASPECT refers to how an event or action is to be viewed with respect to time, rather than to its actual location in time. We can illustrate this using the following examples: 

[1] David fell in love on his eighteenth birthday  [2] David has fallen in love  [3] David is falling in love 

In [1], the verb fell tells us that David fell in love in the past, and specifically on his eighteenth birthday. This is a simple past tense verb.  In [2] also, the action took place in the past, but it is implied that it took place quite recently. Furthermore, it is implied that is still relevant at the time of speaking -- David has fallen in love, and that's why he's behaving strangely. It is worth noting that we cannot say *David has fallen in love on his eighteenth birthday. The auxiliary has here encodes what is known as PERFECTIVE ASPECT, and the auxiliary itself is known as the PERFECTIVE AUXILIARY.  In [3], the action of falling in love is still in progress -- David is falling in love at the time of speaking. For this reason, we call it PROGRESSIVE ASPECT, and the auxiliary is called the PROGRESSIVE AUXILIARY.  While aspect always includes tense, tense can occur without aspect (David falls in love, David fell in love).

58.The category of number, gender and case in English

gender

masculine (m.), feminine (f.), neuter (n.). A Latin noun has a given grammatical gender which may or may not correspond to its natural gender. An adjective takes on the gender of the noun that it modifies; this is called agreeing with its noun. He is used for masculine nouns; she is used for feminine nouns; and it is used for nouns of indeterminate gender and inanimate objects. It is generally considered both ungrammatical and/or impolite to refer to humans as it; common gender – teacher, neighbour

numbersingular (one) or plural (two or more); Nouns are described as being either singular or plural, the latter referring to two or more of the same type of thing (with the case of zero things providing a few twists).

case a form of a noun (and any agreeing adjective) that indicates by its ending how the word functions grammatically in the sentence. Latin has six cases (see individual definitions): nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, and vocative. English has only two cases: nominative (used for the subject of a sentence) and objective (used for everything else).Case 1st sg. 2nd sg. 3rd sg. 1st pl. 2nd pl. 3rd pl. interrogative

Nominative I you (thou) he, she, it we you they who

Genitive mine yours (thine) his, hers, its ours yours theirs whose

Accusative me you (thee) him, her, it us you them whom

59.The category of mood, person and voice in EnglishMOOD – grammatical category expressed by verb inflectionwhich indicates what the speaker is doing with a proposition in a particular discourse situation:

- indicative (usual form)- imperative (command)- hortative (ex hortation) – nawoływanie- subjunctive (subordination)

PERSON – grammatical category reffering to the number and nature of the participants in a situation:- first person (I, we) – refers to themselves or group including themselves- second person – (you) – person they are addresing- third person (he, she, they) – refers to other people, animals.VOICE – category used in grammatical description, chiefly with reference to the verb, to express the way a clause may alter the relation between subject and object without changing the meaning of the sentence:- active – grammatical subject is the actor in relation to the verb- pasive – when it is the goal or recipient of the action denoted by the verb.

60. the scope of syntactic analysisThe purpose of syntactic analysis is to determine the structure of the input text. This structure consists of a hierarchy of phrases, the smallest of which are the basic symbols and the largest of which is the sentence. It can be described by a tree with one node for each phrase. Basic symbols are represented by leaf nodes, and other phrases by interior nodes. The root of the tree represents the sentence.

61. Tests for constituencyConstituency testsVarious constituency tests exist. Some syntacticians arrange such tests on a scale of reliability, with less-reliable tests treated as useful to confirm constituency though not sufficient on their own.Failing to pass a test, however, does not always mean that the unit is not a constituent. It is best to apply as many tests as possible to a given unit in order to prove or to rule out its constituency.Substitution (replacement)Using "it" instead of the whole clause "what you said" is called substitution, or replacement. This is one of the tests used to determine the internal structure of a sentence, i.e. to determine its constituents. Substitution normally involves using pronouns like it, he, there, here etc. in place of a phrase or a clause. If such a change yields a grammatical sentence where the general structure has not been altered, then the sequence of words which is being tested is a constituent:e.g. I don't know the man who is sleeping in the car.

I don't know him who is sleeping in the car. (ungrammatical)I don't know him.

The ungrammaticality of the first changed version and the grammaticality of the second one demonstrates that the whole sequence, the man who is sleeping in the car, and not just the man is a constituent functioning as a unit.MovementMovement includes such operations as clefting, fronting, pseudo-clefting and passivization.Fronting is the simplest movement operation when the sequence we want to test is moved to the front of the sentence:

He is going to attend another language course to improve his English.To improve his English, he is going to attend another course.

Clefting involves placing a sequence of words X within the structure beginning with "It is/was": It was X that...She bought a pair of gloves with silk embroidery.It was a pair of gloves with silk embroidery that she bought.

Pseudo-clefting (also preposing) is similar to clefting in that it puts emphasis on a certain phrase in a sentence. It involves inserting a sequence of words before "is/are what" or "is/are who":

A pair of gloves with silk embroidery is what she bought.Passivization involves more than just movement. Apart from putting the object in the subject position and the subject after the preposition by, it also triggers changes in the verb form:

A car driving at breakneck speed nearly hit the little dog.The little dog was nearly hit by a car driving at breakneck speed.

In case passivization results in a grammatical sentence, the phrases that have been moved can be regarded as constituents.

The stand-alone (or question) testThis test refers to the ability of a sequence of words to stand alone as a reply to a question. It is often used to test the constituency of a verbal phrase but can also be applied to other phrases:

What did you do yesterday? - Worked on my new project. vs.What did you do yesterday? - Worked on. (ungrammatical, which means that [worked on] is not a unit).

Linguists do not agree whether passing the stand-alone test is sufficient, though at a minimum they agree that it can help confirm the results of another constituency test.Other testsOther constituency tests can be used in a limited number of syntactic environments:

Deletion checks whether a sequence of words can be omitted without influencing the grammaticality of the sentence — in most cases local or temporal adverbials can be safely omitted and thus constitute a syntactic unit;

Coordination relies on the fact that only constituents can be coordinated, i.e., joined by means of the coordinating conjunction "and" (e.g., He enjoys [writing short stories] and [reading them to his friends].)

62. modification and complementation in syntaxModification- is a morphological process which produces an alteration within a root or stem.complementation has to do with "completing the meaning" of a verb. Complementation is indicated in diagramming by labeling the grammatical tie between the verb and its complement with a C.But the situation with verbs is a little complicated.  Structural grammar distinguishes five types of complementation, as follows.

Direct Object, indicated in diagramming by C with DO.   Example: The dog ate bones, where bones is said to be the direct object of ate.

Direct Object and Indirect Object, indicated in diagramming by DO and IO, respectively, along with the obligatory C.  Example: He gave her flowers, where flowers is said to be the direct object of gave, and her is said to be the indirect object of gave.

Objective Complement, indicated in diagramming by C with OC.   Example: It made him angry, where angry is said to be the objective complement of made.

Retained Object, indicated in diagramming by C with RO.   Example: She was given flowers, where flowers is said to be the retained object of was given.

Subjective Complement, indicated in diagramming by C with SC.   Example: He was angry, where angry is said to be the subjective complement of was.

 63 Functions in a sentenceIn linguistics, sentence function refers to a speaker's purpose in uttering a specific sentence, phrase, or clause. Whether a listener is present or not is sometimes irrelevant. It answers the question: "Why has this been said?" The most basic sentence functions in the world's languages include the declarative, interrogative, exclamative, and the imperative. These correspond to a statement, question, exclamation, and command respectively. Typically, a sentence goes from one function to the next through a combination of changes in word order, intonation, the addition of certain auxiliaries or particles, and many times by providing a special verbal form as well. The four main categories can be further specified as being either communicative or informative.

64. Subject and predicate as the immediate constituents of a sentenceEvery complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject. In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in braces ({}), while the subject is highlighted.

Judy {runs}.Judy and her dog {run on the beach every morning}.

To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make a question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.

The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn.The verb in the above sentence is "littered." Who or what littered? The audience did. "The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate (which always includes the verb) goes on to relate something about the subject: what about the audience? It "littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn."Unusual SentencesImperative sentences (sentences that give a command or an order) differ from conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is understood rather than expressed.

Stand on your head. ("You" is understood before "stand.")

Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form of the verb "to be." In such sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals that the true subject will soon follow.

There were three stray kittens cowering under our porch steps this morning.If you ask who? or what? before the verb ("were cowering"), the answer is "three stray kittens," the correct subject.Simple Subject and Simple PredicateEvery subject is built around one noun or pronoun (or more) that, when stripped of all the words that modify it, is known as the simple subject. Consider the following example:

A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger.The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other words of the subject -- "a" and "of pepperoni pizza" -- modifying the noun. "Piece" is the simple subject.Likewise, a predicate has at its centre a simple predicate, which is always the verb or verbs that link up with the subject. In the example we just considered, the simple predicate is "would satisfy" -- in other words, the verb of the sentence.A sentence may have a compound subject -- a simple subject consisting of more than one noun or pronoun -- as in these examples:

Team pennants, rock posters and family photographs covered the boy's bedroom walls.Her uncle and she walked slowly through the Inuit art gallery and admired the powerful sculptures exhibited there.

The second sentence above features a compound predicate, a predicate that includes more than one verb pertaining to the same subject (in this case, "walked" and "admired").

65.Types of nouns and the functions of NP’sClassifications of Types of NounsProper NounsProper nouns are nouns that refer to specific entities. Writers of English capitalize proper nouns like Nebraska, Steve, Harvard, or White House to show their distinction from common nouns.Common NounsCommon nouns refer to general, unspecific categories of entities. Whereas Nebraska is a proper noun because it signifies a specific state, the word state itself is a common noun because it can refer to any of the 50 states in the United States. Harvard refers to a particular institution of higher learning, while the common noun university can refer to any such institution.Countable NounsTo linguists, these count nouns can occur in both single and plural forms, can be modified by numerals, and can co-occur with quantificational determiners like many, most, more, several, etc. -For example, the noun bike is countable noun. Consider the following sentence: There is a bike in that garage.In this example, the word bike is singular as it refers to one bike that is presently residing in a particular garage. -However, bike can also occur in the plural form: There are six broken bikes in that garage. In this example, the noun bikes refers to more than one bike as it is being modified by the numeral six. In addition, countable nouns can co-occur with quantificational determiners. In that garage, several bikes are broken. This sentence is grammatical, as the noun bike can take the modification of the quantificational determiner several.Uncountable Nouns or Mass Nouns-Conversely, some nouns are not countable and are called uncountable nouns or mass nouns. For example, the word clutter is a mass noun. That garage is full of clutter. This sentence makes grammatical sense. -However, the following example does not. That garage is full of clutters. Mass nouns can not take plural forms, and therefore a sentence containing the word clutters is ungrammatical.-Substances, liquids, and powders are entities that are often signified by mass nouns such as wood, sand, water, and flour. Other examples would be milk, air, furniture, freedom, rice, and intelligence.Collective Nouns-In general, collective nouns are nouns that refer to a group of something in a specific manner. Often, collective nouns are used to refer to groups of animals. Consider the following sentences. Look at the gaggle of geese. There used to be herds of wild buffalo on the prairie. A bevy of swans is swimming in the pond. A colony of ants live in the anthill. In the above examples, gaggle, herds, bevy, and colony are collective nouns.Concrete Nouns-Concrete nouns are nouns that can be touched, smelled, seen, felt, or tasted. Steak, table, dog, Maria, salt, and wool are all examples of concrete nouns. Can I pet your dog? Your sweater is made of fine wool.Concrete nouns can be perceived by at least one of our senses.Abstract Nouns

-More ethereal, theoretical concepts use abstract nouns to refer to them. Concepts like freedom, love, power, and redemption are all examples of abstract nouns. They hate us for our freedom. All you need is love.In these sentences, the abstract nouns refer to concepts, ideas, philosophies, and other entities that cannot be concretely perceived.Pronouns-Personal pronouns are types of nouns that take the place of nouns when referring to people, places or things. The personal pronouns in English are I, you, he, she, it, and they. Amy works at a flower shop.She works at a flower shop.-These pronouns take on other forms depending on what type of function they are performing in a sentence. For example, when used to signify possession of another noun, pronouns take on their possessive form such as mine, ours, hers, and theirs. That pizza belongs to Marley.That pizza is hers.-When used as the object of a preposition, pronouns take on their objective case. Examples include him, her, me, us, and them.Hand the money over to Jennifer.Hand the money over to her.

66. Major properties of English nouns- Number ( & countability )

The most common manifestation of the category of number is the distinction between singular and plural.What we count as ‘one’ or ‘more than one’ or ‘as a group of objects’ is determined by the lexical structure of particular languages.e.g. Eng. ‘grape’ can be pluralised but German ‘Traube’ is a mass noun. In all languages certain may be used either as ‘mass’ or ‘countable’ nouns.The lexical categorisation of the world in terms o ‘countable’ or ‘ collective’ and ‘mass’ nouns varies from language to language. Apart from these three categories there may be the possibility of secondary recategorisation ‘ a countable’ in certain context ( They drink three of four vines at every meal ).There are also ‘plural only’ forms as ‘scissors’ and ‘trousers’.

- GenderThe traditional names for the three genders found in the classical IE languages:“masculine” , “feminine” , “neuter” - clearly reflect the association which traditional grammar establish between sex and gender.Gender plays relatively minor part in the grammar of English by comparison with its role in many other languages. The reference of the pronouns “ he, she, it ” is largely determined by what is sometimes referred to as ‘natural gender’.

- CaseCase was the most important of the inflexional categories of the noun, as tense was the most important inflexional category of a verb.The contemporarily language has cases for nouns and pronouns mainly the common case and the genitive case.Potentially countable nouns have four case forms:- Two in singular: girl, girl’s- Two in plural: girls, girls’Heads of phrases that can act as subject or object and can be modified by adjectives, other nouns and prepositional phrasesQuantifiers- are used to describe the quantity Determiners-articles, demonstrative pronounsThe best way to check if sth is a noun is to use it as a head of a phrase A noun is a word used to refer to people, animals, objects, substances, states, events and feelings. Nouns can be a subject or an object of a verb, can be modified by an adjective and can take an article or determiner.Nouns may be divided into two groups:Countable Nouns have plural forms and Uncountable Nouns do not.

67. major properties of English verbs.Verbs- heads of phrases that can function as predicates and that can be complimented by adjective phrases, noun phrases, prepositional phrases and modified by noun phrases, prepositional phrases, adverb phrasesVerbs are one of the major grammatical groups, and all sentences must contain one. verbs refer to an action (do, break, walk, etc.) or a state (be, like, own).The verb tense shows the time of the action or state. Aspect shows whether the action or state is completed or not. Voice is used to show relationships between the action and the people affected

by it. Mood shows the attitude of the speaker about the verb, whether it is a declaration or an order. Verbs can be affected by person and number to show agreement with the subject.

Every verb has 5 properties:1. Person2. Number3. Tense4. Voice5. Mood

I. PersonIf speaker/writer’s relationship to the subject is I or we to I or we=1st PERSONIf I or we to you (singular or plural)=2nd PERSONIf I or we to he, she, it, or they=3rd PERSONII. NumberIf subject represents one person, place, or thing (the subject of the sentence)��SINGULAR�.If subject represents more than one persons, places, or things��PLURAL�.IV. VoiceIf the subject is acting ACTIVE.If the subject is being acted upon PASSIVE.V. Mood1. If sentence is a simple statement of fact=INDICATIVE2. If it depends on something else to happen (i.e., a condition)=SUBJUNCTIVE3. If a command=IMPERATIVE

68. Subcategories of verbs in EnglishThere are 6 sub-categories of verbs:

1) Verbs which haven’t complement = intransitive verbsIt cannot occur in the passive voice. Example: sleep, smile, sign2) Verbs with one complement= monotransitive verbs.Complement is called direct object and it have to be noun. You could make the passive with one exeption: verb “to be”. Example: John was writing the book3) prepositional verb- has only one complementation. Only prepositional phrase can be complement of

prepositional verb. Examp: wait, lookUwaga! Nie mylić z phrasal verb which are followed by verb phrase not prepositional one. If you can put object between Verb and particle to to jest Phrasal, jeśli nie to prepositional phrase4)Intensive Verb- “to be” –has only one complementation. You cannot make passive voice. Complementation describes subject predicative. It’s either prepositional phrase of adjective one. EX: Suzan was at home-description of location of S.5)Ditransitive verb= has two objects- one direct-always noun phrase, one indirect is a noun phrase or prepositional ph. When its after the verbEX: John gave Suzan a present. “suzan” is direct o. and “a present” is indirectThere are two possibilities of passive because both object can be passive6)Complextransitive= combination of monotransitive and intensive- consists of direct object and object predicativeEX: the people elected Kaczke as a President- position is stable- nie można zmienić pozycji więc możliwa jest tylko jedna passiveDirect obj: must be noun phase and Object predicative:can be adjective phrase

69.How to distinguish ditransitive and complex transitive verbs?A transitive verb is a verb that takes a direct object.Transitivity is the number of objects a verb requires or takes in a given instance. Transitivity is sometimes expressed as a grammatical category by means of verb morphology.The meaning of a transitive verb is incomplete without a direct object, as in the following examples:INCOMPLETE

The shelf holds.COMPLETE

The shelf holds three books and a vase of flowers.INCOMPLETE

The committee named.

COMPLETEThe committee named a new chairperson.

An intransitive verb, on the other hand, cannot take a direct object:This plant has thrived on the south windowsill.

The compound verb "has thrived" is intransitive and takes no direct object in this sentence. The prepositional phrase "on the south windowsill" acts as an adverb describing where the plant thrives.

The sound of the choir carried through the cathedral.The verb "carried" is used intransitively in this sentence and takes no direct object. The prepositional phrase "through the cathedral" acts as an adverb describing where the sound carried.

The train from Montreal arrived four hours late. The intransitive verb "arrived" takes no direct object, and the noun phrase "four hours late" acts as an adverb describing when the train arrived.

Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, depending on their context in the sentence. In the following pairs of sentences, the first sentence uses the verb transitively and the second uses the same verb intransitively:transitive

According to the instructions, we must leave this goo in our hair for twenty minutes.In this example, the verb "leave" takes a direct object, the noun phrase "this goo."intransitive

We would like to stay longer, but we must leave.In this example, the verb "leave" does not take a direct object.transitive

The audience attentively watched the latest production of The Trojan Women.In this example, the verb "watch" is used transitively and takes the noun phrase "the latest production of The Trojan Women" as a direct object.intransitive

The cook watched while the new dishwasher surreptitiously picked up the fragments of the broken dish.In this example, the verb "watched" is used intransitively and takes no direct object.

70.How to distinguish monotransitive and intensive verbs?

71.Major properties of English adjectivesAdjectives- heads of phrases that act as noun modifiers or verb compliments, they can be modified by adverbsAn adjective is a word used to “modify” or “qualify” the meaning of a noun:a big man, a holy people, a great nation  In the example phrases above, the words big, holy, and great are all adjectives. In English, adjectives appear before the noun they modifyA given occurrence of an adjective can generally be classified into one of four kinds of uses:

Attributive adjectives are part of the noun phrase headed by the noun they modify; for example, happy is an attributive adjective in "happy people". In some languages, attributive adjectives precede their nouns; in others, they follow their nouns; and in yet others, it depends on the adjective, or on the exact relationship of the adjective to the noun. In English, attributive adjectives usually precede their nouns in simple phrases, but often follow their nouns when the adjective is modified or qualified by a phrase acting as an adverb. For example: "I saw three happy kids", and "I saw three kids happy enough to jump up and down with glee."

Predicative adjectives are linked via a copula or other linking mechanism to the noun or pronoun they modify; for example, happy is a predicate adjective in "they are happy" and in "that made me happy."

Absolute adjectives do not belong to a larger construction (aside from a larger adjective phrase), and typically modify either the subject of a sentence or whatever noun or pronoun they are closest to; for example, happy is an absolute adjective in "The boy, happy with his lollipop, did not look where he was going."

Substantive adjectives act almost as nouns. One way this can happen is if a noun is elided and an attributive adjective is left behind. In the sentence, "I read two books to them; he preferred the sad book, but she preferred the happy", happy is a substantive adjective, short for "happy one" or "happy book". Another way this can happen is in phrases like "out with the old, in with the new", where "the old" means, "that which is old" or "all that is old", and similarly with "the new". In such cases, the adjective functions either as a mass noun (as in the preceding example) or as a plural count noun, as in "The meek shall inherit the Earth", where "the meek" means "those who are meek" or "all who are meek".

72.Major properties of English adverbsMost adverbs in English are formed by adding -ly to an Adjective. An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a Verb; an Adjective; another adverb; a Noun or Noun Phrase; Determiner; a Numeral; a Pronoun; or a Prepositional Phrase and can sometimes be used as a Complement of a Preposition.

ADVERB SPELLING NOTESi) Adjectives ending -l still take -ly; careful-carefully.ii) Adjectives ending -y change to -ily; lucky-luckilyiii) Adjectives ending -ble change to -bly; responsible-responsiblyADVERB OF MANNERAdverbs of manner modify a verb to describe the way the action is done.EG: She did the work carefully.('Carefully' modifies the verb to describe the way the work was done, as opposed to quickly, carelessly, etc..)ADVERB OF PLACE or LOCATIONAdverbs of place show where the action is done. EG: They live locally.ADVERB OF TIMEAdverbs of time show when an action is done, or the duration or frequency.EG: He did it yesterday. (When)They are permanently busy. (Duration) She never does it. (Frequency)ADVERB OF DEGREEAdverbs of degree increase or decrease the effect of the verb.EG: I completely agree with you. (This increases the effect of the verb, whereas 'partially' would decrease it.)ADVERBS MODIFYING ADJECTIVESAn adjective can be modified by an adverb, which precedes the adjective, except 'enough' which comes after.EG: That's really good. It was a terribly difficult time for all of us.It wasn't good enough. ('Enough' comes after the adjective.)ADVERBS MODIFYING ADVERBSAn adverb can modify another. As with adjectives, the adverb precedes the one it is modifying with 'enough' being the exception again.EG: She did it really well.He didn't come last night, funnily enough.ADVERBS MODIFYING NOUNSAdverbs can modify nouns to indicate time or place .EG: The concert tomorrow EG: The room upstairsADVERBS MODIFYING NOUN PHRASESSome adverbs of degree can modify noun phrases.EG: We had quite a good time.They're such good friends.Quite; rather; such; what (What a day!) can be used in this way.ADVERBS MODIFYING DETERMINERS, NUMERALS & PRONOUNSAdverbs such as almost; nearly; hardly; about, etc., can be used:EG: Almost everybody came in the end.

73.Major properties of English prepositions and prepositional phrasesIn grammar, a preposition is a part of speech that introduces a prepositional phrase. For example, in the sentence "The cat sleeps on the sofa", the word "on" is a preposition, introducing the prepositional phrase "on the sofa". In English, the most used prepositions are "of", "to", "in", "for", "with" and "on". Simply put, a preposition indicates a relation between things mentioned in a sentence.Linguists sometimes distinguish between a preposition, which precedes its phrase, a postposition, which follows its phrase, and as a rare case a circumposition, which surrounds its phrase. Taken together, these three parts of speech are called adpositions. In more technical language, an adposition is an element that, prototypically, combines syntactically with a phrase and indicates how that phrase should be interpreted in the surrounding context. Some linguists use the word "preposition" instead of "adposition" for all three cases.[1]

An adpositional phrase is a linguistics term that includes prepositional phrases (usually found in head-first languages such as English) and postpositional phrases (usually found in head-final languages. The difference between the two is simply one of word order.Both types of adpositional phrases are a syntactic category: a phrase which is treated in certain ways as a unit by a language's rules of syntax. An adpositional phrase is composed of an adposition (in the head position, which is why it lends its name to the phrase) and usually a complement such as a noun phrase. ("Adposition" is similarly a generic term for either a preposition or a postposition.) These phrases generally act as complements and adjuncts of noun phrases and verb phrases.

74.Coordination in syntaxIn linguistics, a coordination is a complex syntactic structure that links together two or more elements, known as conjuncts or conjoins. The conjuncts generally have similar grammatical features (e.g. syntactic category, semantic function), and the coordinated structure as a whole retains most of the same properties as the individual conjuncts, although it may introduce new features (e.g. plurality).Coordinating conjunctions are often, though not always, used to link the conjuncts in a coordination. Depending on the number of conjunctions used, coordinations can be classified as "syndetic", "asyndetic", or "polysyndetic".Coordination can be contrasted with subordination, a complex structure in which the component parts do not have parallel functions.

75.Major classes of English function wordsFunction words or grammatical words are words that have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. Words which are not function words are called content words or lexical words: these include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and most adverbs, though some adverbs are function words (e.g. then, why). Dictionaries define the specific meanings of content words, but can only describe the general usages of function words. By contrast, grammars describe the use of function words in detail, but have little interest in lexical words.Function words may be prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, grammatical articles or particles, all of which belong to the group of closed class words. Interjections are sometimes considered function words but they belong to the group of open class words. Function words may or may not be inflected or may have affixes.They belong to the closed class of words in grammar in that it is very uncommon to have new function words created in the course of speech, whereas in the open class word, that is nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, new words may be formed readily (such as slang words, technical terms, adoptions and adaptations of foreign words). See neologism.Each function word gives some grammatical information on other words in a sentence or clause, and cannot be isolated from other words, or it may indicate the speaker's mental position as to what is being said.

76. types of adverbials adjunct adverbialAdjunct adverbials are those expressions that answer the questions How? When? Where? Why? Howmany times? How long? How often? They describe manner, time, place, cause, frequency, duration.a) manner: How?well, fast, quickly, seriously, carefully, with enthusiasmb) time: When?tomorrow, on Monday, in ten days, after I diec) place: Where?here, there, downtown, in the house, where he was bornd) cause or reason: Why?for many reasons, on account of the snow, because he was sicke) frequency: How often? How many times?twice a day, monthly, neverf) duration: How long?for two hours, while they were on vacatiodisjunct adverbialLike adjunct adverbials, disjunct adverbials are optional modifiers. They denote the speaker’sjudgment or attitude toward what is said in S, such as expressing the speaker’s degree of truthfulnessor manner of speaking. They modify the entire S, not just the VP. They are traditionally calledSentence Adverbials.Frankly, I don’t care.Personally, I don’t agree with what they said.conjunct adverbialLike other adverbials, conjunct adverbials are optional modifiers. They express textual relations suchas linking clauses.AdvP: moreover, however, nevertheless, furthermore, next, finally, consequently, therefore, thus,instead, besides, hence.PP: in addition, in conclusion, on the one hand, on the other hand, for example, on the contrary,in other words, for example, as a result, in the first place.

77. what is ellipsisThis term refers to the omission from a clause of one or more words that would otherwise be required by the remaining elements.

In the following construction, you are is understood, as in Fire when you are ready. Fire when ready.

78. finite and non-finite clauses, simple and complex sentencesnon-finite clause is a subordinate clause whose verb is non-finite; for example, many languages can form non-finite clauses from infinitives. Like any subordinate clause, a non-finite clause serves a grammatical role — commonly that of a noun, adjective, or adverb — in a greater clause that contains it.Finite clause: The fact that they are with us in this time of crisis is evidence of their friendship.Non-finite clause: Their being with us in this time of crisis is evidence of their friendship. Simple sentence- is a sentence containing one main clause and no subordinate clauses.

complex sentence is a sentence which includes   at least one main clause, and at least one subordinate clause.

Clause – a string of words which expresses a proposition and typically consists of at least a SUBJECT and a verb: ‘David sings,’ ‘Yesterday we visited Canterbury.’ A SENTENCE contains one or more clauses. Clause requires the verb phrase and optionally a noun phrase.Finite Clauses – contains a finite verb. Finite verb – a form of a verb which carries the feature of tense. Always finite clauses: if-clauses, that-clauses and zero that-clauses. ‘Henry has a large black cat.’Non-finite clauses – contains a non-finite verb such as: present participle (-ing), past participle, infinitive – they do not carry the tense. ‘Turning the corner…’ ‘I made her laugh.’Simple sentence – contains only one clause. ‘John plays football for Liverpool.’Complex sentence – contains two or more clauses. It must contain at least one finite clause. At least one close is subordinate. ‘Your dinner is cold because you were late’

79.grammaticality versus acceptabilityGrammaticality is not based on meaning or truth. It is connected with the rules of the system of the language. ‘Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.’Some sentences may be grammatical but unacceptable and vice versa. Some are both ungrammatical and unacceptable.John switched off the light. John switched the light off. <=- both are correct because off is a particle of switch and it is movable.John looked at Suzan. John looked Suzan at. <=- the 2nd is unacceptable because ‘look at’ is a prepositional verb.The boy found the ball. The boy found quickly. <=- the 2nd is unacceptable and ungrammatical because ‘find’ is a transitive verb and needs an object. ‘sleep’ is intransitive so it cannot be followed by an object.Rules may not be obeyed, eg. double negation in some cases like poetry, song lyrics etc.

80. What are phrase markers? What can they show?Phrase markers or tree diagrams. These are the drawn diagrams of the sentences. Structure of phrase markers: heads, specifiers and complements. Phrase markers are very useful when ambiguity about the meaning appears. (more beautiful women may be done in two ways-draw a tree)phrase - any syntactic unit which includes more than one word and is not an entire sentence,the largest unit that has some word of a ..................... . sentence - lexical phrasal Sentence – the largest unit of grammar.

Phrase markers - encode important structural properties of a sentence. We assume that all sentences are structured and words are groupped into constituents. There are 3 important aspects of sentence structure : the linear order of words in a sentence words are categorised into parts of speech words in a sentence are groupped into structural constituents ( NP , VP , AP ) Those 3 types of information can be encoded into sth that is called a tree diagram or a PHRASE MARKER.

S

NP VP

pronoun gr [intransitive]

them died

81.The notions of node and dominance in a tree diagramc. NODE: The end of the branch. d. LABEL: The name given to a node. e. ROOT NODE: The node with no line on top of it. f. TERMINAL NODE: Any node with no branch underneath it.

g. NON-TERMINAL NODE: Any node with a branch underneath it. h. DOMINANCE: Node A dominates node B if and only if A is higher up in a tree than B and if you can

trace a line from A to B going only downwards. (M dominates all the other nodes above. What about N and O?)

Dominate - when continuous downward path can be traced from a node a to b. then node a is dominant over b.Node – is the synactic category that is created the larger syntactic category with (lower in the tree)

82.The scope of study of semanticsSemantics is the study of meaning. The word "semantics" itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly technical. It is often used in ordinary language to denote a problem of understanding that comes down to word selection or connotation. This problem of understanding has been the subject of many formal inquiries, over a long period of time. The word is derived from the Greek word σημαντικός (semantikos), "significant",[1] from σημαίνω (semaino), "to signify, to indicate" and that from σήμα (sema), "sign, mark, token".[2] In linguistics, it is the study of interpretation of signs or symbols as used by agents or communities within particular circumstances and contexts.[3] Within this view, sounds, facial expressions, body language, proxemics have semantic (meaningful) content, and each has several branches of study. In written language, such things as paragraph structure and punctuation have semantic content; in other forms of language, there is other semantic content.[4]

The formal study of semantics intersects with many other fields of inquiry, including proxemics, lexicology, syntax, pragmatics, etymology and others, although semantics is a well-defined field in its own right, often with synthetic properties.[5] In philosophy of language, semantics and reference are related fields. Further related fields include philology, communication, and semiotics. The formal study of semantics is therefore complex.

83.Semantic componential analysisAnna Wierzbicka – every single expression share certain, common, experiential source from reality. She invented 7 semantic primes that are the same for all the languages. Then it was verified to 36 because 7 were not enough.“The paparazzi was stopped before got to Mr Redford” – from the sentence we know that Mr Redford is famous, even though it is not written.Semantic features =-> list of the words which posses this property.Female =-> pregnant, to breastfeed, actress, and maid.Human =-> child, doctor, women, palant, pilot.Semantic classes – shares a given property: human =-> animate.We can also know the meaning of the word from the context. “The insect was swimming in the container of goop” <-= assume that it is a kind of liquid.Meaning of items is connected with experience of the world.Water =-> we know what it is, even though nobody says a composition of hydro and oxygen.Younger and older people may have different “picture” of some word.Telephone =-> old: telefon z wykręcanymi numerami, younger: dialled or mobile.SCA doesn’t go with abstract words such as responsibility, courage.

84.Semantic featuresCan be treated as basic features involved in differentiating the meaning of each word in the language from every other word. Animate, male, human, adult and so on. Can be minus or plus.

85.Ambiguity and its sourcesLexical (referential) ambiguity is ambiguity based on a single word. In many cases, a single word in a language corresponds to more than one thought, for example, the adjective light (not dark vs. not heavy); the noun bank (financial institution vs. the edge of a river); and the verb run (to move fast vs. to direct or manage). Words may also have more than one meaning through their unrelated use in more than one category of speech, for example, can (a container of food – noun vs. to be able to – verb).

Syntactic ambiguity is a property of sentences which may be phrased in more that one way. It may or may not involve one word having two parts of speech or homonyms. Here are some examples:

Bear left at zoo. (Do you turn left when you get to the zoo, or did someone leave a bear there?)I'm going to sleep. ("Going" can be a verb with destination "sleep" or an auxiliary indicating near future. There is little difference in meaning between the two parses.)The word of the Lord came to Zechariah, son of Berekiah, son of Iddo, the prophet. (Which of the three is the prophet?)British Left Waffles on Falklands (Did the British leave waffles behind, or was there waffling by the British Left?)The cow was found by a stream by a farmer. (The farmer found the cow;she was located by a stream.) Monty flies back to front. (Monty returns to the frontline; or Monty flies backwards?)

An humans unambiguously understand it to mean "Time flies in the same way that an arrow does," it could also mean.Although humans unambiguously understand it to mean "Time flies in the same way that an arrow does," it could also mean“Measure the speed of flies as you would for an arrow,"” Measure the speed of flies as an arrow would," or even“A kind of fly, the time fly, likes arrows."(As Groucho Marx is said to have observed, "Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.")

86.Types of antonymy(antonyms)Antonyms from the Greek anti ("opposite") and onoma ("name") are word pairs that are opposite in meaning, such as hot and cold, obese and skinny, and up and down. Words may have different antonyms, depending on the meaning. Both long and tall are antonyms of short. Antonyms are of three types:Gradable antonyms - are two ends of the spectrum (slow and fast) but can have variations.Complementary antonyms are pairs that express absolute opposites, like single and married.Relational antonyms are pairs in which one describes a relationship between two objects and the other describes the same relationship when the two objects are reversed, such as parent and child, teacher and student, or buy and sell."Linguists identify three types of antonymy: (1) Gradable antonyms, which operate on a continuum: (very) big, (very) small. Such pairs often occur in binomial phrases with and: (blow) hot and cold, (search) high and low. (2) Complementary antonyms, which express an either/or relationship: dead or alive, male or female. (3) Converse or relational antonyms, expressing reciprocity: borrow or lend, buy or sell, wife or husband."

87.synonyms, hyponyms and subordinates (paraphrases)Synonyms - Two words that can be interchanged in a context are said to be synonymous relative to that context; Synonyms (in ancient Greek syn 'συν' = plus and onoma 'όνομα' = name) are different words with similar or identical meanings and are interchangable. Antonyms are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings. (Synonym and antonym are antonyms.)(Paraphrases – Paraphrasing is the act in which a statement or remark is explained in other words or another way — as to clarify the meaning, or when a direct quotation is unavailable. Often, a paraphrase might substitute a euphemism for an actual statement, in order to avoid offense. As with a quotation, a paraphrase is introduced by a verbum dicendi, or disclaimer.)Hyponyms - hyponym (in Greek: υπονύμιον, literally meaning 'few names') is a word whose extension is included within that of another word. German Unterbegriff, lit. "Underconcept" thus "Subterm", achieves this meaning without a loanword. For example, scarlet, vermilion, carmine and crimson are all hyponyms of their hypernym red - hypernym is the opposite of hyponym. Since another word for hypernym is superordinate, logically but only theoretically an approximation for hyponym would be subordinateSuperordintes - hypernym (in Greek υπερνύμιον, literally meaning 'extra name') is a word whose extension includes the extension of the word of which it is a hypernym. A word that is more generic or broad than another given word. To achieve the meaning without a loanword, consider German Oberbegriff, lit. "Overconcept" thus "Superterm". Therefore,another term for a hypernym is a superordinate.For example, vehicle denotes all the things that are separately denoted by the words train, chariot, dogsled, airplane, and automobile and is therefore a hypernym of each of those words. A hypernym is the opposite of a hyponym. For example, plant is hypernymic to flower whereas tulip is hyponymic to flower.

88. Polysemy and homonymyPolisemy- we have one form written or spoken having multiple meanings which are all related by extention.Head:1.part of a body, 2. somebody in charge of a group. The ambiguity of an individual word or phrase that can be used (in different contexts) to express two or more different meaningsHomonymy- it’s kind of a lexical relationship which occurs between words when the meaning of one form is included in the meaning oof other form. (subordinate and suprordinates). Co-hyponms can be defined as 2 or more terms that share the same superordinate term.

89.Truth conditions and sentential semanticsIn semantics, truth conditions are what obtain precisely when a sentence is true. For example, "It is snowing in Nebraska" is true precisely when it is snowing in Nebraska.More formally, we can think of a truth condition as what makes for the truth of a sentence in an inductive definition of truth. (For details, see the semantic theory of truth.) Understood this way, truth conditions are theoretical entities. To illustrate with an example: suppose that, in a particular truth theory, the word "Nixon" refers to Richard M. Nixon, and "is alive" is associated with the set of currently living things. Then one way of representing the truth condition of "Nixon is alive" is as the ordered pair <Nixon, {x: x is alive}>. And we say that "Nixon is alive" is true if and only if the referent of "Nixon" belongs to the set associated with "is alive", that is, if and only if Nixon is alive.

In semantics, the truth condition of a sentence is almost universally considered to be distinct from its meaning. The meaning of a sentence is conveyed if the truth conditions for the sentence are understood. Additionally, there are many sentences that are understood although their truth condition is uncertain. One popular argument for this view is that some sentences are necessarily true--that is, they are true whatever happens to obtain. All such sentences have the same truth conditions, but arguably do not thereby have the same meaning. Likewise, the sets {x: x is alive} and {x: x is alive and x is not a rock} are identical--they have precisely the same members--but presumably the sentences "Nixon is alive" and "Nixon is alive and is not a rock" have different meanings.

90.Thematic rolesThematic relations were introduced in generative grammar during the mid-1960s and early 1970s (Gruber, 1976; Fillmore, 1968; Jackendoff, 1972) as a way of classifying the arguments of natural language predicates into a closed set of participant types which were thought to have a special status in grammar. A list of the most popular roles and the properties usually associated with them is given below. Agent

-- A participant which the meaning of the verb specifies as doing or causing something, possibly intentionally. Examples: subjects of kill, eat, hit, smash, kick and em watch.

Patient -- A participant which the verb characterises as having something happen to it, and as being affected by what happens to it. Examples: objects of kill, eat and smash but not those of watch, hear and love.

Experiencer -- A participant who is characterised as aware of something. Examples: subject of love or object of annoy.

Theme -- A participant which is characterised as changing its position or condition, or as being in a state or position. Examples: objects of give and hand, subjects of walk and die.

Location -- The thematic role associated with the NP expressing the location in a sentence with a verb of location. Examples: subjects of keep, own, retain and know and locative PPs.

Source -- Object from which motion proceeds. Examples: subjects of buy and promise, objects of deprive, free and cure.

Goal -- Object to which motion proceeds. Examples: subject of receive and buy, dative objects of tell and give. (Adapted from Dowty (1989))

Since its inception, the classification of argument positions into role types was meant to be carried out in terms of primitive semantic properties of predicates. Jackendoff (1972) suggested that thematic relations should be defined in terms of the three semantic subfunctions CAUSE, CHANGE and BE which constitute some of the primitive building blocks of lexical meanings. For example, the semantic representation of a transitive verb like open would be that of (154) where, according to Jackendoff's characterisation of roles in terms of semantic subfunctions, NP is agent and NP theme. (154)  

An analogous proposal was developed by Dowty (1979) within a Montague Grammar framework and later adopted and extended by Foley & van Valin (1984). Dowty (1989) assumes that there are only two `thematic-role-like concepts' for verbal predicates: the proto-agent and proto-patient role. Proto-roles are conceived of as `cluster-concepts' which are determined for each choice of predicate with respect to a given set of semantic properties. The properties which contribute to the definition of the proto-agent and proto-patient roles are listed below. Contributing properties for the proto-agent role

-- Volition; sentience (and/or perception); causes event; movement. Contributing properties for the proto-patient role

-- Change of state (including coming-to-being, going-out-of-being); incremental theme (i.e. determinant of aspect); causally affected by event; stationary (relative to movement of proto-agent).

According to Dowty, proto-roles are essentially meant for argument selection, e.g. lexical assignment of grammatical functions to subcategorised arguments. Proto-roles are related to argument selection through the Argument Selection Principle and two corollaries which govern the lexicalisation of GRs. Argument Selection Principle: The argument of a predicate having the greatest number of proto-agent properties entailed by the meaning of the predicate will, all else being equal, be lexicalised as the subject of the predicate; the

argument having the greatest number of proto-patient properties will, all else being equal, be lexicalised as the direct object of the predicate.

91.Theta assignment and theta criterionIn syntax, the theta criterion (in its original form) states that in a grammatical sentence, every theta role that a verb can assign must be realized by some argument, and each argument may bear only a single theta role.[1] So, for instance, for the verb send, which is associated with the theta-roles of Agent, Goal and Theme, a well formed sentence might look like this:

Robert sent Mary a package.Here, the three theta roles are assigned to Robert, Mary and a package, respectively. The sentence would be malformed if any of these arguments were absent.

92.Semantic anomaly, metaphors and idiomsSemantic anomaly- phraes that are structurally/syntactically well-formed but semantically make no sense.Metaphor- Here are two senses of metaphor:

1. A metaphor is the expression of an understanding of one concept in terms of another concept, where there is some similarity or correlation between the two.

2. A metaphor is the understanding itself of one concept in terms of another.Idiom- is a multiword construction that

is a semantic unit whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituents, and has a non-productive syntactic structure.

93.Reference and sense in semanticsThe reference of an expression is what it stands for on a given occasion of its use. The sense of an expression is the way the reference is presented. The sense of a sentence is a thought, the proposition, the information content grasped in understanding a sentence. But senses are not subjective, differing from one person to the next. We share sensesIS the object it refers to.  Its sense is HOW it refers to that object."For example:  'The husband of Barbara Bush is the President who succeeded Ronald Reagan.'I guess the Reference is:  A [former] President of the USA (George Bush senior);and the two Senses are:     1.  The husband of Barbara Bush; and    2.  The man who became President after Ronald Reagan.

94.Proper names as referring expressionsA referring expression (RE), in linguistics, is any noun phrase, or surrogate for a noun phrase, whose function in a text (spoken, signed or written on a particular occasion) is to "pick out" an individual person, place, object, or a set of persons, places, objects.a proper name, like Sarah, London, The Eiffel Tower, or The Beatles. The intimate link between proper names and type (1) REs is shown by the definite article that appears in many of them. In many languages this happens far more consistently than in English. Proper names are often taken to refer, in principle, to the same referent independently of the context in which the name is used and in all possible worlds, i.e. they are in Saul Kripke's terminology rigid designators.

95.What is the scope of study for pragmatics?Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics which studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior in philosophy, sociology, and linguistics.[1] It studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on the linguistic knowledge (e.g. grammar, lexicon etc.) of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, knowledge about the status of those involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and so on.[2] In this respect, pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome apparent ambiguity, since meaning relies on the manner, place, time etc. of an utterance.[1] The ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called pragmatic competence. An utterance describing pragmatic function is described as metapragmatic. Pragmatic awareness is regarded as one of the most challenging aspects of language learning, and comes only through experience.

96. Exemplify the potential difference between speaker meaning and sentence meaningThere are many different approaches to the way in which meaning is studied. The branch of linguistics which analyses that approaches is called SEMANTICS

There are two types of meaning: linguistic meaning & speaker’s meaninge.g. somebody says: “The door is right behind you.”

The linguistic meaning of this sentence tells only about the location of the door The speaker’s meaning is probably “leave at once”

LINGUISTC MEANING of all expressions is simply the meaning of that expression in the languageSPEAKER’S MEANING can differ from the linguistic meaning depending on whether the speaker is speaking literally or non-literally the non-literal uses of a language are: irony and sarcasm or metaphory...

97. What is entailment? Which type of entailment can be named a true paraphrase?A sense of relation between sentences, implication.In all languages it is possible to establish rules of correspondence between affirmative and negative sentences; and that the correspondence between a particular affirmative and a particular negative is accounted for by the grammar of the language; - the negative sentence John is not married corresponds to the affirmative sentence John is marriedThe process or result of producing alternative versions of a sentence or text without changing its meaning.A sentence may have several paraphrases,e.g The cat chased the mouse. The mouse was chased by the cat. It’s the mouse that the cat chased.

98.What are analytic and synthetic sentences? What are contradictions? Analytic and Synthetic Sentences We can to some extent understand the way we use words as being fixed by rules of usage. In fact, our willingness to conform to rules in many ways simplifies our present discussion. In this chapter, I consider how some sentences can have their truth or falsity determined solely by means of rules of usage. For example, if an author gives a prescriptive definition of “displacement tonnage” by saying, “By a ship’s displacement tonnage I mean the weight of the water that a ship displaces when it floats,” then the following sentence T is true: “The greater a ship’s displacement tonnage, the greater the weight of the water it displaces.” To put it more exactly, if T occurs in the author’s text (given certain generally accepted rules for the use of the word greater), one can establish the truth of T without looking further. For instance, there is no need to go to the expense and effort of weighing the ship to see if T is true.

99.Presupposition and its major propertiesA presupposition is background belief, relating to an utterance, that

must be mutually known or assumed by the speaker and addressee for the utterance to be considered appropriate in context

generally will remain a necessary assumption whether the utterance is placed in the form of an assertion, denial, or question, and

can generally be associated with a specific lexical item or grammatical feature (presupposition trigger) in the utterance.

An actual presupposition is any potential presupposition that is not canceled by its context.Example: The utterance John says that the king of France is bald has two potential presuppositions:

There is someone identified as John. There is a king of France.

Of these two, only the presupposition that there is someone identified as John is an actual presupposition, because the second presupposition is reported.A potential presupposition is a presupposition that is triggered by some part of an utterance (such as a subordinate clause) taken in isolation, but that may or may not be a presupposition of the whole utterance.

The utterance John says that the king of France is bald has two potential presuppositions:1. There is someone identified as John.2. There is a king of France.

100.Types of presupposition1. existential presupposition: possessives like Mary's car = presupposition of existence Mary's car >> Mary has a car2. factive presupposition: information following V like know, realize• considered as fact (I know John is nice)a.) She didn't realize John was ill >> John was illb.) I regretted telling him >> I told himc.) I'm glad it's over >> it's over3. lexical presupposition: presupposition, that another, non-asserted meaning is understooda.) Sarah managed to ... >> she succeededb.) Sarah didn't manage to ... >> she failed

but a.) + b.) >> she tried toothers: She stopped smoking >> she used to smokeShe started smoking >> she didn't smoke before• factive presupposition: presupposes truth of what is stated4. structural presupposition: presupposes that part of structure is already assumed to be truea.) When did he leave? >> he leftb.) Where did you buy the cake? >> you bought cake• information is necessarily true• subtle manipulation what listener is supposed to believe:How fast was the car when it ran the red light? >> it ran the red light5. non-factive presuppositions:a.) I dreamed I was rich >> I was not richb.) He pretends to be ill >> he is not ill6. counterfactual presupposition: what is presupposed is not only not true but contra to what is truenon-factive: He pretends to be ill >> he is not ill, but not: he is healthycounterfactual: If you were my friend... >> you are not my friend

101.Proximal and distal deictic items

102.Person, place and time deixisPerson deixis is deictic reference to the participant role of a referent, such as:

the speaker the addressee, and

referents which are neither speaker nor addresseePerson deixis is commonly expressed by the following kinds of constituents:

Pronouns Possessive affixes of nouns

Agreement affixes of verbsPlace deixis is deictic reference to a location relative to the location of a participant in the speech event, typically the speaker.Examples:

this (way) that (direction) here there

Time deixis is reference to time relative to a temporal reference point. Typically, this point is the moment of utterance. Temporal adverbs

o now / theno yesterday / today / tomorrowo Distinctions in tense

DEIXIS(indexicals)--taken from Greek word “to indicate, point to”-expressions, which are used to point to surrounding context of the utterances. Substitution of physical pointing(eg. This, that). Every language has such items. You have to know the context, in order to know the meaning of them.2.Expressing property :-person deixis- refers to participants in the talk exchange -place(spatial) deixis- referring to the space: here, there-time deixis-referring to the time: now, then, today, tomorrow, last year etc.

103.The notion of the deictic centre, possible shifts of the deictic perspectiveA deictic center is a reference point in relation to which a deictic expression is to be interpreted.The deictic center is most typically the present time, location, participant role, and so forth of the speaker.

In the following example, the speaker, the actual location and the actual time of the utterance are, respectively, the deictic centers for the interpretation of I, here, and now:

I’m over here now.

104.Social and discourse deixisSocial deixis is reference to the social characteristics of, or distinctions between, the participants or referents in a speech event.

Example: The distinction, found in many Indo-European languages, between familiar and polite second person pronouns is an expression of social deixis .

-Absolute social deixis is deictic reference to some social characteristic of a referent (especially a person) apart from any relative ranking of referents.Often absolute social deixis is expressed in certain forms of address. The form of address will include no comparison of the ranking of the speaker and addressee; there will be only a simple reference to the absolute status of the addressee.Examples: Mr PresidentYour Honor

-Relational social deixis is deictic reference to a social relationship between the speaker and an addressee, bystander, or other referent in the extralinguistic context.Examples:

Distinctions between the French second person pronouns tu and vous Speech levels of Southeast Asian languages that depend on the relative status of the speaker and addressee Distinctions between lexical choices made in the presence of certain kin in Dyirbal

Discourse deixis is deictic reference to a portion of a discourse relative to the speaker's current “location” in the discourse.Examples: Use of this to refer to a story one is about to tell in:

I bet you haven’t heard this story. Reference to Chapter 7 of a book by means of in the next chapter or in the previous chapter, depending on

whether the reference is made from Chapter 6 or 8. Use of this in a creaky-voiced utterance of: This is what phoneticians call a creaky voice.

105.Reflections of indexicality in grammar

106. The major assumptions of the speech act theory- ILLOCUTIONARY - what we do in saying sth , It’s an act performed in saying sth .

asserting threatening promising requesting ACT OF reporting suggesting stating ordering telling proposing Illocutionary acts can often be successfully performed simply by uttering the right ‘explicit performative ‘ sentence with the right intentions ( doing & saying sth) e.g. I order you to leave - act of ordering

- PERLOCUTIONARY ( act of affecting sb) – what we do by utterance(locution) The act of intentionally affecting the thought or action of the hearer by performing an utterance act. Types : inspiring persuadingimpressing deceiving speaker wants to make some changes not simply say sthembarrassing misleadingirritating intimidating

Perlocutionary acts are not performed by uttering explicit performative sentences. They seem to involve the “ effects ” of utterance acts & illocutionary acts don’t.

- PROPOSITIONAL act - acts of referring and predicating sth, speaker refers to sth & then characterizes it. e.g. Becker is tired - speaker refers to Becker ( with his name ) and characterizes him with “ is tired ”.

107. Performatives versus constativesAustin distinguished two types of utterances: - constatives - performativesConstatives are simple statements, e.g. Chalk is white, Dog bit me ← they undergo simple yes/no test.

Performatives(question no72) are expressions which look as statements but at the same time we may think this person is doing sth, e.g. I promise … - so the person is promising ← lg used creates the act of doing sth.Constatives and performatives seem to differ but if we admit that whatever we say is performing an action – the conclusion would be that there are only performatives!e.g. Chalk is white (I state) Dog bit me (I inform)

108.Three component acts of a speech act1. a locutionary act – the basic act of utterance or producing a meaningful linguistic expression,2. a illocutionary act – to make a statement, an offer, an explanation or for some other communicative purpose,

to express speaker’s expectations, (the communicative force of utterance)3. a perlocutionary act – creating an utterance with a function, with intending it to have an effect, (the

perlocutionary effect).

109.Typology of speech actsdirect speech act- when linguistic form of utterance is identical with interlocutionary forms. Ex. use questions only to ask informationDivision of speech acts:

- declarations- visibly change the world- representatives- statements about the world, judged as true or false- expresives- display the speaker’s performance, attitude and feelings- directives- influence the behaviour of hearer- commisives- performer obliges himself to some future actions

110.Felicity conditionsIn J.L. Austin's formulation of Speech act theory, a performative utterance is neither true nor false, but can instead be deemed "felicitous" or "infelicitous" according to a set of conditions whose interpretation differs depending on whether the utterance in question is a declaration ("I sentence you to death"), a request ("I ask that you stop doing that") or a warning ("I warn you not to jump off the roof").Felicity conditions for declarations

Conventionality of procedure: the procedure (e.g. an oath) follows its conventional form Appropriate participants and circumstances: the participants are able to perform a felicitous speech act under

the circumstances (e.g. a judge can sentence a criminal in court, but not on the street) Complete execution: the speaker completes the speech act without errors or interruptions Sincerity condition: the utterance counts as the speaker's will

Felicity conditions for requests Propositional content condition: the requested act is a future act of the hearer Preparatory precondition: 1) the speaker believes the hearer can perform the requested act; 2) it is not obvious

that the hearer would perform the requested act without being asked Sincerity condition: the speaker genuinely wants the hearer to perform the requested act Essential condition: the utterance counts as an attempt by the speaker to have the hearer do an act

Felicity conditions for warnings Propositional content condition: it is a future event Preparatory precondition: 1) the speaker believes the event will occur and be detrimental to the hearer; 2) the

speaker believes that it is not obvious to the hearer that the event will occur Sincerity condition: the speaker genuinely believes that the event will be detrimental to the hearer Essential condition: the utterance counts as an attempt by the speaker to have the hearer recognize that a future

event will be detrimental

111.Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices, direct and indirect speech actsIllocutionary force is the combination of the

illocutionary point of an utterance, and particular presuppositions and attitudes that must accompany that point, including the

An illocutionary point is the basic purpose of a speaker in making an utterance.It is a component of illocutionary force.Illocutionary actsThe concept of an illocutionary act is central to, if not identical with, the concept of a speech act. Although there are numerous opinions as to what 'illocutionary acts' actually are, there are some kinds of acts which are widely accepted as illocutionary, as for example promising, ordering someone, and bequeathing.

[edit] Indirect speech actsIn the course of performing speech acts we ordinarily communicate with each other. The content of communication may be identical, or almost identical, with the content intended to be communicated, as when a stranger asks, "What is your name?"Searle has introduced the notion of an 'indirect speech act', which in his account is meant to be, more particularly, an indirect 'illocutionary' act. Applying a conception of such illocutionary acts according to which they are (roughly) acts of saying something with the intention of communicating with an audience, he describes indirect speech acts as follows: "In indirect speech acts the speaker communicates to the hearer more than he actually says by way of relying on their mutually shared background information, both linguistic and nonlinguistic, together with the general powers of rationality and inference on the part of the hearer." An account of such act, it follows, will require such things as an analysis of mutually shared background information about the conversation, as well as of rationality and linguistic conventions.

112. Indirectness and implicatureConversational implicature is the act of implicating sth via the conversational maximes.- Grice’s princeples of quantity, quality , relevance and manner that govern co-operative talk-exchanging.Implicature- the act of communicating sth while saying another. Types of implicature: concelable, non detachable, calculable.

113.Types of implicatureTypes of ImplicatureConversational ImplicaturePaul Grice identified three types of general conversational implicature:1. The speaker deliberately flouts a conversational maxim to convey an additional meaning not expressed literally.For instance, a speaker responds to the question "How did you like the guest speaker?" with the following utterance:Well, I’m sure he was speaking English.If the speaker is assumed to be following the cooperative principle, in spite of flouting the Maxim of Quantity, then the utterance must have an additional nonliteral meaning, such as: "The content of the speaker’s speech was confusing."2. The speaker’s desire to fulfill two conflicting maxims results in his or her flouting one maxim to invoke the other. For instance, a speaker responds to the question "Where is John?" with the following utterance:He’s either in the cafeteria or in his office.In this case, the Maxim of Quantity and the Maxim of Quality are in conflict. A cooperative speaker does not want to be ambiguous but also does not want to give false information by giving a specific answer in spite of his uncertainty. By flouting the Maxim of Quantity, the speaker invokes the Maxim of Quality, leading to the implicature that the speaker does not have the evidence to give a certain answer to where John is.3. The speaker invokes a maxim as a basis for interpreting the utterance. In the following exchange:Do you know where I can get some gas? There’s a gas station around the corner.The second speaker invokes the Maxim of Relevance, resulting in the implicature that “the gas station is open and one can probably get gas there”Conventional ImplicatureConventional implicature is independent of the cooperative principle and its maxims. A statement always carries its conventional implicature.Joe is happy but poor.This sentence implies poverty and happiness are not compatible but in spite of this Joe is still happy. The conventional interpretation of the word “but” will always create the implicature of a sense of contrast. So Joe is happy but poor will always necessarily imply “Surprisingly Joe is happy in spite of being poor”Another form of conventional implicature is also known as a scalar implicature. This concerns the conventional uses of words like “all” or “some” in conversation.I ate some of the pie.This sentence implies “I did not eat all of the pie.” While the statement “I ate some pie” is still true if the entire pie was eaten, the conventional meaning of the word “some” and the implicature generated by the statement is “not all”

114.Grice’s Co-operative Principle and the Maxims of ConversationThe English language philosopher Paul Grice proposes that in ordinary conversation, speakers and hearers share a cooperative principle. Speakers shape their utterances to be understood by hearers. Grice analyzes cooperation as involving four maxims: quantity, quality, relation, and manner. Speakers give enough and not too much information: quantity. They are genuine and sincere, speaking "truth" or facts: quality. Utterances are relative to the context of the speech: relation. Speakers try to present meaning clearly and concisely, avoiding ambiguity: manner.

Grice's cooperative principle: set of norms expected in conversation. Grice proposes four maxims expected in conversation.

quality: speaker tells the truth or provable by adequate evidence quanity: speaker is as informative as required relation: response is relevant to topic of discussion manner: speaker's avoids ambiguity or obscurity, is direct and straightforward

115.hedges and intensifiershedges are intentionally non-comittal or ambiguous sentence fragments, such as "sort of", "kind of", "like".Intensifier – A modifier that has little meaning except to intensify the meaning it modifies; "'up' in 'finished up' is an intensifier"; "'honestly' in 'I honestly don't know' is an intensifier".

116. the notion of politeness in pragmaticsPoliteness - is social deixis that expresses a low degree of solidarity between the speaker and the addressee.Some uses of the second person pronouns Sie in German and vous in French signal politeness.

Using our language in a polite way, not to offend anybody. While speaking politely we usually use more words, for example – Could I possibly ask you if you do not mind if I open the window ??

Politeness in pragmatics is connected with keeping some conventions etc. in many occasions people say more words than are really necessary. Or do not say anything although they would like to say in order not to offence listener.It is connected with the “face” in Politeness theory and Face Threatening Acts.

117.maximes of politeness according to Leech(1983)The tact maxim states: 'Minimize the expression of beliefs which imply cost to other; maximize the expression of beliefs which imply benefit to other.' The first part of this maxim fits in with Brown and Levinson's negative politeness strategy of minimising the imposition, and the second part reflects the positive politeness strategy of attending to the hearer's interests, wants, and needs: Could I interrupt you for a second? If I could just clarify this then.Leech's Generosity maxim states: 'Minimize the expression of benefit to self; maximize the expression of cost to self.' Unlike the tact maxim, the maxim of generosity focuses on the speaker, and says that others should be put first instead of the self. You relax and let me do the dishes. You must come and have dinner with us.The Approbation maxim states: 'Minimize the expression of beliefs which express dispraise of other; maximize the expression of beliefs which express approval of other.' The operation of this maxim is fairly obvious: all things being equal, we prefer to praise others and if we cannot do so, to sidestep the issue, to give some sort of minimal response (possibly through the use of euphemisms), or to remain silent. The first part of the maxim avoids disagreement; the second part intends to make other people feel good by showing solidarity. I heard you singing at the karaoke last night. It was, um... different. John, I know you're a genius - would you know how to solve this math problem here?The Modesty maxim states: 'Minimize the expression of praise of self; maximize the expression of dispraise of self.' Oh, I'm so stupid - I didn't make a note of our lecture! Did you?The Agreement maxim runs as follows: 'Minimize the expression of disagreement between self and other; maximize the expression of agreement between self and other.' It is in line with Brown and Levinson's positive politeness strategies of 'seek agreement' and 'avoid disagreement,' to which they attach great importance. However, it is not being claimed that people totally avoid disagreement. It is simply observed that they are much more direct in expressing agreement, rather than disagreement. A: I don't want my daughter to do this, I want her to do that. B: Yes, but ma'am, I thought we resolved this already on your last visit.The sympathy maxim states: 'minimize antipathy between self and other; maximize sympathy between self and other.' This includes a small group of speech acts such as congratulation, commiseration, and expressing condolences - all of which is in accordance with Brown and Levinson's positive politeness strategy of attending to the hearer's interests, wants, and needs. I was sorry to hear about your father.

118.the concept of face inpoliteness theoryFace is your public self-image. This is the emotional and social sense of “self” that every person has. And expects everyone to recognize.“Face” – it is sth that can be maintained, kept or lost during conversation, but we want to save it. There is a positive face – our need to be liked and appreciated by everybody, we want to have the same rules or better, we want

others to have our rules, we want sth from others for example – respect. Negative face – need not to be pushed about, not to be resticted, we want to have our freedom of action. When we preserve somebody` s face he or she would preserve ours.

119. face threatening acts – which acts threaten particular aspects of face?If we say something that represent a threat to other person self image that is called face threatening act.Behaviors that run contrary to the face needs of senders and/or receivers are referred to as face-threatening acts (FTAs). For instance, communicative acts such as insults or criticisms can threaten receivers' positive face by conveying disapproval, while requests for favors can threaten receivers' negative face by constraining receivers' behaviors and imposing on their autonomy. Other behaviors can threaten senders' own face needs; a confession of wrongdoing can threaten senders' positive face because it may elicit disapproval from others, while a promise of help can threaten senders' negative face by obligating senders to engage in certain behaviors in the future. FTAs are often linguistic in form (e.g., criticisms, request, apologies), although Trees and Manusov (1998) recently examined the face-threatening characteristics of nonverbal behavior.

120. global strategies of face saving.Whenever we say something that lessens the possible threat to others.

Metodyka

36. Define and compare the notions of approach method and technique.Approach-this refers to the theories about the nature of lg and lg. learning that serve as a source of practices and principles lg. this is the level at which the assumptions and believes about the lg and lg. learning are specified. An approach describes how people acquire their knowledge of the lg and makes statement about the conditions which will promote successful lg. learning.Method-is practical realisation of the approach. The level at which theory is put into practice. Teachers decide which methods should be helpful to students. Methods include various techniques and procedures.Technique-the level at which the classroom procedure are described. Example: common technique when sing video teaching is silent viewing.First of them refers to theories and the second shows how to put them into practice and the last one shows examples of that practical exercises.

38.discuss the notion of Communicative Lg Teaching and its implications for the classroom practice.Also known as communicative approach. It includes the re-examination of what aspects of lg to teach and a shift in emphasis how to teach. In what to teach aspect significance of lg. functions is stressed, it is not focusing only o vocabulary and grammar. Guiding principle is to use these lg. forms appropriately in a variety of contexts and purposes. How to teach aspect is related to the idea that lg learning will take care of itself. Students should be exposed to as much lg as it is possible. Very popular become role-play and simulations where students have to produce a scene and very important is that they have a desire and purpose for communication. They should use variety of lg. and teacher should not intervene so it would seem like real conversation. Meaning, form, fluency are very important. Key to enhancement desire ad purpose of communication is information gap. Where students ask one another to exchange information they don’t know.

35.discuss learning stylesKeith willing described four learning styles. Convergers: those are students who avoid groups and prefer to work individually. They are confident in their own abilities. They are analytic and can impose their own structures of leaning.Conformists: students who prefer to learn about lg. rather than about using it. Tend to depend on those with authority and find themselves really well in non-communicative classes. They prefer to see well organised teachers.Concrete learners: they like conformists but they also enjoy social aspects of learning. Interested in lg. as communication and like games and group work in the class.Communicative learners- comfortable out of class and show confidence that their colleagues may lack. They interested in social aspect of lg. and work well without guidance of teacher.

20.discuss learning strategiesStrategies are methods of approaching problem or task. According to Rubin there are three types of strategies used by learners directly or indirectly to lg. learning.Learning strategies:

-Cognitive strategies: steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation or synthesis offering materials. Main strategies: classification, guessing, deductive reasoning, practice, memorization, monitoring- metacogitive strategies: used to oversee, regulate or self-direct lg. learning. They involve various processes as planning, prioritizing, setting goals, and self-management. Communication strategies: their focus is on the process of participating in a conversation and getting meaning across or clarifying what the speaker intended. used by speakers when faced with some difficulty due to the fact that their communication ends.Social strategies: creating opportunities for using lg. interacting with others.

59.characterise good lg test (types)Test is a tool used to measure the abilities and knowledge of students or anything it suppose to test. Tests give feedback on various elements. Tests should be valid ad reliable. It is valid when it tests what it suppose to test. It means that teacher should not expect from students to convey a conversation on subject they are not familiar with, but on some simpler matters to check if they can properly express their opinion. Test is reliable when it got consistent results. When students would take the same test twice, one after another without referring to the first one the results should be reliable. Teacher can enhance reliability by making instructions comprehensible.There are 4 types of tests:Placement tests: its aim is to get to know students level of knowledge in order to put them in the right class in school, and what course book to choose that will better suit their level (wouldn’t be to difficult or too easy). Diagnostic tests: the are used to exposure learning difficulties, gaps in their knowledge. Knowing their problems with lg. we ca help them to understand and learn.Progress or achievement tests: they are used to measure learners lg. and skills progress in relation to the syllabus they have been following. They work only when we expose the material students are familiar with.Proficiency tests: they give general view of students knowledge and proficiency. Proficiency tests have backwash effect. In most cases they are important exams and Students want to pass them. Sometimes teacher reputation depends on how many of them succeed. 79. advantages and disadvantages of using audio-visual aids in FL teaching.Realia are people and real objects that give us information. The teacher can make use of his/her movements, gestures, signals, mimics, and hands.  Real objects can be used for various purposes, such as teaching pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar (map)Pictures: Most learners are visual minded, so pictures are a great help in teaching. They remind the learner of the meaning and help him/her communicate.(can be used several times)Blackboard: It is the most common visual aid available to the teachers. (use colorful chalk, underline important points) Flashcards: These are pieces of cards large enough for the whole class to see. These may either drawings, magazine cut-outs, pictures, written words or numbers. They are called flash cards because they are shown to the class for a short time. Wall chards: These are large pictures with a lot of in them. They are used for question-and-answer work, for oral composition, for practicing adjectives, and for discussing the relations of objects and people. Pocket charts are investigative tools which use pictures as stimulus to encourage people to assess and analyze a given situation. "Pockets" are made of cloth, paper or cardboard and are attached to a poster-sized piece of paper or cloth. In general, the combination of activities in a pocket chart exercise has been a successful mean of generating participation and consensus in both community and classroom settings.

Advantages - very easy to use, can depict lots of information, lasting reference, inexpensive. can be pre-prepared, good at getting attention, retains interest, can be prepared quickly, transparencies can be stored. Very effective in specialist role, inexpensive broadcast equipment. Used many times. Disadvantages - Can be a distraction, Visibility can be a problem, takes time to annotate, easily damaged can be time consuming, only short duration use.

106. the teacher’s roles in class(communicative class)

Teacher acts as: controller, prompter, assessor, organizer, participant, resource, tutor, observer.Controller-teacher is in charge of activities. Organises drills and read out loud. Whole class teaching, give explanations, restore order. Organiser-give information how to do activities and organise students to various things. Get students ready for exercise and instruct them. Engage- instruct- initiate- organise feedbackAssessor-teacher offer students evaluation of their work. Gives them information if they can pass to another level of knowledge. Teacher must remember to be fair and to give them constructive criticism. They need to know what they did wrong.Prompter-when students are lost in exercise this is the time of teachers discrete help. But she or he must remember not to push the students into doing something because then their initiative will disappear.Participant-when teacher takes part and is involved in the discussion. Its better to correct mistake from that angle. When teacher joins the conversation it becomes more lively.Resource- when students have problems with vocabulary. They may want to ask some questions and they turn to direct source. (spoon feeding-teacher can’t give them everything on the plate, ss independence) Tutor- teacher work with particular students show them what direction they should go.Observer- after conversation teacher gives feedback to students. Teacher should be careful not to be intrusive and not hang on every mistake. Then at the end give general feedback start with positive things and then go to mistakes.

79.elements of the lesson plan(lesson planning)The lesson plan is a framework for lesson it allows inexperienced teacher organize materials, content and methods. It sets out what the teacher wants to achieve during the lesson and how he/she hopes to do this. It is important that all teachers think through their lessons before going inside the classroom. Types of lesson planning:Vague plan- teacher make his plan in his head while walking the corridor to lesson.Following a course book- teacher do exactly as it is inside the book.Jungle path- teacher walks into the class with no real idea what he/she will do. Teacher can ask students what they want to do or make up something while checking presence.Formal plans- teachers make them mostly when lesson is to be observed. Planning notes- just writing in their notebooks things to do on number of page they ended last time.Principles of planning:Aims- realistic goals for the lesson to achieve.Variety- different types of exercises and interesting subject this may keep students interested in lesson.Flexibility- teacher must be ready when something unexpected occurs and deal with situation. Don’t let the plan dominate plan is only a guide how teacher achieves the aim is a matter of his choice. There are 4 main planning elements:Activities- the best lesson offers a variety of exercises and by choosing them we can ensure that students will be engaged and motivated during the lesson. Decide how students will work (pair, groups)Skills-decision about what skills teacher want students to practice.Lg.- what kind of vocabulary and lg. teacher will present to students.Content- choose content that will provoke and interest students.The formal plan:1.class description- he age of students their level of knowledge give lesson topic sometimes what have been done on last lesson and how the students felt about it.2.lesson aims- it reflect what we want students to do or what they should be capable to do.3.activities, procedures and timing- the main body of lesson. Description of teachers leading and students behaviour. What types of activities are included what exercises they do. What interaction will take place in the class. 4.problems and possibilities- good plan tries to predict possible problems and finds way of dealing with them. Includes alterative activities and think about solutions to problems.

55?structure of a FL lesson

111.homework and its functions

The classroom is the place where much learning takes place. However useful and necessary part of students learning is creating a continuum between one lesson and another and its covers certain section of the course. Homework should tell students whether the material has been learned or not. It teaches independence, organisation and self-pacing. Students are working through out the week on their lg. In this way students can monitor their learning. This is also so called “window” for parents to know if their children are learning and they can observe their education and involvement to the subject.

73. the use of authentic texts at various levels of lg. competence (give examples) (authentic materials).Materials that have been produced to fulfill some social purpose in the language community. Authentic materials are designed for native speakers of particular lg. there are many advantage of using authentic materials. -Students are exposed to real discourse, as in videos of interviews with famous people where intermediate students listen for gist.-Authentic materials keep students informed about what is happening in the world.-Textbooks often do not include incidental or improper English.-They can produce a sense of achievement, e.g., a brochure on England given to students to plan a 4-day visit.-The same piece of material can be used under different circumstances if the task is different.-Reading texts are ideal to teach/practise mini-skills such as scanning, e.g. students are given a news article and asked to look for specific information (amounts, percentages, etc.) . The teacher can have students practice some of the micro-skills mentioned by Richards (1983), e.g. basic students listen to news reports and they are asked to identify the names of countries, famous people, etc. (ability to detect key words).-Books, articles, newspapers, and so on contain a wide variety of text types, language styles not easily found in conventional teaching materials.-They can encourage reading for pleasure.There are also some disadvantages:-They may be too culturally biased, so difficult to understand outside the language community. -The vocabulary might not be relevant to the student's immediate needs.-Too many structures are mixed so lower levels have a hard time decoding the texts.-Special preparation is necessary which can be time consuming.-With listening: too many different accents.The materials can have different sources. They can come from newspapers radio, tv, internet. Movies, songs, and many more.

18. explain the concept of multiple intelligences in lg. teaching and learning(and its implications for L2)……………………..Children learn in many different ways. Gardiner differentiated 7 intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, special, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal. The two first are especially valued at schools. If we can develop ways to teach and learn by engaging all seven intelligences, we will increase the possibilities for students’ success.-In terms of Culture it means support for diverse learners and hard work; acting on a value system that maintains that diverse students can learn and succeed; that learning is exciting; and that hard work by teachers is necessary. -In terms of readiness it means awareness-building for implementing multiple intelligences. Building staff awareness of multiple intelligences and of the different ways that students learn.-Rather than using the theory as an end in and of itself, multiple intelligences can be used as a Tool to promote high-quality student work -It can foster Collaboration - informal and formal exchanges – sharing ideas and constructive suggestions by the staff. -It allows for Choice - meaningful curriculum and assessment options; embedding curriculum and assessment in activities that are valued both by students and the wider culture. -It employs the Arts to develop children's skills and understanding within and across disciplines.

43.what is community lg. learning

Main idea is that students are responsible for their learning. But at the beginning students are dependent on the teacher and while the course proceeds less and less. A way of teaching is that students sit in a circle, teacher is outside the circle, and students for example ask teacher questions about the vocabulary they don’t know, and teacher translates. It can be recorded to view the lesson later. Charles Curran distinguished elements which are important to make lg. successful. Security(ss feel secure), aggression(involved in the lesson), attention(concentrate on the lg.), reflection(t. reads ss respond), retention(integration of material), discrimination(difference between TL forms). Teacher is supportive and helps student to feel comfortable. He/she asks them how they feel, students are evaluated when they speak. Teacher uses gentle correction. Students say something and teacher repeats it without mistake, but does not say good or bad.

42.what is the silent way methodIts most notable feature is that teacher does not take part in conversation and says as little as possible. Caleb Cattegno believed that learning is best facilitated through discovery and creating lg. students interact with objects like cuisinary rods and there, where is a problem-solving element. On the lesson teacher shows phonetic chards and pronounce the sound then student has to repeat it if he is right teacher goes to another chard but if not teacher asks another student until he hears correct answer. Through all the procedure teacher shows through the gestures and expressions if the students been right. they learn to solve the lg. problems by themselves. It was said that it is not a very good way of teaching its rather creating a barrier than motivating, but it is also students task to take responsibility for their learning. This method is mainly used to introduce phonetic sounds, cuisenaire rod and partially discovery techniques.

41.what is suggestopediaThis method was developed by Georgi Lozanov. The most important for suggestopedia is physical surrounding and atmosphere of the classroom. When students are relaxed, comfortable and confident learning is enhanced. Teacher makes everything for students to feel secure. teacher and students exist in parent-children relationship. All barriers are removed and children can be given new names from their outside ones(which they like). Traumatic themes are removed and teacher treats children with sympathy what is vitally important. Teacher presents to students dialogues and during the reading music is played. There are 2 readings which are called concerts. Firs one is active. It means that children listen to the dialogue and read silently at the some time, it is also good when they have the translation of the dialogue. The second reading is called passive. students just listen during it. It is also said that learning take place during sleep. There is no formal evaluation of their work. Testing or marking. Teacher just observes students and evaluate their progress.

44.what is total physical response methodJames Asher said that if children learn through lg. acquisition it would be a good method to teach adults as well. Students would learn much easier through the commands. He combined it with physical response. Teacher was giving commands and students where completing them. Like stand up, come to the blackboard. And when they can respond to commands correctly they could give commands to one another. Critics point out that this kind of teaching is appropriate with beginners only. Teacher does not expect from students to be perfect and students start talking and giving commands when they are ready.

82.discuss the advantages and disadvantages of pair workstudents take part in information-gap, dialogues, predict, compare.Advantages: increases the amount of speaking time, allows students work independently, gives teacher time for 2 or 3 pairs at one time, two heads are better than one, it teaches cooperation and integration, easy to organise.Disadvantages: disturbing noise, fall of the course leads to misbehaviour, students switch to mother tongue, students may be not content with the choice of partner so teacher in that matter must be careful.

93.what areas of pronunciation should be taught?Intonation-so called the music of speech. It is used to show involvement, emotions, empathy. Thanks to it we can recognise if our speaker ended the conversation if he is bored or if the issue is stated or open for discussion. We use it also co confirm our believe. Without proper knowledge of intonation we can misread the message that speaker wants to pass.

Pitch-people have different pitches of voce. Ones have low and others high. We have a particular range of our pitch and we can modulate out voice when making a statement or asking a question. Stress-is vitally important in conveying messages in sentences and phrases. Putting stress on different parts in the sentence may introduce different meaning as well as using bad stress in longer words. They can mean different thing when stressing it wrong. Sounds and spelling- we must stress that spelling is different from pronunciation, so we must be careful not to make a mistake when speaking. To help students understand how it works teacher can show how lips are placed, draw a diagram of mouth, compare and contrast two sounds, can exercise with students, make them to repeat the sounds after him and practice recognition of sounds through eg tongue-twisters, poetry, games. 70.choosing coursebook-criteria to be considered.The best way to when choosing a course book is to make a check list. Teacher can also use already made one but in this case he/she takes the point of view of the author of this list. He must also take into a consideration that this method can fail anyway. Teacher needs to include feeling of student what they think about the materials and exercises if they like it or not. There are many aspects we can look for. Teacher just have to think about as many issues he/she wants to be included in the book and make a list.

80.video in the classroomAdvantages for using video-teaching aids are that they rises cross-cultural awareness it allows students to look at the situations outside the classroom and at the same time they can learn something about people from another county what they like, do, eat. students can see lg.-in-use now they can also see body lg. and face expressions, moods and gestures. Important aspect of the power of creation is that students can make a movie by themselves they themselves can be directors and operators. Can be creative and communicative users of lg. and least but not last is motivation visual aids increase interest and can be very useful when pared up with proper exercises. But on the other hand there are some problems like: nothing-new syndrome. Nowadays switching on the tv isn’t enough for students. It’s not interesting so teacher must find proper kind of movie, that will interest students and that construct interesting exercises so students won’t get bored. Anther problem is quality tapes and disks poorly filmed material will not engage students into the topic and lesson. Teacher must check the quality of tape first. What’s more there is a problem of poor viewing conditions. Teacher must be sure that all students can see and hear the tape otherwise the group will be doing exercises and other just sitting. Frustrating for students is stopping and starting the tape to show them only some fragments of the movie. This will not gain students interest only irritate them. They must know that there is purpose I watching or listening and teacher should show them the end of the story they watching. Important is length of the extracts. They shouldn’t be too long. Approximately 2-3 minutes is enough. When introducing longer extracts teacher should organise some exercises to get students evolved all the time. And last problem is called fingers and thumbs when teacher look for the fragment of text or scene she/he would like students to see. It is also irritating for them and for teacher when the machine does not work properly.There are three types of programmes that teacher can use. Off-air programmes that are recorded from television and include elements of cross-culture. Real-word programmes-produced by companies, wild life movies, comedies. Lg. learning videos-provided by publishes to accompany the book. Designed especially to assist the particular subject. Viewing techniques-fast forward, silent viewing, freeze frame, partial viewing, picture less listening, pictureless music, sound effects, picture or speech.

14. Major assumptions of the cognitive theory of language32.articulatory differences between plosives, fricatives and approximants105.Reflections of indexicality in grammar

55.Obligatorily bound and potentially free morphsObligatorily bound morphemes – specific realizations of a morpheme that only occurs in context where the morpheme is combined with another morphemepotentially free morphs - words that can stand on their own and have their own meaning. Lexical morphemes. morphemes can appear with other lexemes or they can stand alone, or "free"

101.Proximal and distal deictic itemsNear or closer to the speaker, and distal, i.e. far from the speaker and/or closer to the addressee. English exemplifies this with such pairs as this and that, here and there, etc.

70 how to distinguish monotransitive and intensive verbsIntensive verbs are commonly known as linking verbs, or copular verbs. The have the following structure: Subject+Linking Verb+Subject Complement. The Subject Complement can be a noun, (i.e., a predicate nominal), an adjective (i.e., a predicate adjective) or an adverb (i.e., adverbs of time or place, and prepositional phrases.

EXAMPLESShe is my doctor.He is my teacher.She is nice.Those people are married.He seems young.

-If the subject complement (SC) modifies other nouns, then it's an adjective:She is nice => She is a nice person.Those people are married => Those are married people.

-If the SC answers the question Where? or When?, then it's an adverb:Sam is in the car => Where is Sam?The party is tomorrow => When is the party?

-A SC that doesn't fit the above distributional patterns is a noun.She is my doctor => She = a doctorThey are cats => They = cats

-Note, there's no reason to memorize the entire list of linking verbs. There's a simple test you can use: replace the verb with e.g., is, am, was, were, been, etc.I love baseball.*I am baseball. ('love' is not a linking verb in this sentence)She looks at me all the time.*She is at me all the time. ('looks' is not a linking verb in this sentence)

A monotransitive verb is a verb that takes two arguments: a subject and a single direct object. For example, the verbs buy, bite, break, and eat are monotransitive in English.Verbs are categorized in terms of transitivity (i. e. how many and which types of syntactic arguments they may cooccur with), the basic distinction being between transitive verbs (taking two or more arguments) and intransitive verbs (taking one argument). The transitive category is further divided into subclasses.The following examples show monotransitive verbs in sentences (the direct object is in boldface):

Yesterday, I bought a cat. The cat bit me! He broke the toothpick. The chef ate his own watermelon soup.