FALLACIES the reasoning or arguments

which are valid but are actually invalid.

arguments, which you know are correct but definitely are not correct.

arguments that seem to be true but are actually false.

Formal / Logical Fallacies

when the error committed is on the violation of the antecedent - consequent relationship or the rules of syllogism. It is sometimes called LOGICAL FALLACY.

Classifications of Formal / Logical

Fallacies

a. Fallacy of Definition the definition is wider than the term it connotes. In this kind of fallacy you should not widen or exaggerate the definition of the term to really understand the reality of the truth. A violation arises when we decrease the connotation of the definitions and widen their denotations.Example: •Man is an animal.

1. FALLACIES OF DEFINITION

b. Too Narrow Definition it violates the rule of definition

because the definition is too narrow. Violation arises when we unduly increase the connotation of the definition, thus narrowing its denotation.

Example: • Man is an irritable rational

man.

c. Fallacy of Redundant Definition

some unnecessary terms are added to the definition. The term used is repeated and not essential.

Example: Jayson is a handsome man.

d. Fallacy of Accidental Definition

some accidental attributes which are not useful are added to the definition. Even without these accidental attributes, the meaning could still be distinguished.

Example: • Man is a rational being who knows how to dance and sing.

e. Fallacy of Circular Definition the definition should not be

synonymous to the term it defines.

Example: • A man is a male person.• Circle is round.

f. Fallacy of Obscure Definition it must be simple enough to easily

understand. Do not add terms which are different. They should be clear and simple.

Example: • A net is a reticulated fabric decussated at regular intervals with interstices and intersections.

g. Fallacy of Figurative Definition do not use exaggeration in defining the term. Figurative or metaphorical language must not be used.

Example: • Love is the silver link, the silken tie, which heart to heart, and mind to mind, in body and soul can bind.

h. Fallacy of Negative Definition do not use a definition which is not

the meaning of the term but rather give the real meaning of the term.

Example: • An insecure person is one who is not secure.

• A notebook is not a book.

a. Fallacies of Cross Divisionalso known as overlapping which is a violation of the golden rule of logical division that we have to use only one foundation or basis in defining the term.

2. Fallacies of Division

Example: •If we divide BCCnians into Christians, Muslim and Adventist, we are using a single foundation. On the otherhand, if we divide BCCnians into Christians, Muslims, women and married, we are using more than one bases of division, namely, religion, sex and civil status. The result is cross division.

b. Fallacy of Too Wide Division means that we do not go beyond

what is really meant by the term.

Example: Animals into: amphibians, reptiles, mammals, frogs, cows and crocodiles.

c. Fallacy of Too Narrow Division narrow means“limited in size or scope”. Here, the definition of a term is incomplete or insufficient. You should complete the definition of a term. A good definition must be complete.

Example: Human: rational and animal.

.

d. Fallacy of Remote Division definition should depend upon

the basis of division.

Example:• If we divide BCCnians into animals and plants intead of into men and women, we commit this fallacy.

3. Fallacies of Eductiona. Fallacy of Incorrect Conversion

this arises when a term is undistributed (particular) in the convertend (original proposition) then distributed (universal) in the converse (inferred proposition).

Example: All Bacolodnons are Negrosanons.(convertend)All Negrosanons are Bacolodnons.(converse)

b. Fallacy of Incorrect Obversion

this arises when, in changing the obvertend (original proposition) from the affirmative, the meaning of the original proposition is changed.

Examples:All BCCnians are Hinigaranos.(obvertend)Some BCCnians are non-Hinigaranons.(obverse)

a. Fallacies of Four Terms (Quaternio Terminorem)

this fallacy occurs if there are actually four terms in the syllogism and there is no middle term that serves as the medium of comparison between the minor and the major terms.

4. Fallacies in Categorical Syllogism

Example:•All Cebuanos are Filipinos.•All Negrosanons are Ilonggos.•Therefore, all Negrosanons are Filipinos.

b. Fallacy of Negative Premises

this is known as the fallacy of two negatives which occurs when we draw a conclusion from two negative premises.

Example:•No Cebuanos are Ilonggos.•No Cebuanos are Ilocanos.•Therefore, no Ilocanos are Ilonggos.

c. Fallacy of Undistributed Middle

this fallacy violates the syllogistics rule which prescribes that the middle term must be used at least once as universal in any of the premises.

Example:•Some politicians are businessmen.•Some teachers are politicians.•Therefore, some teachers are businessmen.

d. Fallacy of Particular Premises

known as the fallacy of two particulars. When we draw a conclusion from two particular premises, this fallacy is committed.

Example:•Some Filipinos are Cebuanos.•Some Half-Chinese are Cebuanos.•Therefore, some Half-Chinese are Filipinos.

e. Fallacy of Illicit Minor this fallacy arises when the minor term becomes universal (distributed) in the conclusion while it is only particular (undistributed) in the minor premises.

Example:•All Filipinos are hospitable. •Some Chinese are not Filipinos.•Therefore, all Chinese are not hospitable.

f. Fallacy of Illicit Major it develops when the major term becomes universal (distributed) in the conclusion whereas it is only particular (undistributed) in the major premises.

Example:•Some Asians are Filipinos.•Arabians are not Asians.•Therefore, all Filipinos are not Arabians.

7. The IEO Fallacy it occurs when we draw a conclusion from IEO mood. The major premise is a particular affirmative proposition, (I), and the minor premises is a universal negative proposition,

(E), the conclusion is a particular negative proposition, (O), in compliance with the syllogistic rule that should one premise be particular, the conclusion also must be particular; should one premise be negative, the conclusion must be also be negative.

Example: First Figure:I --- some M is PpE --- No S is MO --- some S is not Pu

Example:•Some parents are hardworking.•No children are parents.•Some children are not hardworking.

Informal/ Material Fallaciesthis arises from confusion or ambiguity due to the kind of term used. they maybe classified as either fallacies in language or fallacies of presumption.

TYPES OF INFORMAL OR

MATERIAL FALLACIES

1.Fallacies in Languagethis type of fallacy is committed due to lack of preciseness in the word, phrases, or sentences used to express a thought. The types of fallacy which fall under this category are the following:

a. Fallacy of Equivocation this fallacy is committed when some terms are used in a premise but with different meanings. There are three kinds of fallacy of equivocation.

Three Kinds of Fallacy of

Equivocation

1. Fallacy of Ambiguous Middle: The middle term is used with two different meanings.Example:•A ruler helps us to draw vertical line.•Joecris is a ruler.•Therefore, Joecris helps us to draw a vertical line.

2. Fallacy of Ambiguous Major: When the major term is used in two different senses.Example:•All chefs move only backward.•Sheila Del Rio, is a chef.•Therefore, Chef Sheila Del Rio moves only backward.

3. Fallacy of Ambiguous Minor: when the minor term is used in two different senses.Example:•No animal is made of paper.•All pages are animals.•Therefore, no pages are made of paper.

b. Fallacy of Amphiboly It arises from the ambiguous use not of a single word but of a phrase or of a complete sentence.

Fallacies in Language

Example:•This child her mother killed.•For sale: Hyundai Car by a carboy with damaged button.

c. Fallacy of Accent This arises from the use of a word

which changes meaning when the accent on the word changes.

Example:• Every falsity needs care and

attention.• Every fallacy is falsity.• Every fallacy needs care and

attention.

d. Fallacy of Figure of Speech A wrong conclusion is drawn due to

the use of words that are similar in structure or in meaning.

Example:• Faithful is the opposite of unfaithful.

• Fidelity is the opposite of unfaithful.

• Therefore, Loyal is the opposite of disloyal.

e. Fallacy of Composition This fallacy is committed as words or

phrases are taken jointly or as a unit when they should be taken separately

Example: The students of BCC come from

the different barrios in Binalbagan.

Georgia Anne is a student from BCC.

Georgia Anne is from the different barrios of Binalbagan.

f. Fallacy of Division This fallacy is the opposite of

composition. It takes words or phrases separately when it should be taken jointly or as a unit.

Example:• BCCnian students speak english.

• Jonamel is a BCCnian student.• Jonamel speaks english.

g. Fallacy of Accident This fallacy arises when what is

accident or superficial is emphasized over what is essential or basic.

Example: Jason wears elegant clothes. Therefore, he looks handsome and wealthy.

h. Fallacy of False Cause It arranges wrong cause in a

certain effect. Superstitions are based on this fallacy.

Example: Wounds cannot be healed because it’s Good Friday.

i. Fallacy of Hasty Generalization It consists of arguing that what is

true to a certain class must also be true to all members of the same class.

Example: Some mothers are over protected to their children.

All mothers are over protected to their children.

j. Fallacy of Increment Premises

this policy occurs when a conclusion is drawn from premises that are irrelevant.

Example:•AJ must be a cum laude.•He is an active student.•He is a hardworking student.•He is an intelligent student.•He is BCC scholar.•Therefore, AJ deserves to be a cum laude.

This fallacy arises when the conclusion is reached by unwanted premises. It also arises when the issue at hand is ignored.

2. Fallacies of Presumption

TYPES OF FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION

a. Fallacy of Begging the Question (Petitio Principii) – this fallacy is the assumption of the truth of the preposition. Not proven – assumes the conclusion under cover of synonymous words or expression.

Example:Souls can never die because they are immortal.

Vicious Circle – uses two unproved propositions to prove each other.

Example:• The mind is spiritual because it is immaterial.

• The mind is immaterial because it is spiritual.

b. Fallacy of Evading the Questionthis fallacy is made to evade the issue by using techniques or Modus Operandi.

Types of Fallacy of Evading the

Questions

• This ignores real issues. It attacks the character or personality of an opponent.

Example:oWhy should we believe in the statement of Mrs. Napolis

oShe is a liar. She was engaged in pork barrel scam.

Argument to the man(Argumentum Ad hominem)

It evades the issue by appealing to passions and prejudices of the populace.

Example:• Only a professional persons wear toxido.

• Vitamins keep your body healthy.

Argument to the people(Argumentum Ad Populum)

It consists of pleading for mercy and leaving reason aside.We ignore the point of issue and appeal to our instinct to have compassion towards the needy, unfortunate, and the downtrodden.

Argument to the Sympathy(Argumentum Ad Misericardian)

Example:•Mr. John Mark cannot be put to prison because he is sick.

We commit this fallacy when we appeal to the sense of greed or cupidityof an individual. Instead of reasoning for an argument, we bribe and use money to defeat the opponent.

Argument to the Money(Argumentum Crumeman)

Example:•Karl who was caught by Karl who was caught by Clarence of cheating uses Clarence of cheating uses his money to settle his money to settle arguments.arguments.

We ignore the truth or falsity of a proposition and assert the truth because people are ignorant about it.

Example:• We cannot disprove that UFO exist, therefore, this existence is true. UFO exists.

Argument to the Ignorance(Argumentum Ignoratium)

We commit this fallacy when we ignore the real issue at hand and appeal to physical or moral pressure rather than to reason.

Argument to the force(Argumentum Ad Baculum)

Example:My mother threatens me that if I will have a failing grade in this semester, she will not support my studies anymore.

This argument is called an appeal to gain or profit. This fallacy is committed when we ignore the issue and appeal to a person to adopt a belief or policy in exchange for the advantage offered.

Argument to one’s own advantage(Argumentum Pansarilum)

Example:Mr. Chavez offers Novy for her college assistance but in return, she will be his mistress.