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Apoptosis signalling by Vijay Avin BR
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Apoptosis Signaling Live??? Or Die???
Vijay Avin BR, Molecular Biomedicine Laboratory, Sahyadri Sceince College, Shimoga, Karnataka, India
Life of cell
• Mitosis checkpoints• Apoptosis will be
triggered to prevent cells from becoming cancers and harming the body
Cell death by injury
-Mechanical damage
-Exposure to toxic chemicals
Cell death by suicide
-Internal signals
-External signals
• Definition
Apo: apart
Ptosis: fallen– Shedding of leaves from tress
• During embriogenesis ------ occurs as PCD
• Post-embrional life------- as apoptosis
apoptosis
• Apoptosis is used as a synonymous for PCD but PCD is physiological death, occurs only during embriogenesis.
• It is a functional death and it is a good mechanism to eliminate wasted, useless, unwanted, or crippled cells!
Necrosis vs. Apoptosis
• Cellular condensation
• Membranes remain intact
• Requires ATP
• Cell is phagocytosed, no tissue reaction
• Ladder-like DNA fragmentation
• In vivo, individual cells appear affected
• Cellular swelling
• Membranes are broken
• ATP is depleted
• Cell lyses, eliciting an inflammatory reaction
• DNA fragmentation is random, or smeared
• In vivo, whole areas of the tissue are affected
Necrosis Apoptosis
NECROSIS Vs APOPTOSIS
Wilde, 1999
Why have we developed such a self-destructive system?
• A. PCD allows a constant selection for the fittest cell in a colony
• Every cell carries the molecular machinery to do PCD!
• Cells that are sensitive to extracellular signals will survive, cell that cannot compete with their more vital sisters will undergo apoptosis.
• PCD machinery is silent until signals arrive to start PCD:
• Signals:
• damage to DNA
• Activation of membrane receptors. Ligands are: peptides, cytokines, ATP, ROS etc
• Fas receptor?
Receptors for growth factors, cytokines and hormones
• Membrane alterations cause apoptosis.
What kind of membrane alterations ??
Phospholipid redistributions, changes in membrane charge, carbohydrate and surface markers.
Proteins involved in apoptosis• Fas ligand (FasL or CD95L) is a type-II transmembrane protein that belongs to the tumor necrosis factor
(TNF) family
• Fas-Associated protein with Death Domain (FADD) is an adaptor molecule that bridges the Fas-receptor, and other death receptors,
• Apoptotic protease activating factor 1, also known as APAF1
• Bcl-2 (B-cell lymphoma 2) is the founding member of the Bcl-2 family of apoptosis regulator proteins encoded by the BCL2gene
Caspases• Inflammatory Caspases: -1, -4, and -5 • Initiator Caspases: -2, -8, -9, and -10
– Long N-terminal domain– Interact with effector caspases
• Effector Caspases: -3, -6, and -7– Little to no N-terminal domain– Initiate cell death
• The Mitochondrial Apoptosis-Induced Channel (or MAC),• BAK: Bcl-2 homologous antagonist killer• BAX: Bcl-2 associated x protein• BID: BH3 interacting domain death agonist, a pro-apoptotic protein• BAD: The Bcl-2-associated death promoter (BAD) protein is a pro-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 gene
family which is involved in initiating apoptosis. BAD is a member of the BH3-only family
STAGES OF APOPTOSIS
Sherman et al., 1997
Induction of apoptosis related genes, signal transduction
membrane blebbing & changes
mitochondrial leakage
organelle
reduction
cell
shrinkage
nuclear fragmentation
chromatin condensation
APOPTOSIS: Morphology
Hacker., 2000
membrane blebbing & changes
mitochondrial leakage
organelle reduction
cell shrinkage
nuclear fragmentationchromatin condensation
APOPTOSIS: Morphological events
Bleb
Blebbing & Apoptotic bodies
The control retained over the cell membrane & cytoskeleton allows intact pieces of the cell to separate for recognition & phagocytosis by Ms
Apoptotic body
M M
Apoptosis: Pathways
Death Ligands
Effector Caspase 3
Death Receptors
Initiator Caspase 8
Cell death
DNA damage & p53
Mitochondria/Cytochrome C
Initiator Caspase 9
“Extrinsic Pathway”
“Intrinsic Pathway”
• Binding of Fas by FasL induces recruitment of FADD to the cytoplasmic tail of Fas
• The opposite end of FADD contains a death effector domain (hatched boxes); recruitment of either procaspase-8 or c-FLIP
• Caspase-8 can cleave Bid
• truncated Bid (tBid) can inactivate Bcl-2 in the mitochondrial membrane.
• This allows the escape of cytochrome c, which clusters with Apaf-1 and caspase-9 in the presence of dATP to activate caspase-9.
• Smac/DIABLO is also released from the mitochondria and inactivates inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs).
• breakdown of several cytoskeletal proteins and degradation of the inhibitor of caspase-activated DNase (ICAD).
Extrinsic or Death Receptor Pathway
MAJOR PLAYERS IN APOPTOSIS
• Caspases
• Adaptor proteins
• Bcl-2 family
Modulation of apoptosis
• Apoptotic cell death can be switched to necrosis during oxidative stress by 2 mechanisms:
Inactivation of caspases due to oxidation of their active site thiol group by oxidants
Decrease in ATP due to failure of mitochondrial energy production by oxidants
• NO can also have dual effects on apoptosis
NO is reactive, unstable free radical gas that can easily cross cell membranes.
L-Arg------ NO
Low NO: Neurotransmitter, regulator in vasodilation and platelet aggregation.
High NO: Cytotoxicity
NO may also mediate apoptosis:
How???• Formation of iron-nitrosyl complexes with
FeS-containing enzymes: This leads to impairment of mitochondrial function
ATP depletion.• NO may directly damage DNA-
mutagenesis• Generation of OONO- Apoptosis• NO may inactivate several antioxidant
enzymes (CAT, GPx, SOD etc)
• NO exposure or activation may inhibit apoptosis in
Lymphocytes
Endothelial cells
Neurons
Hepatocytes
Kidney cells
How??• Direct inhibition of caspase (S-nitrosylation of the active
site Cys)• R-S-NO is important component of signal transduction
cascades.• S-nitrosylation can regulate many proteins:• Enzymes• Ion channels• G-proteins• Transcription factors• NO may act as a modular switch to control protein
function via –SH groups.
For example, S-nitrosylation was shown to occur in:• Calpain• NF-KB• AP-1 These are all implicated in the regulation of apoptosis.
• Nitrosylation/denitrosylation- may serve as a regulatory mechanism just like….?
Importance of Apoptosis
• Important in normal physiology / development– Development: Immune systems maturation,
Morphogenesis, Neural development– Adult: Immune privilege, DNA Damage and wound
repair.
• Excess apoptosis– Neurodegenerative diseases
• Deficient apoptosis– Cancer– Autoimmunity
The bcl-2 family
BH4 BH3 BH1 BH2 TMN C
Receptor domain
phosphorylation
Raf-1calcineurin Pore
formation
Membraneanchor
Liganddomain
Group I
Group II
Group III
Bcl-2
bax
Badbidbik
Back
P53 & Apoptosis
p53 first arrests cell growth between G1 S
This allows for DNA repair during delay
If the damage is too extensive then p53 induces gene activation leading to apoptosis (programmed cell death)
Thank u