LANGUAGE: IN ITS

BIOLOGICAL CONTEXT

Mohd Ezraf bin Mohd Lizan*

Hotan Kheyrandish* Leonardo David Ng*

Brandon Chai An Weng* Arisman Srithadan

LINGUISTICS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHERS

TESL PROGRAM, UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA

OCTOBER 2010

DR. JESSIE GRACE U. RUBRICO, FACILITATOR

LANGUAGE IN ITS BIOLOGICAL CONTEXT

1. Introduction

2. Natural Communication Systems of other Animals

a) Common Signs in Communication Systems of Humans

and Animals

b) Natural Comm. Systems of Selected Species

i) Bees iii) Vervet Monkeys

ii) Birds iv) Apes

3. Teaching human language to animals

a) Dog‟s Understanding of Human Language

b) Apesi) Teaching ASL to Chimpanzees

ii) Teaching Chimpanzees to Use Tokens or Keys

iii) Evaluation of Apes‟ Language Abilities

4. Origins & Evolution of human Language

a) Divine Origins & the „Original‟ Human Tongue

b) 19th Century Theories of Language Origins

c) More Recent Theories:-

i) Gestural Origins

ii) The Grooming Hypothesis

iii) Language as a Genetic Predisposition

iv) Language & Social Cognition

v) Concluding Remarks on Language Evolution

5. Conclusion

LANGUAGE IN ITS BIOLOGICAL CONTEXT

INTRODUCTION

Status of language in relation to communicative

systems employed in the non-human animal world:

is language unique to human?

A system without precedents in the biological world

with a possibility of genetic mutation or an

evolutionary development.

Description of some communication systems used

in the animal world.

Evaluate natural animal communication systems

that satisfy the design feature of human language.

• The uniqueness of human language :

- human language in relation to the natural communication systems of other animals.

- the ability of animals to learn and use

human language

Certain bodily signs indicatingemotions are shared among humans

and animals.

Examples: Submission; Intimidation;

Deliberate Deception

Vocalizations

Bees

Two types of dances to convey information about the location of nectar sources.

• Round Dance (close to hive)

• Tail-Wagging Dance

(some distance away from hive)

most birds have system of

communication employing vocalization

many birds also communicate by

non-vocalized sounds such as beak clapping,

by visual displays of objects, or dance.

Types of vocalizations : calls; songs

• Calls

o Syllables duration

o Alarm calls

o Foods calls

o Signal between parent and offspring

o Flocking calls

• Songs

o Separate groups

o Attract mate

o Make out territory

cultural transmission

• Critical period for acquisition of songs

• Show dialect variation in their songs

use vocalization, facial expressions and

posture to communicate with one another.

use bodily signs including head-bobbing rapid glancing towards and away from another , individual, penile displays and tail-signals.

System of vocalization for alarm calls:

#a high pitched chatter warns of presence of snake.

#a chip [short but loud barking call] gives warning of

leopard and lion.

#an uh warns of a minor predator such as hyena .

Vervet monkeys also have vocalization that inform about monkeys emotion:

Low-pitched chatter expresses an aggressive threat.

A woof subordinate males indicates submission.

The vocalization of vervet monkey appears to be arbitrary

Apes also have system of communication that includevocalized and non-vocalized signs,including bodily gestures

#Gestures communication is better developed and more flexible in apes than vocalization

Intentional gesture in natural communication of chimpanzees

◦Attention attractor a gesture in natural communication with other

◦Stylized gesture signifying an incipient or desired action

TEACHING HUMAN

LANGUAGE TO ANIMALS

A) Dogs‟ understanding of human language (Non-Primate)

B) APES (Primate Species)

i) Teaching ASL to Chimpanzees

ii) Teaching Chimpanzees to Use Tokens

or Keys

iii) Evaluation of Apes‟ Language Abilities

TEACHING HUMAN LANGUAGE TO

ANIMALS

Animals comm. systems fail to comply

with Hockett‟s design features of human

language.

*Arbitrariness - A property of word-

signs.

*Displacement - Possibility in which

language could only be used to

describe what is actually physically

present in the writer’s environment.

*Cultural Transmission – Environment

effects on language learning.

*Duality - Level of form and level of

meaning.

*Productivity - Ability to make new

meanings by new expressions and

utterances.

*Reflexivity – Language as a medium

to convey information.

Dogs‟ understanding of human

languageInvestigation conducted by Juliane

Kaminski;

Rico, (9-year-old border collie) with

approximately 200-word „vocabulary‟

(in German)

Able to learn the name of unfamiliar

toys after just one exposure to the

new word-toy combination.

Showing skills at language

comprehension that comparable to

trained apes, dolphins, sea lions and

Ability to acquire Fast-Mapping.

Rico knows words for over 200 different

items and fetches its when instructed.

(Kaminski et al. 2004)

Eliminating the ‘Clever Hans’ effect;

Rico was to fetch 2 items randomly

selected from the 200 that the dog was

allegedly familiar with from an adjacent

room.

Rico could rapidly learn names of

unfamiliar toys; performed accurately in

fetching items, 7 out of 10 attempts.

CONCLUSION

Do dogs understand language?

The answer is NO!

200 words is just not enough to

compare with the rich lexicons of

human language.

Rico‟s understanding of words for

objects are only based on „fetching‟.

„Smart dog learns like a child.‟

Sept.2001

(Fischer-Planck Institute, Scientist)

Primate Species: APES

The most serious attempt to teach

human language to animals.

Early attempts were resounding

failure.

1920s, Robert Yerkes proposed sign

language after unsuccessful attempt.

1930s, Winthrop and Luella Kellogg

acquired a 7yo chimp. „Gua‟; brought

up like a human child and understand

over 70 words but never spoke.

Late 1940s, Keith and Cathy Hayes

acquired Viki to teach English. After 3

years, she can only say –

mama, papa, cup & up; recognized

over 100 words.

ALL FAILED: Physiological Reasons!

a) Human Vocal Tract-Short

jaw, rounded tongue, lowered larynx

with right angled bend. Adapted for

speech.

b) Apes / Chimpanzees-lack of these

adaptation and high front (i) & back

vowels (u) are outside of their range.

i) Teaching ASL to

Chimpanzees

*American Sign

LanguageYEAR RESEARCHER CHIMPANZEE METHODS & FINDINGS

1966 Beatrix & Allan

Gardner

Female-

Washoe

(1yo)

* By 1975- Learned 150 signs.

* Domestic environment and in

„natural way‟ relatively.

* Able to combine signs of expression.

* Novel words: water + bird = swan

1973 Herbert S.

Terrace

Male-Nim

Chimpsky

(4mo)

* Active vocabulary at around 125 to

comprehension of 200 sounds.

* Able to put signs into sequences.

* MS utterances involved repetition.

* Almost 90%, were imitation of signs.

CONCLUSION 1. Prompted repetition of signs made by the trainers.

2. No attempt to elaborate & reformulate

messages/signs.

3. Produced signs in order to receive only rewards.

ii) Teaching Chimpanzees To

Use

Tokens &

Keys Systems of arbitrary signs made up of

plastic tokens or keys on keyboards

labelled with simple symbols.

Examples: X = chocolate, =

banana

Replaced by light-up keys on

computer keyboards & symbols on

portable keypad.

FINDINGS: Longer Utterances:-

Repetition with no attempt to elaborate

or reformulate messages.

YEAR RESEACHER CHIMP METHODS & FINDINGS

1966 David & Ann

Premack

Female

chimp -

Sarah

• Manipulated plastic tokens/signs.

• Understood 100 signs.

• Conditional Sentences: (if & then)

• Most desired- chocolate reward.

Late

1980‟

s

Sue Savage –

Rumbaugh

(Bonobo:

Pygmy

Chimp)

Male-Kanzi

(Notable

Success)

• Manipulated signs on portable keypad.

• Non direct training- observed mother.

• Vocabulary of some 250 signs.

• Express meanings: „Kanzi tickle Sue‟

Female –

Panbanisha

(Unique)

• Repeatedly press the keys „fight‟, „mad‟

& „Austin‟ (another chimp) / She sensed.

• An investigation has proven such a case.

• Manifestly not motivated by desire of

food reward but by a chimp (Austin).

• One of a kind manifestation-Sue Savage

(Closest to human adaptation)

CONCLUSION 1. Prompted repetition of signs made by the trainers.

2. Produced signs in order to receive only rewards.

3. Such manifestation (e.g: Panbanisha) = RARE

iii) Evaluation of Apes‟ Language

Abilities The use of signs by apes are not

equally comparable to human

language.

Fail to satisfy two of Hockett‟s design:

Duality of Patterning & Reflexivity.

Apes are more prone to interrupt

utterances by their trainers.

(Repetition)

Rarely initiate communicative acts.

Overall; human language differs from

animal communication system in

degree rather than kind. (Cognitive

Origins and Evolution of

Human Language

Divine origins and the

“original” human tongue

Nineteenth-century theories of

language origin

More recent theories of

language origin

Divine Origins

• Judeo-Christian tradition

–God gave Adam the power to name

things

• Islamic tradition

–God taught Adam the names of things

• Hindu tradition -Sarasvati, wife of

Brahma, creator of the universe.

• Babylonian tradition - the god Nabu

• Egyptian tradition - the god Thoth

The “Original” Human Tongue

Experiments to determine the original

language -

◦ 600 BC, Egyptian pharaoh Psammetichus

(Phrygian)

◦ 1500, King James IV of Scotland (Hebrew)

• Other cases of children raised in isolation do

not confirm these results

– children brought up by wolves discovered in

India in 1920

– Genie, confined to a room for 12.5 years,

discovered in 1970 at the age of 14

19th Century Theories

• “La-la” (or “sing-song”) theory: source

of language is a communication

system resembling bird song

• “Bow-wow” theory”: language

originated in iconic, not

arbitrary, connections between

meanings and sounds (e.g.

splash, bang, bow-wow)

• “Ding-dong” theory: language arose

because there are both iconic and

indexical connections between sounds

and meanings (e.g. mama for “mother”

is derived from the sound made by a

baby before it begins suckling)

• “Pooh-pooh” theory: language originated

in natural cries of emotion such as anger

or pain (e.g. ouch, yow)

• “Yo-heave-ho” theory: source of

language could be the grunts and

groans of people involved in physical

effort

More Recent Theories

• Gestural origins

–Noddy: people communicated with

gestures before they were capable of

speech

• The grooming hypothesis

–“Yackety-yack” theory: language arose for

the purpose of cementing social bonds

between individuals

• Language as a genetic predisposition

–Minimal view: our genes give us a language

ready brain

–Maximal view : we have a genetic blueprint for

language

• “Oops!” theory: language arose as the result of

a single genetic mutation. A single gene is

responsible for language (FOXP2)

• “Chatting-up” theory: language arose via the

normal evolutionary process of natural

selection

• Language and social cognition:

–“Looky-look “ theory: language evolved in a

cultural, not biological, setting. We had a brain

that was ready for language before we had

language.

CONCLUSION

LANGUAGE IN ITS BIOLOGICAL CONTEXT

Natural systems of communication employ body

gestures and vocalization to express:-

1. States of emotion

2. Warnings of specific danger.

3. Marking of territorial boundaries

4. Mating

Most animals are incapable of producing or

comprehending human language.

Most successful have been focused on apes.

(Though duality and reflexivity are absent)

Speculation on the origin of human language;

continued with critical development.

REFERENCE & SOURCES

McGregor, W. B. (2009). Linguistics: An Introduction.

Language in Its Biological Context

London: Continuum Publishing, (pp. 224-245).

http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~mnkylab/media/vervetcalls

.html

http://acp.eugraph.com/monkey/index.html (Vervet

Monkey/Video)

http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~mnkylab/media/chimpcal

ls.html (Chimpanzee Vocalization / Video)

http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/

1973/frisch-lecture.pdf

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7ijI-g4jHg (Bee

Dance / Video)

http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2004/0610rico.sht

ml (Rico Dog / Video)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clever_Hans

(Clever Hans Effect)