Discourse Analysis

A discourse is behavioral unit. It is a set of utterances which constitute a

recognizable speech event e.g. a conversation, a joke, a sermon, an interview etc.

In its historical and etymological perspective the term is used in different

perspectives e.g.

Verbal communication.

All this fine talk.

Direct / indirect speech.

To chat.

In order to narrow down the range of possible meanings, the modern

linguists have given different views or definitions.

Example:

Discourse is written as well as spoken: every utterance assuming the a

speaker and a hearer as discourse.

(Benvenisle, 1971: 208-9)

An individualizable group of statements and sometimes as a regulated

practice that counts for a number of statements.

(Foucault, 1972: 80)

The specification with the term is that ‘discourse must be used with its social

purpose’ this is the main specification of discourse.

The brief difference between discourse and text, I think, will facilitate to

better understand the term Discourse.

Difference between Discourse and Text

Discourse Analysis focuses on the structure of naturally spoken language as

found in conversation interviews, commentaries and speeches.

Text analysis focuses on the structure of written language, as found in such

text as essays, notices, road signs and chapters.

(Crystal. 1987)

Some scholars talk about ‘spoken or written discourse’ other about ‘spoken

or written text’

(Crystal. 1987)

It means discourse and text can be used almost synonymously. But a

distinction is always there and that in discourse has some social purpose while text

fulfills the function of communication of some meaning only. As suggested by

Michel Stubbs (1983) who treats text and discourse as more or less synonymous.

Hawthorn (1992) says text may be non-interactive where as a discourse is

interactive. Means to say text is non-interactive that’s it only fulfils the function of

conveying some meaning. But discourse is always involved in two ways responses

in some formal or informal conversation and dialogues etc.

Hawthorn (1992) further says ‘discourse is a linguistic communication seen

as a transaction between speaker and hearer. While text is also a linguistics

communication (either spoken or written) seen simply as a message coded in its

auditory or visual medium’

To conclude we can say discourse and text have something in common as

both use the medium of language whether in sign language. Both have some

meaning that they try to convey.

But text has a limited scope as compare with discourse. In other words we

can say discourse is somewhat broad category in the system of language. And text

deals with the written from of language. Discourse has different form as Discourse

of Advertising, Discourse of Racism, Discourse of Medical etc. But text has no

such forms. Discourse can be found with in text. And not vice versa. Text has its

maximum interpretation in its ownself but discourse has a lot of things above the

language level.

Discourse analysis

Discourse analysis is an attempt to discover linguistic regularities in

discourse using grammatical, phonological and semantic criteria e.g. cohesion,

anaphora, inter sentence connectivity etc. It is an effort to interpreter what the

writer or speaker intended to convey with in a sensitive social context.

Example:

Father: Is that your coat on the floor again?

Son: yes (goes on reading)

Here in the above example Discourse Analysis says that the answer of the

son is not clear one. It shows the exploitation of ambiguity about father’s

command to pick up his coat. Rather the son deals his father’s command as a

simple content question which can be answered in yes /no.

Discourse Analysis is a process in which the reader and listener’s mind is

working up on the linguistic features of the utterance to grasp the intended

meaning of the writer or speaker.

Even if the utterances or sentences are ungrammatical the Discourse

Analysis makes us grasp the intended meaning.

Example:

My natal was in a small town, very close to Riyadh capital of Saudi Arabia.

The distance between my town and Riadh 7 miles exactly. The name of this

Almasani that means in English factories. It takes its name from the people carrer.

In childhood I remember the people live. It was very simple most the people was

farmer.

The above paragraph is full of grammatical mistakes since by Discourse

Analysis of this text we can grasp mostly what are the informations the writer

wants to communicate.

Discourse concerns with communication so Discourse Analysis gives us the

interpretation of the communicated commodity.

Devices for Discourse Analysis

We use different tools for Discourse Analysis. Some of them are as under:

(i)Cohesion

Cohesion refers to the ties and connections which exist within texts

that link different parts of sentences or larger unit of discourse.

Cohesive Devices

(a)Anaphoric Relation

Interpretation of text from some previously expressed idea entity.

Example:

He did that there.

Every word has some anaphoric reference with which interpretation could not be

made.

(b) Cataphoric Relation

It means referring forward. It refers the identity what is being expressed and

what is to be expressed.

Example:

Here is the 9, O Clock news.

By using these relation and links we can better interpret and

analyzed discourse.

(2)Coherence

The language users try to come to an interpretation in the scenario of

knowledge of the world they posses. Coherence is not something which exists in

the language but something which exists in people. By using coherence the reader

arums semantic unity the paragraph.

Example:

Her: That’s the telephone

Him: I’ am in the both.

Her: Ok.

We can interpret the above dialogue with the help of conventional action and by

our background knowledge that someone in the bathroom can not attend the

telephone.

(3) Parallelism

Parallelism means side by side. In some piece of literature some

comparisons or contrasts go side be side with each other. They also help

to interpreter the whole text.

Example:

In Jane Austen’s ‘Pride and Prejudice’, good marriages and bad

marriages are compared and contrasted on parallel levels.

(4) Speech Events

Speech events are mainly concerned what people say in different

environment e.g. Debate, interview, discussions, quiz etc are different Speech

Events. Speakers may have different speech roles as friend, strangers, young or old

of equal or unequal status

This background knowledge about the personality and environment give a better

comprehension for better interpretation of discourse.

(5) Background Knowledge

Background knowledge can be very much helpful in interpreting any text.

Schema and script are two terms that comprise the background knowledge.

Schema and script tells us what is actually the real situation and what are the

actions.

Schema is conventional knowledge which exists in memory.

Script is essentially a dynamic schema in which conventional action takes place.

The schema of a supermarket holds the knowledge ‘food displayed on

shelves, checkout counters’ etc.

While in script such actions are involved as going to movies, eating in a

restaurant etc.

Example:

Trying not to be out of the office Suzy went into the nearest place, sat

down and ordered a sandwich.

Here in the above example the background knowledge of the situation and

the action can be traced out through the schema and script as:

Schema tells us:

Suzy may be an office girl

The nearest place is some restaurant.

Script tells us:

About the action she performed as:

Firstly, she unlocked the door.

Secondly, she walked to the nearest restaurant.

Thirdly, she opened the door of the restaurant. etc.

Here schema and script tells us what is actually the real situation and what are the

actions.

(6). Conversational Interaction

Conversation is an activity where for the most part thw or more people take

turn at speativn: in these tusns at speaking one has to pick up the completion point

to take his turn to speak. This is conversational interaction.

During the discourse we not only taking part in conversation but we are also

analyzing. The discourse simultaneously. So in the conversation turn taking helps

us to successfully complete the discourse.

(7) The co-operation principle

Grice (1975) set Four Maxims which say that in conversational exchanges

the participants are in fact co-operating with each other.

(i). Maxim of Quantity

Make your contribution as informative as is required but not more or less

than is required.

(ii). Maxim of Quality

Don’t say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack evidence.

(iii). Maxim of Relation

Be relevant

(iv). Maxim of Manner

Be clear, brief and orderly.

Example:

Carol : Are your coming to the party tonight?

Lara: I’ve got exam tomorrow.

Apparently this exchange have no relevance but by using these Maxims we can

analyze the discourse as:

1. Maxim of Quantity:- information is that Lara has exams

2. Maxim of Quality: She is describing a fact of her exams.

3. Maxim of Relation: It is the reason why she could not come to the party

4. Maxim of Manner: A clear cut refusal.

The following can be the intended meaning:

Tomorrow : Exam

To night : Study, Preparation

Tonight : No party

Intended meaning : Refusal

The analysis of the above statement shows the use of maxims of co-

cooperation in Discourse Analysis.