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English li̇nguistics
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Introduction to Linguistics The scientific study of
language
Tarık İNCEELT Teacher Training Course
Topics
1 What is Language
2 Brain and Language
3 Morphology The Words of Language
4 Syntax The Sentence Patterns of Language
5 The Meanings of Language
6 Phonetics The Sounds of Language
7 Phonology The Sound Patterns of Language
8 Language Acquisition
9 Language Processing Humans and Computer
10 Language in Society
11 Language Change The Syllables of Time
12 Writing The ABCs of Language
UNIT 1 THE ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE We simply do not know how language originated We do not know that spoken language developed well before written language Yet we have no physical evidence relating to speech of our ancestors Because of this absence of evidence speculations about origins of human speech have been developed The Divine Source ldquo If infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language then they would spontaneously begin using the original God-given language ldquoThe Natural Sound Source ldquo Primitive words could have been imitations of the naturel sounds which early men amp women heard around them ldquo Examples cuckoo splash bang boom This view has been called ldquo bow-wow theory ldquo of language origin and these words echoing naturel sounds are called ldquo onomatopoeic words ldquo A similar suggestion ldquo The original sounds of language came from naturel cries of emotion such as pain anger amp joy Examples Ouch Ah Hey Yo-heave-ho Theory The sounds of a person involved in physical effort could be the source of our language especially when that physical effort involved several people and had to be coordinated The importance of yo-heave-ho theory is that it places the development of human language in some SOCIAL CONTEXT
The Oral-Gesture Source The theory comes from the idea that there is a link between physical gesture amp orally produced sounds First of all a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication Then a set of oral gestures specially involving the mouth developed in which the movements of the tongue lips amp so on where recognized according to patterns of movement similar to physical gestures Glossogenetics The focus is on the biological basis of the formation In the evolutionary development there are certain physical features best thought of a partical adaptations that appear to be relevant for speech By themselves such features would not not lead to speech production but they are good clues that a creature possessing such features probably has the capacity for speech
Physiological Adaptations Human teeth lips mouth tongue larynx pharynx amp brain have been created in such a way to coordinate in producing speech sounds Their places connections amp coordinative functions make humankind different from all the living creatures
Interactions amp Transactions There are two major functions of language bull Interactional Function It is related with how human use language to interact with each other socially or emotionally how they Express therir feelings or their ideas bull Transactional Function It is related with how human use their linguistic abilities to transfer knowledge from onegeneration to the next
UNIT 2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING Much of the evidence used in the reconstruction of ancient writing systems comes from inscriptions on stone or tablets found in the ruble of ruined cities
Pictograms amp Ideograms A Picture representing a particular image in a consistent way it is called Picture-writing or Pictogram There must be a link between the pictogram and its meaning So we can easily understand what is refers to when we look at the pictogram
More abstracts forms of pictograms are called Ideograms The relationship between the entity amp the symbol is not easily understood like pictograms bull A shared property of both pictograms amp ideograms is that they do not present words or sounds in a particular language
Logograms When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language they described as examples of word-writing or logograms Logographic writing was used by Sumerians amp their particular inscriptions are called CUNEIFORM WRITING Cuneiform means wedge-shaped and it was produced by pressing a wedge- shaped implement into soft clay tablets When we consider the relationship between the written form amp the object it represents it is arbitrary We may accept the cuneiform inscriptions of Sumerians as rdquo the earliest known writing system ldquo
Rebus Writing The symbol for one entity is taken over as the symbol for the sound of the spoken word used to refer to that entity One symbol can be used in many different ways with a range of meanings This brings a sizeable reduction in the number of symbols needed in a writing system Syllabic Writing When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables it is described as syllabic writing There are no purely syllabic writing systems in use today but modern Japanese can be written with a single symbols which represent spoken syllables amp is consequently often described as having a syllabic writing or a syllabary
Alphabetic Writing An alphabet is essentially a set of written symbols which each represent a single type of sound
Written English bull The spelling of written English took place in 15 th century via printing so Latin amp French affected the written forms bull Many of the early printers were Dutch so they were not very successful in English pronounciation bull Since the 15 th century spoken English has undergone a lot of changes
1 What is language
1 system of arbitrary vocal symbols which permit all people in a given culture or other people who have learned the system of that culture to communicate or to interact (Finocchiaro)
2 system of communication by sound operating through organs of speech and hearing among members of a community using vocal symbols possessing arbitrary conventional meanings (Pei)
3 any set or system of linguistic symbols as used in a more or less uniform fashion by people who are enabled to communicate intelligibly with one another (Random House)
4 system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Wardhaugh)
5 a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs sounds gestures or marks having understood meanings (Gove)
6 Other definitions found in introductory textbooks on linguistics include concepts of
a) the generatively or creativity of language b) the presumed primacy of speech over writing and c) the universality of language among human beings
A Consolidation of the Definitions
1 Language is a set of arbitrary symbols
2 Those symbols are primarily vocal but may also be visual
3 The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer
4 Language is used for communication
5 Language operates in a speech community or culture
6 Language is essentially human although possibly not limited to humans
7 Language is acquired by all people in much the same waymdashlanguage and language learning both have universal characteristics
What Does Knowing a Language Mean
We know a system that relates sounds (or hand and body gestures) with meanings
When you know a language you know this system
We know the grammar of a language
We have a limited set of rules that comprise the grammar of a language
This mental grammar is learned when you acquire the language
What is Grammar
the sound system (the phonology)
the structure of words (the morphology)
how words may be combined into phrases and sentences (the syntax)
the ways in which sounds and meanings are related (semantics) and words or lexicon
Competence and Performance
Linguistic knowledge is different from linguistic behavior
Linguistic competence refers to our knowledge of the language we speak
Linguistic performance refers to actual use of language or how our knowledge of the language is put into use
Our linguistic performance does not always truly reflect our linguistic competence
Universal Grammar
The more linguists investigate languages and describe ways in which they differ from each other the more they discover that these differences are limited
There are linguistic universals that pertain to all parts of grammars the ways in which these parts are related and the forms of rules
These principles comprise Universal Grammar which forms basis of specific grammars of all possible human languages They are aspects of lang that all lang have in common
Types of Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
2 Pedagogical Grammar
3 Prescriptive Grammar
4 Reference Grammar
5 Theoretical Grammar
6 Traditional Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
describes grammatical constructions without making any evaluative judgments about their standing in societyThese grammars are commonplace in linguistics where it is practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material describe in detail patterns it contains
2 Pedagogical Grammar
A book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue
Such teaching grammars are widely used in schools so much so that many people have only one meaning for the term grammar a grammar book
3 Prescriptive Grammar
A manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language
These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries Their influence lives on in handbooks of usage widely found today such as the Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933)
4 Reference Grammar
tries to be as comprehensive as possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts (like reference lexicon dictionary)A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-) et al
5 Theoretical Grammar
goes beyond the study of individual languages to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis
and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals
6 Traditional Grammar
A term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science
It includes work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians Renaissance writers and 18th-century prescriptive grammarians It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches but linguist generally use the term pejoratively identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study in which languages were analyzed in terms of Latin with scant regard for empirical facts However many basic notions used by modern approaches can be found in these early writings and there is now fresh interest in study of traditional grammar
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Topics
1 What is Language
2 Brain and Language
3 Morphology The Words of Language
4 Syntax The Sentence Patterns of Language
5 The Meanings of Language
6 Phonetics The Sounds of Language
7 Phonology The Sound Patterns of Language
8 Language Acquisition
9 Language Processing Humans and Computer
10 Language in Society
11 Language Change The Syllables of Time
12 Writing The ABCs of Language
UNIT 1 THE ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE We simply do not know how language originated We do not know that spoken language developed well before written language Yet we have no physical evidence relating to speech of our ancestors Because of this absence of evidence speculations about origins of human speech have been developed The Divine Source ldquo If infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language then they would spontaneously begin using the original God-given language ldquoThe Natural Sound Source ldquo Primitive words could have been imitations of the naturel sounds which early men amp women heard around them ldquo Examples cuckoo splash bang boom This view has been called ldquo bow-wow theory ldquo of language origin and these words echoing naturel sounds are called ldquo onomatopoeic words ldquo A similar suggestion ldquo The original sounds of language came from naturel cries of emotion such as pain anger amp joy Examples Ouch Ah Hey Yo-heave-ho Theory The sounds of a person involved in physical effort could be the source of our language especially when that physical effort involved several people and had to be coordinated The importance of yo-heave-ho theory is that it places the development of human language in some SOCIAL CONTEXT
The Oral-Gesture Source The theory comes from the idea that there is a link between physical gesture amp orally produced sounds First of all a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication Then a set of oral gestures specially involving the mouth developed in which the movements of the tongue lips amp so on where recognized according to patterns of movement similar to physical gestures Glossogenetics The focus is on the biological basis of the formation In the evolutionary development there are certain physical features best thought of a partical adaptations that appear to be relevant for speech By themselves such features would not not lead to speech production but they are good clues that a creature possessing such features probably has the capacity for speech
Physiological Adaptations Human teeth lips mouth tongue larynx pharynx amp brain have been created in such a way to coordinate in producing speech sounds Their places connections amp coordinative functions make humankind different from all the living creatures
Interactions amp Transactions There are two major functions of language bull Interactional Function It is related with how human use language to interact with each other socially or emotionally how they Express therir feelings or their ideas bull Transactional Function It is related with how human use their linguistic abilities to transfer knowledge from onegeneration to the next
UNIT 2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING Much of the evidence used in the reconstruction of ancient writing systems comes from inscriptions on stone or tablets found in the ruble of ruined cities
Pictograms amp Ideograms A Picture representing a particular image in a consistent way it is called Picture-writing or Pictogram There must be a link between the pictogram and its meaning So we can easily understand what is refers to when we look at the pictogram
More abstracts forms of pictograms are called Ideograms The relationship between the entity amp the symbol is not easily understood like pictograms bull A shared property of both pictograms amp ideograms is that they do not present words or sounds in a particular language
Logograms When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language they described as examples of word-writing or logograms Logographic writing was used by Sumerians amp their particular inscriptions are called CUNEIFORM WRITING Cuneiform means wedge-shaped and it was produced by pressing a wedge- shaped implement into soft clay tablets When we consider the relationship between the written form amp the object it represents it is arbitrary We may accept the cuneiform inscriptions of Sumerians as rdquo the earliest known writing system ldquo
Rebus Writing The symbol for one entity is taken over as the symbol for the sound of the spoken word used to refer to that entity One symbol can be used in many different ways with a range of meanings This brings a sizeable reduction in the number of symbols needed in a writing system Syllabic Writing When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables it is described as syllabic writing There are no purely syllabic writing systems in use today but modern Japanese can be written with a single symbols which represent spoken syllables amp is consequently often described as having a syllabic writing or a syllabary
Alphabetic Writing An alphabet is essentially a set of written symbols which each represent a single type of sound
Written English bull The spelling of written English took place in 15 th century via printing so Latin amp French affected the written forms bull Many of the early printers were Dutch so they were not very successful in English pronounciation bull Since the 15 th century spoken English has undergone a lot of changes
1 What is language
1 system of arbitrary vocal symbols which permit all people in a given culture or other people who have learned the system of that culture to communicate or to interact (Finocchiaro)
2 system of communication by sound operating through organs of speech and hearing among members of a community using vocal symbols possessing arbitrary conventional meanings (Pei)
3 any set or system of linguistic symbols as used in a more or less uniform fashion by people who are enabled to communicate intelligibly with one another (Random House)
4 system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Wardhaugh)
5 a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs sounds gestures or marks having understood meanings (Gove)
6 Other definitions found in introductory textbooks on linguistics include concepts of
a) the generatively or creativity of language b) the presumed primacy of speech over writing and c) the universality of language among human beings
A Consolidation of the Definitions
1 Language is a set of arbitrary symbols
2 Those symbols are primarily vocal but may also be visual
3 The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer
4 Language is used for communication
5 Language operates in a speech community or culture
6 Language is essentially human although possibly not limited to humans
7 Language is acquired by all people in much the same waymdashlanguage and language learning both have universal characteristics
What Does Knowing a Language Mean
We know a system that relates sounds (or hand and body gestures) with meanings
When you know a language you know this system
We know the grammar of a language
We have a limited set of rules that comprise the grammar of a language
This mental grammar is learned when you acquire the language
What is Grammar
the sound system (the phonology)
the structure of words (the morphology)
how words may be combined into phrases and sentences (the syntax)
the ways in which sounds and meanings are related (semantics) and words or lexicon
Competence and Performance
Linguistic knowledge is different from linguistic behavior
Linguistic competence refers to our knowledge of the language we speak
Linguistic performance refers to actual use of language or how our knowledge of the language is put into use
Our linguistic performance does not always truly reflect our linguistic competence
Universal Grammar
The more linguists investigate languages and describe ways in which they differ from each other the more they discover that these differences are limited
There are linguistic universals that pertain to all parts of grammars the ways in which these parts are related and the forms of rules
These principles comprise Universal Grammar which forms basis of specific grammars of all possible human languages They are aspects of lang that all lang have in common
Types of Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
2 Pedagogical Grammar
3 Prescriptive Grammar
4 Reference Grammar
5 Theoretical Grammar
6 Traditional Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
describes grammatical constructions without making any evaluative judgments about their standing in societyThese grammars are commonplace in linguistics where it is practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material describe in detail patterns it contains
2 Pedagogical Grammar
A book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue
Such teaching grammars are widely used in schools so much so that many people have only one meaning for the term grammar a grammar book
3 Prescriptive Grammar
A manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language
These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries Their influence lives on in handbooks of usage widely found today such as the Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933)
4 Reference Grammar
tries to be as comprehensive as possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts (like reference lexicon dictionary)A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-) et al
5 Theoretical Grammar
goes beyond the study of individual languages to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis
and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals
6 Traditional Grammar
A term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science
It includes work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians Renaissance writers and 18th-century prescriptive grammarians It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches but linguist generally use the term pejoratively identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study in which languages were analyzed in terms of Latin with scant regard for empirical facts However many basic notions used by modern approaches can be found in these early writings and there is now fresh interest in study of traditional grammar
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
UNIT 1 THE ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE We simply do not know how language originated We do not know that spoken language developed well before written language Yet we have no physical evidence relating to speech of our ancestors Because of this absence of evidence speculations about origins of human speech have been developed The Divine Source ldquo If infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language then they would spontaneously begin using the original God-given language ldquoThe Natural Sound Source ldquo Primitive words could have been imitations of the naturel sounds which early men amp women heard around them ldquo Examples cuckoo splash bang boom This view has been called ldquo bow-wow theory ldquo of language origin and these words echoing naturel sounds are called ldquo onomatopoeic words ldquo A similar suggestion ldquo The original sounds of language came from naturel cries of emotion such as pain anger amp joy Examples Ouch Ah Hey Yo-heave-ho Theory The sounds of a person involved in physical effort could be the source of our language especially when that physical effort involved several people and had to be coordinated The importance of yo-heave-ho theory is that it places the development of human language in some SOCIAL CONTEXT
The Oral-Gesture Source The theory comes from the idea that there is a link between physical gesture amp orally produced sounds First of all a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication Then a set of oral gestures specially involving the mouth developed in which the movements of the tongue lips amp so on where recognized according to patterns of movement similar to physical gestures Glossogenetics The focus is on the biological basis of the formation In the evolutionary development there are certain physical features best thought of a partical adaptations that appear to be relevant for speech By themselves such features would not not lead to speech production but they are good clues that a creature possessing such features probably has the capacity for speech
Physiological Adaptations Human teeth lips mouth tongue larynx pharynx amp brain have been created in such a way to coordinate in producing speech sounds Their places connections amp coordinative functions make humankind different from all the living creatures
Interactions amp Transactions There are two major functions of language bull Interactional Function It is related with how human use language to interact with each other socially or emotionally how they Express therir feelings or their ideas bull Transactional Function It is related with how human use their linguistic abilities to transfer knowledge from onegeneration to the next
UNIT 2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING Much of the evidence used in the reconstruction of ancient writing systems comes from inscriptions on stone or tablets found in the ruble of ruined cities
Pictograms amp Ideograms A Picture representing a particular image in a consistent way it is called Picture-writing or Pictogram There must be a link between the pictogram and its meaning So we can easily understand what is refers to when we look at the pictogram
More abstracts forms of pictograms are called Ideograms The relationship between the entity amp the symbol is not easily understood like pictograms bull A shared property of both pictograms amp ideograms is that they do not present words or sounds in a particular language
Logograms When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language they described as examples of word-writing or logograms Logographic writing was used by Sumerians amp their particular inscriptions are called CUNEIFORM WRITING Cuneiform means wedge-shaped and it was produced by pressing a wedge- shaped implement into soft clay tablets When we consider the relationship between the written form amp the object it represents it is arbitrary We may accept the cuneiform inscriptions of Sumerians as rdquo the earliest known writing system ldquo
Rebus Writing The symbol for one entity is taken over as the symbol for the sound of the spoken word used to refer to that entity One symbol can be used in many different ways with a range of meanings This brings a sizeable reduction in the number of symbols needed in a writing system Syllabic Writing When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables it is described as syllabic writing There are no purely syllabic writing systems in use today but modern Japanese can be written with a single symbols which represent spoken syllables amp is consequently often described as having a syllabic writing or a syllabary
Alphabetic Writing An alphabet is essentially a set of written symbols which each represent a single type of sound
Written English bull The spelling of written English took place in 15 th century via printing so Latin amp French affected the written forms bull Many of the early printers were Dutch so they were not very successful in English pronounciation bull Since the 15 th century spoken English has undergone a lot of changes
1 What is language
1 system of arbitrary vocal symbols which permit all people in a given culture or other people who have learned the system of that culture to communicate or to interact (Finocchiaro)
2 system of communication by sound operating through organs of speech and hearing among members of a community using vocal symbols possessing arbitrary conventional meanings (Pei)
3 any set or system of linguistic symbols as used in a more or less uniform fashion by people who are enabled to communicate intelligibly with one another (Random House)
4 system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Wardhaugh)
5 a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs sounds gestures or marks having understood meanings (Gove)
6 Other definitions found in introductory textbooks on linguistics include concepts of
a) the generatively or creativity of language b) the presumed primacy of speech over writing and c) the universality of language among human beings
A Consolidation of the Definitions
1 Language is a set of arbitrary symbols
2 Those symbols are primarily vocal but may also be visual
3 The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer
4 Language is used for communication
5 Language operates in a speech community or culture
6 Language is essentially human although possibly not limited to humans
7 Language is acquired by all people in much the same waymdashlanguage and language learning both have universal characteristics
What Does Knowing a Language Mean
We know a system that relates sounds (or hand and body gestures) with meanings
When you know a language you know this system
We know the grammar of a language
We have a limited set of rules that comprise the grammar of a language
This mental grammar is learned when you acquire the language
What is Grammar
the sound system (the phonology)
the structure of words (the morphology)
how words may be combined into phrases and sentences (the syntax)
the ways in which sounds and meanings are related (semantics) and words or lexicon
Competence and Performance
Linguistic knowledge is different from linguistic behavior
Linguistic competence refers to our knowledge of the language we speak
Linguistic performance refers to actual use of language or how our knowledge of the language is put into use
Our linguistic performance does not always truly reflect our linguistic competence
Universal Grammar
The more linguists investigate languages and describe ways in which they differ from each other the more they discover that these differences are limited
There are linguistic universals that pertain to all parts of grammars the ways in which these parts are related and the forms of rules
These principles comprise Universal Grammar which forms basis of specific grammars of all possible human languages They are aspects of lang that all lang have in common
Types of Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
2 Pedagogical Grammar
3 Prescriptive Grammar
4 Reference Grammar
5 Theoretical Grammar
6 Traditional Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
describes grammatical constructions without making any evaluative judgments about their standing in societyThese grammars are commonplace in linguistics where it is practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material describe in detail patterns it contains
2 Pedagogical Grammar
A book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue
Such teaching grammars are widely used in schools so much so that many people have only one meaning for the term grammar a grammar book
3 Prescriptive Grammar
A manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language
These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries Their influence lives on in handbooks of usage widely found today such as the Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933)
4 Reference Grammar
tries to be as comprehensive as possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts (like reference lexicon dictionary)A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-) et al
5 Theoretical Grammar
goes beyond the study of individual languages to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis
and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals
6 Traditional Grammar
A term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science
It includes work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians Renaissance writers and 18th-century prescriptive grammarians It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches but linguist generally use the term pejoratively identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study in which languages were analyzed in terms of Latin with scant regard for empirical facts However many basic notions used by modern approaches can be found in these early writings and there is now fresh interest in study of traditional grammar
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
The Oral-Gesture Source The theory comes from the idea that there is a link between physical gesture amp orally produced sounds First of all a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication Then a set of oral gestures specially involving the mouth developed in which the movements of the tongue lips amp so on where recognized according to patterns of movement similar to physical gestures Glossogenetics The focus is on the biological basis of the formation In the evolutionary development there are certain physical features best thought of a partical adaptations that appear to be relevant for speech By themselves such features would not not lead to speech production but they are good clues that a creature possessing such features probably has the capacity for speech
Physiological Adaptations Human teeth lips mouth tongue larynx pharynx amp brain have been created in such a way to coordinate in producing speech sounds Their places connections amp coordinative functions make humankind different from all the living creatures
Interactions amp Transactions There are two major functions of language bull Interactional Function It is related with how human use language to interact with each other socially or emotionally how they Express therir feelings or their ideas bull Transactional Function It is related with how human use their linguistic abilities to transfer knowledge from onegeneration to the next
UNIT 2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING Much of the evidence used in the reconstruction of ancient writing systems comes from inscriptions on stone or tablets found in the ruble of ruined cities
Pictograms amp Ideograms A Picture representing a particular image in a consistent way it is called Picture-writing or Pictogram There must be a link between the pictogram and its meaning So we can easily understand what is refers to when we look at the pictogram
More abstracts forms of pictograms are called Ideograms The relationship between the entity amp the symbol is not easily understood like pictograms bull A shared property of both pictograms amp ideograms is that they do not present words or sounds in a particular language
Logograms When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language they described as examples of word-writing or logograms Logographic writing was used by Sumerians amp their particular inscriptions are called CUNEIFORM WRITING Cuneiform means wedge-shaped and it was produced by pressing a wedge- shaped implement into soft clay tablets When we consider the relationship between the written form amp the object it represents it is arbitrary We may accept the cuneiform inscriptions of Sumerians as rdquo the earliest known writing system ldquo
Rebus Writing The symbol for one entity is taken over as the symbol for the sound of the spoken word used to refer to that entity One symbol can be used in many different ways with a range of meanings This brings a sizeable reduction in the number of symbols needed in a writing system Syllabic Writing When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables it is described as syllabic writing There are no purely syllabic writing systems in use today but modern Japanese can be written with a single symbols which represent spoken syllables amp is consequently often described as having a syllabic writing or a syllabary
Alphabetic Writing An alphabet is essentially a set of written symbols which each represent a single type of sound
Written English bull The spelling of written English took place in 15 th century via printing so Latin amp French affected the written forms bull Many of the early printers were Dutch so they were not very successful in English pronounciation bull Since the 15 th century spoken English has undergone a lot of changes
1 What is language
1 system of arbitrary vocal symbols which permit all people in a given culture or other people who have learned the system of that culture to communicate or to interact (Finocchiaro)
2 system of communication by sound operating through organs of speech and hearing among members of a community using vocal symbols possessing arbitrary conventional meanings (Pei)
3 any set or system of linguistic symbols as used in a more or less uniform fashion by people who are enabled to communicate intelligibly with one another (Random House)
4 system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Wardhaugh)
5 a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs sounds gestures or marks having understood meanings (Gove)
6 Other definitions found in introductory textbooks on linguistics include concepts of
a) the generatively or creativity of language b) the presumed primacy of speech over writing and c) the universality of language among human beings
A Consolidation of the Definitions
1 Language is a set of arbitrary symbols
2 Those symbols are primarily vocal but may also be visual
3 The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer
4 Language is used for communication
5 Language operates in a speech community or culture
6 Language is essentially human although possibly not limited to humans
7 Language is acquired by all people in much the same waymdashlanguage and language learning both have universal characteristics
What Does Knowing a Language Mean
We know a system that relates sounds (or hand and body gestures) with meanings
When you know a language you know this system
We know the grammar of a language
We have a limited set of rules that comprise the grammar of a language
This mental grammar is learned when you acquire the language
What is Grammar
the sound system (the phonology)
the structure of words (the morphology)
how words may be combined into phrases and sentences (the syntax)
the ways in which sounds and meanings are related (semantics) and words or lexicon
Competence and Performance
Linguistic knowledge is different from linguistic behavior
Linguistic competence refers to our knowledge of the language we speak
Linguistic performance refers to actual use of language or how our knowledge of the language is put into use
Our linguistic performance does not always truly reflect our linguistic competence
Universal Grammar
The more linguists investigate languages and describe ways in which they differ from each other the more they discover that these differences are limited
There are linguistic universals that pertain to all parts of grammars the ways in which these parts are related and the forms of rules
These principles comprise Universal Grammar which forms basis of specific grammars of all possible human languages They are aspects of lang that all lang have in common
Types of Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
2 Pedagogical Grammar
3 Prescriptive Grammar
4 Reference Grammar
5 Theoretical Grammar
6 Traditional Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
describes grammatical constructions without making any evaluative judgments about their standing in societyThese grammars are commonplace in linguistics where it is practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material describe in detail patterns it contains
2 Pedagogical Grammar
A book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue
Such teaching grammars are widely used in schools so much so that many people have only one meaning for the term grammar a grammar book
3 Prescriptive Grammar
A manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language
These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries Their influence lives on in handbooks of usage widely found today such as the Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933)
4 Reference Grammar
tries to be as comprehensive as possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts (like reference lexicon dictionary)A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-) et al
5 Theoretical Grammar
goes beyond the study of individual languages to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis
and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals
6 Traditional Grammar
A term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science
It includes work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians Renaissance writers and 18th-century prescriptive grammarians It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches but linguist generally use the term pejoratively identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study in which languages were analyzed in terms of Latin with scant regard for empirical facts However many basic notions used by modern approaches can be found in these early writings and there is now fresh interest in study of traditional grammar
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
UNIT 2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING Much of the evidence used in the reconstruction of ancient writing systems comes from inscriptions on stone or tablets found in the ruble of ruined cities
Pictograms amp Ideograms A Picture representing a particular image in a consistent way it is called Picture-writing or Pictogram There must be a link between the pictogram and its meaning So we can easily understand what is refers to when we look at the pictogram
More abstracts forms of pictograms are called Ideograms The relationship between the entity amp the symbol is not easily understood like pictograms bull A shared property of both pictograms amp ideograms is that they do not present words or sounds in a particular language
Logograms When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language they described as examples of word-writing or logograms Logographic writing was used by Sumerians amp their particular inscriptions are called CUNEIFORM WRITING Cuneiform means wedge-shaped and it was produced by pressing a wedge- shaped implement into soft clay tablets When we consider the relationship between the written form amp the object it represents it is arbitrary We may accept the cuneiform inscriptions of Sumerians as rdquo the earliest known writing system ldquo
Rebus Writing The symbol for one entity is taken over as the symbol for the sound of the spoken word used to refer to that entity One symbol can be used in many different ways with a range of meanings This brings a sizeable reduction in the number of symbols needed in a writing system Syllabic Writing When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables it is described as syllabic writing There are no purely syllabic writing systems in use today but modern Japanese can be written with a single symbols which represent spoken syllables amp is consequently often described as having a syllabic writing or a syllabary
Alphabetic Writing An alphabet is essentially a set of written symbols which each represent a single type of sound
Written English bull The spelling of written English took place in 15 th century via printing so Latin amp French affected the written forms bull Many of the early printers were Dutch so they were not very successful in English pronounciation bull Since the 15 th century spoken English has undergone a lot of changes
1 What is language
1 system of arbitrary vocal symbols which permit all people in a given culture or other people who have learned the system of that culture to communicate or to interact (Finocchiaro)
2 system of communication by sound operating through organs of speech and hearing among members of a community using vocal symbols possessing arbitrary conventional meanings (Pei)
3 any set or system of linguistic symbols as used in a more or less uniform fashion by people who are enabled to communicate intelligibly with one another (Random House)
4 system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Wardhaugh)
5 a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs sounds gestures or marks having understood meanings (Gove)
6 Other definitions found in introductory textbooks on linguistics include concepts of
a) the generatively or creativity of language b) the presumed primacy of speech over writing and c) the universality of language among human beings
A Consolidation of the Definitions
1 Language is a set of arbitrary symbols
2 Those symbols are primarily vocal but may also be visual
3 The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer
4 Language is used for communication
5 Language operates in a speech community or culture
6 Language is essentially human although possibly not limited to humans
7 Language is acquired by all people in much the same waymdashlanguage and language learning both have universal characteristics
What Does Knowing a Language Mean
We know a system that relates sounds (or hand and body gestures) with meanings
When you know a language you know this system
We know the grammar of a language
We have a limited set of rules that comprise the grammar of a language
This mental grammar is learned when you acquire the language
What is Grammar
the sound system (the phonology)
the structure of words (the morphology)
how words may be combined into phrases and sentences (the syntax)
the ways in which sounds and meanings are related (semantics) and words or lexicon
Competence and Performance
Linguistic knowledge is different from linguistic behavior
Linguistic competence refers to our knowledge of the language we speak
Linguistic performance refers to actual use of language or how our knowledge of the language is put into use
Our linguistic performance does not always truly reflect our linguistic competence
Universal Grammar
The more linguists investigate languages and describe ways in which they differ from each other the more they discover that these differences are limited
There are linguistic universals that pertain to all parts of grammars the ways in which these parts are related and the forms of rules
These principles comprise Universal Grammar which forms basis of specific grammars of all possible human languages They are aspects of lang that all lang have in common
Types of Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
2 Pedagogical Grammar
3 Prescriptive Grammar
4 Reference Grammar
5 Theoretical Grammar
6 Traditional Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
describes grammatical constructions without making any evaluative judgments about their standing in societyThese grammars are commonplace in linguistics where it is practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material describe in detail patterns it contains
2 Pedagogical Grammar
A book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue
Such teaching grammars are widely used in schools so much so that many people have only one meaning for the term grammar a grammar book
3 Prescriptive Grammar
A manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language
These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries Their influence lives on in handbooks of usage widely found today such as the Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933)
4 Reference Grammar
tries to be as comprehensive as possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts (like reference lexicon dictionary)A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-) et al
5 Theoretical Grammar
goes beyond the study of individual languages to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis
and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals
6 Traditional Grammar
A term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science
It includes work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians Renaissance writers and 18th-century prescriptive grammarians It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches but linguist generally use the term pejoratively identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study in which languages were analyzed in terms of Latin with scant regard for empirical facts However many basic notions used by modern approaches can be found in these early writings and there is now fresh interest in study of traditional grammar
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Rebus Writing The symbol for one entity is taken over as the symbol for the sound of the spoken word used to refer to that entity One symbol can be used in many different ways with a range of meanings This brings a sizeable reduction in the number of symbols needed in a writing system Syllabic Writing When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables it is described as syllabic writing There are no purely syllabic writing systems in use today but modern Japanese can be written with a single symbols which represent spoken syllables amp is consequently often described as having a syllabic writing or a syllabary
Alphabetic Writing An alphabet is essentially a set of written symbols which each represent a single type of sound
Written English bull The spelling of written English took place in 15 th century via printing so Latin amp French affected the written forms bull Many of the early printers were Dutch so they were not very successful in English pronounciation bull Since the 15 th century spoken English has undergone a lot of changes
1 What is language
1 system of arbitrary vocal symbols which permit all people in a given culture or other people who have learned the system of that culture to communicate or to interact (Finocchiaro)
2 system of communication by sound operating through organs of speech and hearing among members of a community using vocal symbols possessing arbitrary conventional meanings (Pei)
3 any set or system of linguistic symbols as used in a more or less uniform fashion by people who are enabled to communicate intelligibly with one another (Random House)
4 system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Wardhaugh)
5 a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs sounds gestures or marks having understood meanings (Gove)
6 Other definitions found in introductory textbooks on linguistics include concepts of
a) the generatively or creativity of language b) the presumed primacy of speech over writing and c) the universality of language among human beings
A Consolidation of the Definitions
1 Language is a set of arbitrary symbols
2 Those symbols are primarily vocal but may also be visual
3 The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer
4 Language is used for communication
5 Language operates in a speech community or culture
6 Language is essentially human although possibly not limited to humans
7 Language is acquired by all people in much the same waymdashlanguage and language learning both have universal characteristics
What Does Knowing a Language Mean
We know a system that relates sounds (or hand and body gestures) with meanings
When you know a language you know this system
We know the grammar of a language
We have a limited set of rules that comprise the grammar of a language
This mental grammar is learned when you acquire the language
What is Grammar
the sound system (the phonology)
the structure of words (the morphology)
how words may be combined into phrases and sentences (the syntax)
the ways in which sounds and meanings are related (semantics) and words or lexicon
Competence and Performance
Linguistic knowledge is different from linguistic behavior
Linguistic competence refers to our knowledge of the language we speak
Linguistic performance refers to actual use of language or how our knowledge of the language is put into use
Our linguistic performance does not always truly reflect our linguistic competence
Universal Grammar
The more linguists investigate languages and describe ways in which they differ from each other the more they discover that these differences are limited
There are linguistic universals that pertain to all parts of grammars the ways in which these parts are related and the forms of rules
These principles comprise Universal Grammar which forms basis of specific grammars of all possible human languages They are aspects of lang that all lang have in common
Types of Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
2 Pedagogical Grammar
3 Prescriptive Grammar
4 Reference Grammar
5 Theoretical Grammar
6 Traditional Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
describes grammatical constructions without making any evaluative judgments about their standing in societyThese grammars are commonplace in linguistics where it is practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material describe in detail patterns it contains
2 Pedagogical Grammar
A book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue
Such teaching grammars are widely used in schools so much so that many people have only one meaning for the term grammar a grammar book
3 Prescriptive Grammar
A manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language
These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries Their influence lives on in handbooks of usage widely found today such as the Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933)
4 Reference Grammar
tries to be as comprehensive as possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts (like reference lexicon dictionary)A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-) et al
5 Theoretical Grammar
goes beyond the study of individual languages to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis
and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals
6 Traditional Grammar
A term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science
It includes work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians Renaissance writers and 18th-century prescriptive grammarians It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches but linguist generally use the term pejoratively identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study in which languages were analyzed in terms of Latin with scant regard for empirical facts However many basic notions used by modern approaches can be found in these early writings and there is now fresh interest in study of traditional grammar
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
1 What is language
1 system of arbitrary vocal symbols which permit all people in a given culture or other people who have learned the system of that culture to communicate or to interact (Finocchiaro)
2 system of communication by sound operating through organs of speech and hearing among members of a community using vocal symbols possessing arbitrary conventional meanings (Pei)
3 any set or system of linguistic symbols as used in a more or less uniform fashion by people who are enabled to communicate intelligibly with one another (Random House)
4 system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Wardhaugh)
5 a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs sounds gestures or marks having understood meanings (Gove)
6 Other definitions found in introductory textbooks on linguistics include concepts of
a) the generatively or creativity of language b) the presumed primacy of speech over writing and c) the universality of language among human beings
A Consolidation of the Definitions
1 Language is a set of arbitrary symbols
2 Those symbols are primarily vocal but may also be visual
3 The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer
4 Language is used for communication
5 Language operates in a speech community or culture
6 Language is essentially human although possibly not limited to humans
7 Language is acquired by all people in much the same waymdashlanguage and language learning both have universal characteristics
What Does Knowing a Language Mean
We know a system that relates sounds (or hand and body gestures) with meanings
When you know a language you know this system
We know the grammar of a language
We have a limited set of rules that comprise the grammar of a language
This mental grammar is learned when you acquire the language
What is Grammar
the sound system (the phonology)
the structure of words (the morphology)
how words may be combined into phrases and sentences (the syntax)
the ways in which sounds and meanings are related (semantics) and words or lexicon
Competence and Performance
Linguistic knowledge is different from linguistic behavior
Linguistic competence refers to our knowledge of the language we speak
Linguistic performance refers to actual use of language or how our knowledge of the language is put into use
Our linguistic performance does not always truly reflect our linguistic competence
Universal Grammar
The more linguists investigate languages and describe ways in which they differ from each other the more they discover that these differences are limited
There are linguistic universals that pertain to all parts of grammars the ways in which these parts are related and the forms of rules
These principles comprise Universal Grammar which forms basis of specific grammars of all possible human languages They are aspects of lang that all lang have in common
Types of Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
2 Pedagogical Grammar
3 Prescriptive Grammar
4 Reference Grammar
5 Theoretical Grammar
6 Traditional Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
describes grammatical constructions without making any evaluative judgments about their standing in societyThese grammars are commonplace in linguistics where it is practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material describe in detail patterns it contains
2 Pedagogical Grammar
A book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue
Such teaching grammars are widely used in schools so much so that many people have only one meaning for the term grammar a grammar book
3 Prescriptive Grammar
A manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language
These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries Their influence lives on in handbooks of usage widely found today such as the Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933)
4 Reference Grammar
tries to be as comprehensive as possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts (like reference lexicon dictionary)A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-) et al
5 Theoretical Grammar
goes beyond the study of individual languages to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis
and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals
6 Traditional Grammar
A term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science
It includes work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians Renaissance writers and 18th-century prescriptive grammarians It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches but linguist generally use the term pejoratively identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study in which languages were analyzed in terms of Latin with scant regard for empirical facts However many basic notions used by modern approaches can be found in these early writings and there is now fresh interest in study of traditional grammar
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
A Consolidation of the Definitions
1 Language is a set of arbitrary symbols
2 Those symbols are primarily vocal but may also be visual
3 The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer
4 Language is used for communication
5 Language operates in a speech community or culture
6 Language is essentially human although possibly not limited to humans
7 Language is acquired by all people in much the same waymdashlanguage and language learning both have universal characteristics
What Does Knowing a Language Mean
We know a system that relates sounds (or hand and body gestures) with meanings
When you know a language you know this system
We know the grammar of a language
We have a limited set of rules that comprise the grammar of a language
This mental grammar is learned when you acquire the language
What is Grammar
the sound system (the phonology)
the structure of words (the morphology)
how words may be combined into phrases and sentences (the syntax)
the ways in which sounds and meanings are related (semantics) and words or lexicon
Competence and Performance
Linguistic knowledge is different from linguistic behavior
Linguistic competence refers to our knowledge of the language we speak
Linguistic performance refers to actual use of language or how our knowledge of the language is put into use
Our linguistic performance does not always truly reflect our linguistic competence
Universal Grammar
The more linguists investigate languages and describe ways in which they differ from each other the more they discover that these differences are limited
There are linguistic universals that pertain to all parts of grammars the ways in which these parts are related and the forms of rules
These principles comprise Universal Grammar which forms basis of specific grammars of all possible human languages They are aspects of lang that all lang have in common
Types of Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
2 Pedagogical Grammar
3 Prescriptive Grammar
4 Reference Grammar
5 Theoretical Grammar
6 Traditional Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
describes grammatical constructions without making any evaluative judgments about their standing in societyThese grammars are commonplace in linguistics where it is practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material describe in detail patterns it contains
2 Pedagogical Grammar
A book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue
Such teaching grammars are widely used in schools so much so that many people have only one meaning for the term grammar a grammar book
3 Prescriptive Grammar
A manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language
These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries Their influence lives on in handbooks of usage widely found today such as the Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933)
4 Reference Grammar
tries to be as comprehensive as possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts (like reference lexicon dictionary)A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-) et al
5 Theoretical Grammar
goes beyond the study of individual languages to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis
and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals
6 Traditional Grammar
A term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science
It includes work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians Renaissance writers and 18th-century prescriptive grammarians It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches but linguist generally use the term pejoratively identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study in which languages were analyzed in terms of Latin with scant regard for empirical facts However many basic notions used by modern approaches can be found in these early writings and there is now fresh interest in study of traditional grammar
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
What Does Knowing a Language Mean
We know a system that relates sounds (or hand and body gestures) with meanings
When you know a language you know this system
We know the grammar of a language
We have a limited set of rules that comprise the grammar of a language
This mental grammar is learned when you acquire the language
What is Grammar
the sound system (the phonology)
the structure of words (the morphology)
how words may be combined into phrases and sentences (the syntax)
the ways in which sounds and meanings are related (semantics) and words or lexicon
Competence and Performance
Linguistic knowledge is different from linguistic behavior
Linguistic competence refers to our knowledge of the language we speak
Linguistic performance refers to actual use of language or how our knowledge of the language is put into use
Our linguistic performance does not always truly reflect our linguistic competence
Universal Grammar
The more linguists investigate languages and describe ways in which they differ from each other the more they discover that these differences are limited
There are linguistic universals that pertain to all parts of grammars the ways in which these parts are related and the forms of rules
These principles comprise Universal Grammar which forms basis of specific grammars of all possible human languages They are aspects of lang that all lang have in common
Types of Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
2 Pedagogical Grammar
3 Prescriptive Grammar
4 Reference Grammar
5 Theoretical Grammar
6 Traditional Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
describes grammatical constructions without making any evaluative judgments about their standing in societyThese grammars are commonplace in linguistics where it is practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material describe in detail patterns it contains
2 Pedagogical Grammar
A book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue
Such teaching grammars are widely used in schools so much so that many people have only one meaning for the term grammar a grammar book
3 Prescriptive Grammar
A manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language
These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries Their influence lives on in handbooks of usage widely found today such as the Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933)
4 Reference Grammar
tries to be as comprehensive as possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts (like reference lexicon dictionary)A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-) et al
5 Theoretical Grammar
goes beyond the study of individual languages to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis
and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals
6 Traditional Grammar
A term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science
It includes work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians Renaissance writers and 18th-century prescriptive grammarians It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches but linguist generally use the term pejoratively identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study in which languages were analyzed in terms of Latin with scant regard for empirical facts However many basic notions used by modern approaches can be found in these early writings and there is now fresh interest in study of traditional grammar
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Competence and Performance
Linguistic knowledge is different from linguistic behavior
Linguistic competence refers to our knowledge of the language we speak
Linguistic performance refers to actual use of language or how our knowledge of the language is put into use
Our linguistic performance does not always truly reflect our linguistic competence
Universal Grammar
The more linguists investigate languages and describe ways in which they differ from each other the more they discover that these differences are limited
There are linguistic universals that pertain to all parts of grammars the ways in which these parts are related and the forms of rules
These principles comprise Universal Grammar which forms basis of specific grammars of all possible human languages They are aspects of lang that all lang have in common
Types of Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
2 Pedagogical Grammar
3 Prescriptive Grammar
4 Reference Grammar
5 Theoretical Grammar
6 Traditional Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
describes grammatical constructions without making any evaluative judgments about their standing in societyThese grammars are commonplace in linguistics where it is practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material describe in detail patterns it contains
2 Pedagogical Grammar
A book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue
Such teaching grammars are widely used in schools so much so that many people have only one meaning for the term grammar a grammar book
3 Prescriptive Grammar
A manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language
These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries Their influence lives on in handbooks of usage widely found today such as the Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933)
4 Reference Grammar
tries to be as comprehensive as possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts (like reference lexicon dictionary)A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-) et al
5 Theoretical Grammar
goes beyond the study of individual languages to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis
and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals
6 Traditional Grammar
A term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science
It includes work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians Renaissance writers and 18th-century prescriptive grammarians It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches but linguist generally use the term pejoratively identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study in which languages were analyzed in terms of Latin with scant regard for empirical facts However many basic notions used by modern approaches can be found in these early writings and there is now fresh interest in study of traditional grammar
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Types of Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
2 Pedagogical Grammar
3 Prescriptive Grammar
4 Reference Grammar
5 Theoretical Grammar
6 Traditional Grammar
1 Descriptive Grammar
describes grammatical constructions without making any evaluative judgments about their standing in societyThese grammars are commonplace in linguistics where it is practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material describe in detail patterns it contains
2 Pedagogical Grammar
A book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue
Such teaching grammars are widely used in schools so much so that many people have only one meaning for the term grammar a grammar book
3 Prescriptive Grammar
A manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language
These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries Their influence lives on in handbooks of usage widely found today such as the Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933)
4 Reference Grammar
tries to be as comprehensive as possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts (like reference lexicon dictionary)A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-) et al
5 Theoretical Grammar
goes beyond the study of individual languages to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis
and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals
6 Traditional Grammar
A term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science
It includes work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians Renaissance writers and 18th-century prescriptive grammarians It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches but linguist generally use the term pejoratively identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study in which languages were analyzed in terms of Latin with scant regard for empirical facts However many basic notions used by modern approaches can be found in these early writings and there is now fresh interest in study of traditional grammar
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
1 Descriptive Grammar
describes grammatical constructions without making any evaluative judgments about their standing in societyThese grammars are commonplace in linguistics where it is practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material describe in detail patterns it contains
2 Pedagogical Grammar
A book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue
Such teaching grammars are widely used in schools so much so that many people have only one meaning for the term grammar a grammar book
3 Prescriptive Grammar
A manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language
These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries Their influence lives on in handbooks of usage widely found today such as the Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858-1933)
4 Reference Grammar
tries to be as comprehensive as possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts (like reference lexicon dictionary)A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-) et al
5 Theoretical Grammar
goes beyond the study of individual languages to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis
and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals
6 Traditional Grammar
A term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science
It includes work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians Renaissance writers and 18th-century prescriptive grammarians It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches but linguist generally use the term pejoratively identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study in which languages were analyzed in terms of Latin with scant regard for empirical facts However many basic notions used by modern approaches can be found in these early writings and there is now fresh interest in study of traditional grammar
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
4 Reference Grammar
tries to be as comprehensive as possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts (like reference lexicon dictionary)A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-) et al
5 Theoretical Grammar
goes beyond the study of individual languages to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis
and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of linguistic universals
6 Traditional Grammar
A term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science
It includes work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians Renaissance writers and 18th-century prescriptive grammarians It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches but linguist generally use the term pejoratively identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study in which languages were analyzed in terms of Latin with scant regard for empirical facts However many basic notions used by modern approaches can be found in these early writings and there is now fresh interest in study of traditional grammar
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Properties of Language
Properties of Human Language and Animal Communication Systems
Mode of Communication (vocal-auditory channel) refers to the means by which the messages are transmitted
Reciprocity (Interchangeability) ability of individuals to both send and receive messages
Specialization refers to the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feedingNon-directionality refers to the fact that linguistic signals can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseenRapid fade refers to the fact that linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly
Unique Properties of Human Language
Displacement is the property of human language that allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment
Arbitrariness refers to the property of having signals for which the form of the signals is not logically related to its meaning
Productivity is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created
Cultural transmission is the need for some aspect of a communication system to be learned through communicative interaction with other users of the system
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Phonetics
The Sounds of Language
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Soundsymbol correspondence
enough through thorough thought bough [ʌf] [u] [ə] [ɔ] [aʊ]
think those thistle thong [θ] [eth] [θ] [θ]
church chemistry loch Cheryl [tʃ] [k] [x] [ʃ]
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Phonetics Definition and Purpose
Phonetics is the science of speech soundsIt is concerned with describing speech sounds that occur in the languages of the worldWe want to know 1 what these sounds are
2 how they fall into patterns and
3 how they change in different circumstancesIt provides set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish soundsSound SegmentsKnowledge of a language permits to segment continuous sound into linguistic units-words morphemes soundsphysical sounds are physical representations of strings of discrete linguistic segmentscat consists of 3 sounds initial sound represented by the letter c second by a and final sound by tnot and knot also include 3 sounds even though first sound in knot represented by two letters kn
pyscho has six letters which represent only four sounds ndash ps y ch o
Spelling and Speech
Alphabetic spelling represents the pronunciation of wordssounds are rather unsystematically represented by orthography mdash that is by spellingExamples 1 Did he believe that Ceasar could see the people seize the seas
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
The Phonetic Alphabet
discrepancy between spelling and sounds cause a movement of ldquospelling reformersrdquo called orthoepists
They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound
and one sound to one letter thus simplifying spelling This is a phonetic alphabet
The major phonetic alphabet in use is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
It includes modified Roman letters and diacritics by means of which the sounds of all human languages can be represented
To distinguish between the orthography or spelling of words and their pronunciations phonetic transcriptions may be put between square brackets as in [facutenetik] for phonetic
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
spelling reformers believe there is need for phonetic alphabet
1 Several letters may represent a single sound
to too two through threw clue shoe
2 A single letter may represent different sounds
dame dad father call village many
3 A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character Thomas physics
4 Some letters have no sound at all in certain words
mnemonic whole resign ghost
5 Some sounds are not represented in the spelling
In many words the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound cute (compare coot) futile (compare rule)
6 One letter may represent two sounds final x in Xerox represents a k followed by an s Spelling Pronunciation though [Do]
through [Tru]
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Branches of Phonetics
We can describe the speech sounds at any stage
The study of of the physical properties of the sounds themselves is acoustic phonetics
The study of the way listeners perceive these sounds is auditory phoneticss
Our primay concern in todayrsquos class is articulatory phonetics
the study of how the vocal tract produces speech sounds the physiological characteristics of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Articulatory Phonetics
The production of any speech sound involves the movement of air
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the opening between the vocal cords
This opening is called the glottis
It is located in the larynx ( ldquovoice boxrdquo) ndash through the tub in throat called pharynx out of oral cavity through mouth and sometimes also through nasal cavity and out nose
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
The Classification of Sounds
Sounds of all languages fall into two major natural classes
Consonants (C) Vowels (V)
Consonants
Consoantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth
There are two important criteria in classifying consonants
places of articulation and manners of articulation
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Consonants Places of Articulation
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Manners of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
If the vocal cords are apart during airflow the air flows freely through the glottis and supraglottal cavities (part of the vocal tract above the glottis)
The sounds produced in this way are voiceless sounds
[p] [t] [k] and [s] in the English words seep [sip] seat [sit] and seek [sik]
If the vocal cords are together the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate
Such sounds are voiced and is illustrated by the sounds [b] [d] [g] [z] in the English words bate [bet] date [det] gate [get] and cob [kab]
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquoz-z-z-z-zrdquo Vibrations are felt
Put a finger in each ear and say the voiced ldquos-s-s-s-srdquo No vibration is felt
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds
Voiceless sounds may also be aspirated or unaspirated
In the production of aspirated sounds the vocal cords remain apart for a brief time after the stop closure is released
This produces a puff of air at the time of the release
bull tick [tᵸık] stick [stık]bull pit [pᵸıt] spit [spıt]
Hold your palm about 5 centimeters in front of your lips say pit
You will feel a puff of air which you will not feel when you say spit
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Nasal and Oral Sounds
Sounds produced with the velum up blocking the air from
escaping through the nose are oral sounds
since the air can escape only through the oral cavity Most sounds in all languages are oral sounds
When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through both the nose and the mouth
Sounds produced this way are nasal sounds
The sound [m] is a nasal consonant
Thus [m] is distinguished from [b] because it is a nasal sound while [b] is an oral sound
Nasal sounds in English [m] [n] and [ᵑ]
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Stops [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
In producing consonants airstream may completely stopped or just partially obstructed
Sounds that are completely stopped in the oral cavity for a brief period are called stops
sound [t] is a stop but sound [s] is notthat is what makes them different speech sounds
Fricatives [s] [z] [f] [v] [T] [D] [S] [Z]
In the production of some consonants (continuants) the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction
The sounds are therefore called fricatives
Labiodental Fricatives [f] and [v]
Interdental Fricatives [ᶱ] and [ᶞ]
Alveolar Fricatives [s] and [z]
Palatal Fricatives [ᶴ] and [ᶟ]
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Vowels
The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound
Vowels are classified according to three questions
1 How high is the tongue
2 What part of the tongue is involved that is what part is raised or lowered
3 What is the position of the lips
DIPHTHONGSIn phonetics a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (Greek δίφθογγος diphthongos literally with two sounds or with two tones) is a monosyllabic vowel combinationIt involves a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another
It is often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme
While pure vowels or monophthongs are said to have one target tongue position diphthongs have two target tongue positionsPure vowels are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet by one symbol English sum as sʌm for exampleDiphthongs are represented by 2 symbols English same as seɪm where two vowel symbols represent approximately beginning and ending tongue positions
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Phonology
The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Phonetics vs Phonology
Phonetics is the study of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns found in human languagePhonetics provides the means to describe speech sounds showing how they differphonology tells us which sounds function as phonemes to contrast the meanings of wordsPhonetics is part of phonology
Phonological Knowledge
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances
recognize a foreign accent
make up new wordsadd the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tensesproduce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate contextknow what is or is not a meaning-distinguishing sound in onersquos language andknow that different phonetic strings may represent the same meaningful unit
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive phonological units of language that contrast or distinguish words
sip zip 1048774 s z are phonemes
fine vine 1048774 f v are phonemes
The forms of the two words their sounds are identical except for the initial consonants
s amp z or f amp v can therefore distinguish or contrast words
They are distinctive sounds in English Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes
Minimal PairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string the two words are called a minimal pair Examplescold [kold] gold [gold] 1048774 k g
sip [sIp] zip [zIp] 1048774 s z
lead [lid] read [rid] 1048774 l r
bite [bajt] but [bradict] 1048774 aj radic
sit [sIt] seat [sit] 1048774 I i
bar [bar] rod [rAd] 1048774 (not a pair)
said [sEd] soup[sup] 1048774 (not a pair)
ldquopillrdquo and ldquobillrdquo are called minimal pair p and b are able to distinguish words (meanings) They are distinctive sounds in English p and b are distinctive sounds and thus are called phonemes
![(EPUU) 21 I English IA] r Integrated English rintegrated English 101), rintegrated English 11 I I Is English IJ e. UT, rAdvanced English 11], English 111] r Integrated English Study](https://img.dokumen.tips/doc/110x75/5f9c0b33f8367823672ad80f/-epuu-21-i-english-ia-r-integrated-english-rintegrated-english-101-rintegrated.jpg)
