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Chapter 4

Early Societies in South Asia

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Harappan society and its neighbors, ca. 2000 B.C.E.

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Foundations of Harappan Society The Indus River

Silt-enriched water from mountain ranges

Major society built by Dravidian peoples, 3000-2500 BCE Cultivation of cotton before 5000 BCE, early cultivation of

poultry Decline after 1900 BCE

Major cities: Harrapa (Punjab region and Mohenjo-Daro (mouth of Indus River) 70 smaller sites excavated (total 1,500)

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Mohenjo-Daro Ruins

Population c. 40,000 Regional center

Layout, architecture suggests public purpose Broad streets, citadel, pool, sewage

Standardized weights evident throughout region Specialized labor Trade

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Harapan Society and Culture

Evidence of social stratification Dwelling size, decoration

Harappan Civilization: matriarchal? Influence on later Indian culture

Goddesses of fertility Possible east/west distinctions

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Mysterious End of Harappan Civilization Reasons for disappearance unclear

Excessive deforestation, loss of topsoil Earthquakes? Flooding?

Evidence of unburied dead

Disappearance by 1500 BCE

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The Aryan “Invasion”

Aryans, lighter-skinned invaders from the north Dravidians, darker-skinned sedentary inhabitants of

Harappa Color Bias Socio-Economic Implications Difficulty of theory: no evidence of large-scale military

conquest

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The Early Aryans

Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle Vegetarianism not widespread until many centuries

later Religious and Literary works: The Vedas

Sanskrit: sacred tongue Prakrit: everyday language, evolved into Hindi,

Urdu, Bengali Four Vedas, most important Rig Veda

1,028 hymms to gods

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The Vedic Age

Conflicts between Aryans and indigenous dasas (“enemies,” “subjects”) Aryans fighting Dravidians Also Aryans fighting each other

Chiefdoms: Rajas Early concentration in Punjab, migrations further south

Development of iron metallurgy Increasing reliance on agriculture

Tribal connections evolve into political structures

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Varna: The Caste System

Origins in Aryan domination of Dravidians Brahmin, Priest Kshatriya, Warrior Vaishya, Merchant Sudra, Commoner Harijan: “Untouchables; Pariahs”

Jati subsystem of castes Related to urbanization, increasing social and

economic complexity

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Brahmins from Bengal

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Patriarchy in Ancient Indian Society “rule of the father” Enforced in the The Lawbook of Manu Overwhelmed Harappan matriarchy? Caste, Jati, inheritance through male line

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Sati (“Suttee”)

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Aryan Religion

Major deity of Rig Veda: Indra, war god Elaborate ritual sacrifices to gods

Role of Brahmins important C. 800 BCE some movement away from

sacrificial cults Mystical thought, influenced by Dravidians

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Teachings of the Upanishads

Texts that represent blending of Aryan and Dravidian traditions

Composed 800-400 BCE, some later collections until 13th century CE

Brahman: the Universal Soul Samsara: reincarnation Karma: accounting for incarnations Moksha: mystical ecstacy Relationship to system of Varna