Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude

Paper-4

-Ribhu Vashishtha

Topic 2: Various theories to apply in case studies in Paper-4

NOTE: This is the most important chapter for Paper-4 as this will help in solving case studies which had weightage of 170 marks out of 250 in Paper-4 in MAINS-2013.

Essence of Ethics

1. Rising above self-interest2. Trying to apply on all equally

Determinants of Ethics

1. Action2. Consequence3. Intention4. CircumstanceOther determinants:-5. Customs6. Laws7. Society8. Religion

Determinants of Ethics

Examples:-1. When you slap someone for fun. (ACTION)2. When you defame someone by using mass

media. (CONSEQUENCE)3. When you shoot someone while defending your

country. (INTENTION)4. When someone steals as he/she has no other

option. (CIRCUMSTANCE)

Theories

1. Divine Command Theory2. St. Thomas Aquinas Theory3. Double Effect Theory4. Ethical Relativism5. Ethical Egoism6. Teleology/Consequentialism7. Deontology8. Virtue Ethics9. Intuitionism

Normative Ethics

Divine Command Theory(दि�व्य आ�ेश सिद्धांत)

• Based on Religion.• Preached by the Church in Europe in the pre-

renaissance period.• What God says right, is RIGHT.• What God says wrong, is WRONG.

Divine Command Theory• Renaissance philosophers who opposed this theory gave the

argument:-– Something is right because it is right in itself and not because God

says it is right.– People should use their own rational judgement.

• Example:- Killing someone or stealing is wrong because it is wrong in itself and not because God says it is wrong.

THIS THEORY HAS BECOME OBSOLETE/PROVEN TO BE WRONG SO DON’T USE IT IN SOLVING CASE STUDIES IN THE EXAM.

St. Thomas Aquinas Theory(ेंट थॉम एक्वि��ना सिद्धांत)

• He gave the concept of Ethical Liability.• Ethical Liability is defined as the degree of

responsibility/ownership that can be ascribed to a person for his/her action to be called ethical or unethical.

• Ethical Liability has 3 parameters:-1. Knowledge2. Volunteerism3. Free will to choose among various options

St. Thomas Aquinas Theory

This theory can be used for solving case studies in the exam.You do not need to mention the name of the theory you are using for solving the case studies in the exam. Mentioning the name of parameters/conditions for determining ethical liability is sufficient.Let us understand some examples to make this theory clear.

St. Thomas Aquinas Theory

Example 1:- Stealing for fun.

1. Knowledge

2. Volunteerism

3. Free will

Therefore, Ethical Liability: FULL

St. Thomas Aquinas TheoryExample 2:- Someone steals because his mother his ill and he is not able to find employment or borrow money.

1. Knowledge

2. Volunteerism

3. Free will

Therefore, Ethical Liability: LESS means he is not fully responsible for his action i.e. stealing.

St. Thomas Aquinas TheoryExample 3:- Someone steals because his mother his ill but he has an option to get work and his friend is willing to lend money to him.

1. Knowledge

2. Volunteerism

3. Free will

Therefore, Ethical Liability: FULL means he is completely responsible for his action i.e. stealing.

St. Thomas Aquinas TheoryExample 4:- You work at an office and a colleague tells you a particular way to get a work done. You don’t know that it is the wrong/unethical way.

1. Knowledge

2. Volunteerism

3. Free will

Therefore, Ethical Liability: LESS

St. Thomas Aquinas Theory

Example 5:- A goon asks a businessman to sign some legal papers at gunpoint.

1. Knowledge

2. Volunteerism

3. Free will

Therefore, Ethical Liability: LESS

St. Thomas Aquinas Theory

Exceptions to the above theory in case of KNOWLEDGE parameter:-

• When knowledge about an act can be attained through EFFORT, ethical liability is FULL in that case.

• When knowledge about an act can not be attained even through EFFORT, ethical liability is LESS in that case.

St. Thomas Aquinas TheoryOther cases in which ethical liability reduces:1. Mental Instability2. Sleep-walking3. Fear

Eg: Shooting someone in self-defence or due to fear of assault, doing a wrong act while in sleep-walking state, etc.

Cases in which ethical liability does not reduce:4. Ignorance (Ignorance is no excuse)5. Habit (Because habits can be changed)

Eg: A person who is smoking in public cannot claim innocence on either ignorance of the law or saying that it is his habit and he cannot help it. In this case his ethical liability is FULL.

Double Effect Theory(�ोहरा प्रभा� सिद्धांत)

An act can be determined as GOOD or BAD based on the following conditions:-

1. Intention for a good consequence should be present in the person’s mind.

2. Good consequence should flow from the act as an immediate effect

Example:- A rich person donates black money to get it converted into white.Here, the intention is not for charity but for a selfish interest. Hence, the act is UNETHICAL.

Dimensions of Ethics

Normative Non-normative

(मानक)(Prescriptive) (निन��शात्मक)

(गैर मानक)(Descriptive) (�र्णाा"त्मक)

(नैतिका के आयाम)

NORMATIVE ETHICS

1. Ethical Relativism2. Ethical Egoism3. Teleology/Consequentialism4. Deontology5. Virtue Ethics6. Intuitionism

Ethical Relativism(ननैितक ापेक्ष�ा�)

• Ethics varies with person, society, country, region, time, etc.

• This theory does not give any solution to whether anything is ethical or not.

• Example:- 1. Polygamy is condemned by Hindus but not by some

other religions.2. Sati-pratha was accepted in the society in ancient times

but is illegal now.3. Same-sex marriage is legal in USA but illegal in India.

Ethical Egoism(ननैितक अहं�ा�)

• This theory says that every person is a rational human being and everyone sees his/her own self-interest in everything and in every situation.

• Self-interest is the primary factor and selflessness is secondary for everyone according to this theory.

• Example:- Everyone makes friends for his/her own self-interest.

• This theory should be avoided while solving case studies in the exam.

Teleology (चरमकारर्णा�ा�, प्रयोजन�ा�, उदे्दश्य�ा�)

• This theory says that an act is ethical if the end result is right, irrespective of the intention of the person whether right or wrong.

• Example:- – If Person A throws a stone at Person B with the

intention to hurt him, and that person ducks down to save himself and in the process is saved from an incoming bullet also; then according to this theory the act done by Person A was ETHICAL as the end was right!

Teleology

• Teleology contains Utilitarianism theory.• Utilitarianism:- Maximum happiness for

maximum number of people for maximum amount of time.

• Example:- If in a village of 100 people, 99 are happy and 1 is miserable; then according to utilitarianism approach the situation in the village is RIGHT as maximum people are happy.

Teleology

• Example:-i. There are 3 patients A, B and C.ii. A needs liver, B needs a kidney and C needs a

heart to get healthy.iii. Utilitarianism approach says that 1 out of the 3

people should give his organs to the other 2 to save them, himself dying in the process.

iv. The act is ETHICAL according to utilitarianism as maximum people will be saved.

Teleology

• Parameters of Utilitarianism:-1. Pleasure-minus-Pain (should be maximum)2. Intensity of pleasure (More the intensity of

pleasure, more ethical is the act)3. Duration of pleasure/happiness (Greater the

duration of pleasure, more ethical is the act)4. Fruitfulness5. Likelihood/probability of pleasure/happiness

(More the likelihood, more ethical is the act)

Teleology

To summarize, we can say that teleology theory is:-1. Democratic2. Progressive3. Optimistic4. Calculations for arriving are empirical. Lot of

observations have to be kept in mind while determining whether an act is ethical or not.

This theory can be used for solving case studies in the exam.

Deontology (धम"शास्र, चरिरत्रशास्र, आचरर्णा नि�द्या)

• This theory is inverse to Teleology in many ways.

• According to this theory, intention or motive of the act done plays the supreme role in determining whether the act is ETHICAL or UNETHICAL.

• This theory gives 4 parameters for determining the ethicality of an act.

Deontology

1. Universal– If you can universalize an act and still it is right, then it is

ethical.

2. Self– Are you ready to accept the same act on yourself.

3. Means– Any person should not be used as the means to an end.

4. Long-term societal impact– Will the society become better in the long term if this act is

practised?

Deontology

• Example:-i. There are 3 patients A, B and C.ii. A needs liver, B needs a kidney and C needs a

heart to get healthy.iii. Utilitarianism approach says that 1 out of the 3

people should give his organs to the other 2 to save them, himself dying in the process.

iv. The act is ETHICAL according to utilitarianism as maximum people will be saved.

v. This act is UNETHICAL according to deontology because:-

Deontology

1. Universal– If you can universalize an act and still it is right, then it is ethical.

2. Self– Are you ready to accept the same act on yourself.

3. Means– Any person should not be used as the means to an end.

4. Long-term societal impact– Will the society become better in the long term if this act is practised?

All the 4 conditions of deontology are not satisfied for this act, hence this act is UNETHICAL.

Deontology

• Example:- If in a village of 100 people, 99 are happy and 1 is miserable; then according to utilitarianism approach the situation in the village is RIGHT as maximum people are happy.

• But according to deontology theory, the situation is WRONG because:

1. Universal– If you can universalize an act and still it is right, then it is ethical.

2. Self– Are you ready to accept the same act on yourself.

3. Means– Any person should not be used as the means to an end.

4. Long-term societal impact– Will the society become better in the long term if this act is practised?

DeontologyThis theory can be used for solving case studies in the exam.You do not need to mention the name of the theory you are using for solving the case studies in the exam. Mentioning the name of parameters/conditions for determining whether an act is ethical or unethical is sufficient.Now a question arises which theory should be used for solving case studies in the exam???

• Teleology OR Deontology OR St. Thomas Aquinas Theory

Any theory can be used provided you sufficiently justify your stand on the basis of various parameters being satisfied in the given case study. It is for you to decide which theory will best reflect your stand and also justify it completely. You can also use your own points for justifying your answer.Solving case studies will further make it clear on how to use these theories.

Virtue Ethics(पुण्य नैनितकता)

• This theory says that any human action which is done under the influence of good character will be ethical or moral.

• Example:- Sardar Bhagat Singh killed Saunders under the influence of a noble character i.e. to liberate the people of India from British oppression, hence his shooting of Saunders is ETHICAL according to this theory.

Virtue Ethics

Parameters/Conditions to be checked according to this theory are:-1. Which character has influence on the person

doing the action?2. What is the influence of that action on

others’ character?3. What is the influence of that action on one’s

own character?

Virtue EthicsExample 1:- Hitler’s mass killing of Jews.

1. Which character has influence on the person doing the action?

2. What is the influence of that action on others’ character?

3. What is the influence of that action on one’s own character?

T

EVIL (oppressive evil character)

BAD (others will learn a bad character trait)

DEGRADING (it will develop into an evil habit)

Therefore, this act was: UNETHICAL

Virtue EthicsExample 2:- Lying to someone.

1. Which character has influence on the person doing the action?

2. What is the influence of that action on others’ character?

3. What is the influence of that action on one’s own character?

BAD

BAD

BAD

Therefore, this act is: UNETHICAL

Virtue EthicsExample 3:- Lying to save someone’s life.

Which character has influence on the person doing the action? NOBLE

What is the influence of that action on others’ character? GOOD

What is the influence of that action on one’s own character? GOOD

Therefore, this act is: ETHICAL

Virtue Ethics

• The main problem with this theory is that any person with a good character can do something unethical due to certain circumstances.

• This theory can be used for solving case studies in the exam, although its scope is somewhat limited i.e. one may not be able to fully justify an act through this theory alone.

Intuitionism(अंतर्ज्ञे�य�ा�)

• Intuition / अंतर्ज्ञेा"न:- – Instinctive knowing (without the use of rational processes).– An impression that something might be the case.

• Supporters of this theory say that intuitionism is not irrational as a decision based on intuition is based on millions of calculations taking place in the subconscious mind.

• This theory has a limited scope for solving case studies in the exam and should be avoided for justifying answers in the exam.

• We have seen many theories related to determining ethicality and ethical liability in a given situation.

• Not all theories are useful. The theories that can help in solving case studies are:

TeleologyDeontologySt. Thomas Aquinas TheoryDouble Effect TheoryVirtue Ethics

• Now let us apply our understanding of these theories for solving case studies.

Case Study #1

Case Study #1You are working as an Executive Engineer in the construction cell of a Municipal Corporation and are presently in-charge of the construction of a flyover. There are two Junior Engineers under you who have the responsibility of day-to-day inspection of the site and are reporting to you, while you are finally reporting to the Chief Engineer who heads the cell. While the construction is heading towards completion, the Junior Engineers have been regularly reporting that all construction is taking place as per design specifications. However, in one of your surprise inspections, you have noticed some serious deviations and lacunae which, in your opinion, are likely to affect the safety of the flyover. Rectification of these lacunae at this stage would require a substantial amount of demolition and rework which will cause a tangible loss to the contractor and will also delay completion. There is a lot of public pressure on the Corporation to get this construction completed because of heavy traffic congestion in the area. When you brought this matter to the notice of the Chief Engineer, he advised you that in his opinion it is not a very serious lapse and may be ignored. He advised for further expediting the project for completion in time. However, you are convinced that this was a serious matter which might affect public safety and should not be left unaddressed.What will you do in such a situation? Some of the options are given below. Evaluate the merits and demerits of each of these options and finally suggest what course of action you would like to take, giving reasons. (20 marks |250 words)1. Follow the advice of the Chief Engineer and go ahead.2. Make an exhaustive report of the situation bringing out all facts and analysis along with your own

viewpoints stated clearly and seek for written orders from the chief Engineer.3. Call for explanation from the Junior Engineers and issue orders to the contractor for necessary correction

within targeted time.4. Highlight the issue so that it reaches superiors above the Chief Engineer.5. Considering the rigid attitude of the Chief Engineer, seek transfer from the project or report sick.

Some points for solving Case Study #11. Max. happiness for max. people for max. time2. Universalize3. Willing to apply on Self4. Long-term societal impact: BAD

If the flyover is made right now, there can be loss of:-1) Life2) Property3) Public trust4) Money5) Goodwill

Homework Case Studies

Case Study #2

Case Study #3

Thank You.