Classical and Hellenistic Greece

Chapter 3

Classical Period: 5th Century B.C.

High point of Greek civilization

“Golden Age” of Greece

Greek city-states dominated by Athens 

Reasons for Athenian Leadership Wealth

Military success

Political leadership Advances in democracy

demos = people + kratos = rule  

Rebuilding Athens

After Persian Wars

Athens launched program to rebuild city

Music, literature, theater, art

Philosophy, science, mathematics, history

Sparta’s Refusal to Lead

Sparta not interested in leading the Greeks

Long-term commitment Helot uprisings Naval action

Attention shifts to Athens

The Delian LeagueAthenian Leadership

Delian League

Formed soon after Persian Wars ended

Greeks met on Delos

Sacred island

Centrally located

How was the alliance sealed?

Purpose of the Delian League

Athens + allies promise to provide ships, money

Protect Greeks from Persian invasion

Obtain reparations

Raids + booty from war

A THEATER AT DELOS

Athens Chosen to Lead Delian League

Experience

Size

Navy

Wealth

Political leadership

A SACRED TEMPLE AT DELOS

CimonLeader of the Delian League

Cimon’s Rise to Power

Son of Miltiades + Thracian princess

Athenian general, led Greeks at Marathon

Bold, ambitious aristocrat

Elected strategus

Strategus = military commander, part of archonship

The First Peloponnesian WarAthens against Sparta

Thasos

•Rocky island off the coast of Thrace

•Wealth from gold mines

•Joined Delian League

The Thasian Rebellion: 465 B.C.

Thasos wanted to leave Delian League

Athens besieged Thasos for over two years

Thasos finally defeated

Athenian aggression for its own purposes

Delian League became Athenian Empire

THASOS TODAY

Thasians Ask Sparta for Help Thasians ask Sparta to invade

Athens

Sparta said “yes”

However:

Spartan earthquake + Helot rebellion = NO Spartan invasion

Irony

Spartans asked Athens: “Help with Helot uprising”

Cimon said “ok” (enemies outraged, plotted overthrow)

Sparta sent Athenians home

Feared Athenian “boldness & revolutionary spirit”

A Plot Against Cimon

While Cimon in Sparta

Ephialtes “attacked” Areopagus

Stripped away most of its power

Goal = reduce Cimon’s influence

But, Ephialtes was assassinated

Rise of Pericles

Pericles = new leader of democratic faction

Ostracized Cimon: 461 B.C.

Alliance with Argos

Sparta’s traditional enemy

CIMON’S OSTRAKON

Megara

Megara withdrew from Peloponnesian League

Athenians accept Megara as an ally

Angered Sparta

Led to First Peloponnesian War

Athenian Supremecy

Athens gained more land, power:

Conquered Aegina, gained control of Boeotia

Conquered border states

Dominated the seas

Then, the tide turned…

THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE

Athenian Setback

Athenians helped Egyptians rebel against Persians

Terrible defeat

Lost ships, men, prestige

Led to rebellions in Athenian empire

449 B.C.: Athenians ended war with Persians

Thirty Years of Peace? Pericles agreed to treaty

Supposed to guarantee thirty years of peace

Terms:

Athens: Abandon possessions on mainland outside Attica

Sparta: Recognize Athenian Empire

Changes in the Delian League Persians no longer a threat

Poleis wanted to:

Reduce contributions to the League, or

Withdraw from the League

Athens said NO.

Classical GreeceThe Athenian Empire

Athenian Dominance

After Egyptian defeat:

League’s treasury moved to Athens Athens kept 1/60 of annual revenues

Justification for empire?

No Persian threat, no pirates

Athens calls Panhellenic Congress 2 Goals:

Rebuild temples

Find way to maintain freedom of seas

Sparta refused to participate

Prevents congress from meeting

Athenian Propaganda

“Athens’ welfare matters most”

Allies = “colonies”

Athens = “mother city” (metropolis)

Alliance based on “good feeling“ & religious observances

Reality: Abuse of power

Athens treated allies as subjects

Only three allies sent ships

Allies unwilling to defend themselves

Athenian rule = tyranny

Athens became dependent on empire

Popular Assembly

Approved every decision of state

Comprised of citizens, not representatives

Popular Court

Judicial decisions subject to appeal

51 - 1,501 citizens on this court (no more, no less)

Chosen from annual panel of jurors

Elected Officials

Most selected by lot, not class

Usually nobles, almost always rich

People could choose others, like:

The “ten generals” (military AND political power)

Imperial treasurers

Public Officials subject to Scrutiny

Accountability

Officials could be removed from office

Compulsory examination, accounting at term’s end

No way to coerce people

No standing army, no police

Pericles’ Leadership

Pericles: A Popular Leader Elected to generalship 15

years in a row

Elected to generalship 30 times in all

Persuasive speaker, skillful politician

Respected military leader and patriot

Incorruptible

Women of Athens: Legal Status

Male-dominated society

Women excluded from public life

No voting

Not part of political assemblies, no public office

No direct part in politics

WOMEN AT A FESTIVAL

Aspasia

Aspasia Pericles divorced wife

Lived with Aspasia

Foreigner

Lively intellect; Socrates talked to her

Plato joked that she wrote funeral oration

Pericles’ Feelings about Aspasia

Loved, treated her as wife, equal

Included in conversations with men

Discussed important matters with her, respected opinions

Openly affectionate (unusual)

Public Reaction

Scandalous relationship

Openly mocked

Aristophanes blamed her for Peloponnesian War

Enemies said Pericles enslaved to foreign, manipulative woman

Pasion: Most Famous Athenian Slave Began as bank clerk

Earned freedom, became Athens’ richest banker

Awarded Athenian citizenship

Rare; yet, many Greek slaves gained freedom

A Flourishing Athenian Culture

The “School” of Greece

Athens collected “tribute” from allies

Helped support artists, writers, actors, philosophers

Pericles wanted Athens to be “school of Hellas”

THE SCHOOL OF HELLAS

Art in the 5th Century B.C.

Artistic Changes in the Classical Period

More fluid

Not just gods

Women Children Average men Foreigners

Realistic Details

5th century art celebrated man’s achievements

Not just focused on religious themes

Sculptures of the Gods

Athenians still honored Greek deities through sculpture

Garments, movement more fluid, realistic

Architecture

Changes in Architecture

THE PARTHENON

Buildings emphasize glory of man

“Perfection,” using optical illusions

New buildings that feature powerful images:

Battle scenes, celebrations

Erectheum

The portico featuressix draped female figures

Columns

Innovative column design

Ionic

Doric

Corinthian

Doric ColumnsTHE BEST WAY TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT ORDERS

IS TO LOOK AT THE CAPITAL (TOP PART OF THE COLUMN).

Ionic Columns

Corinthian columnsTHIS IS NOT AN ANCIENT GREEK COLUMN.

CAN YOU TELL WHERE IT IS FROM?

Athenian DominationColonies begin to resent the “Mother City”

Allies Hated Athenian Domination Resentment; loss of independence

Non-members denied Athenian citizenship

Treated as inferiors, no political representation

Athens prospered while they floundered:

Funded Athenian projects; their needs ignored

“Help us!”

As a result, many disgruntled Greeks turned to Sparta for help.

The Great Peloponnesian WarThe Demise of the Athenian Empire

Greece during the Great Peloponnesian War

Athens, Sparta, and their allies

Overview Peloponnesian War sparked by minor dispute

War lasted from 431-404 B.C.

Sparta angered:

Blamed Athens for threatening Greek independence

“This day will be the beginning of great evil for the Greeks.”

The Spark: A Civil War Corcyra (Corfu): island

west of Greece

Inhabitants called Phaiakians

Corinthians settled there, but considered itself neutral

Independent, hostile attitude toward Corinth (metropolis)

Corinth = Sparta’s ally

Athenian Concerns

Quarrel erupted between Corcyra and Corinth

Corcyra = second biggest navy

Corinth might capture neutral Corcyra

Corcyra would then allied with Sparta

Change balance of power? Threaten Athenian security?

TODAY, CORCYRA IS CALLED CORFU

Treaty of 445 B.C.

Provided for arbitration

“Arbitration” = In a dispute, both parties agree to let objective person/group hear grievances, settle argument

Athens offered to arbitrate any question

Corinthian Complaints

Summer 432 B.C. = Sparta met with allies

Corinthians argued that Athens:

“continues to be aggressive”

“wants to enslave all Greeks”

Voted for war

Sparta’s Objections

Athens had intervened in a civil war

Athens had created an alliance with Corcyra

This could upset the balance of power: Athenian Empire vs.

Peloponnesian League

War: Spring 431 B.C.

Sparta said “No”, refused any Athenian arbitration

Sparta’s army marched into Attica

Spartan Strategy

Traditional approach

Threaten crops; starve into submission

Force enemy to defend land in hoplite battle

Better army

Outnumbered Athenians two to one

Athenian Strategy

Wait it out

Large, powerful navy

Annual income from the empire

Allow Sparta to devastate land

Launch seaborne raids, hurt Sparta’s allies

The Long Walls

Impregnable

4 meters thick, 20 meters tall

Connected Athens to fortified port (Piraeus)

Fleet could bring supplies to Athens

Pericles’ Hopes

Believed Spartan alliance would crumble

War would end in 1-2 years

Athens could last 4-5 years behind Long Walls

Then, raise tribute in the empire

Risk: Athenian allies rebelling

Sparta Strikes

Sparta couldn’t penetrate the walls

Spartans ravaged Attic countryside

Ineffective!

Athenians not be drawn out to battle

Remained safe behind walls

Plague: 429 B.C.

Terrible disease struck Athens

Cause? Kind of disease?

Ships?

Population trapped behind the walls

Plague attacks Sparta

Plague struck Sparta, much of eastern Mediterranean

Plague returned twice more

429 B.C.

Winter of 427-426 B.C.

Thucydides’ Account

History of the Peloponnesian War

Survived the plague himself

Described point of origin:

Ethiopia to Egypt and Libya, then Greece

Broke out in Athens, an overcrowded city

Death and Destruction

Athens lost one third of its population

Sight of burning funeral pyres in Athens caused the Spartan army to withdraw for fear of the disease

Devastating Losses

Thousands of Athenians died

Infantry, naval commanders, sailors died

Pericles died during secondary outbreak 429 BC.

Competing for Control

No dominant leader emerged after Pericles

Two factions:

Nicias: “Continue Pericles’ defensive policy”

Cleon: “More aggressive strategy”

Cleon gained control of Athens

Cleon Assumes Command of Athens

Cleon’s leadership

Militant democratic + imperialistic leader

Led Athenian armies outside of Attica

Wanted to draw away crucial Spartan allies

Cleon’s Success

Successful at first

400 Spartans surrendered Sparta offered peace to get them back

Restored Athenian prestige

Athens raised tribute to pay for war

Athenian Aggression: 424 B.C. Athens tried to

conquer Megara, Boeotia

Failed

Defeat discredited Athens

Led to a truce with Sparta in 423 B.C.

Brasidas: Spartan Commander

Brasidas sent to Thrace and Macedonia

Encouraged revolt among Athens’ subject cities

Captured Amphipolis (important Athenian colony)

Thucydides

In charge of Athenian fleet fighting Brasidas

Held responsible for loss of Amphipolis

Exiled, wrote history of Peloponnesian War

A Turn of Events

Cleon fought Brasidas at Amphipolis.

BOTH Cleon and Brasidas died in battle.

Peace of Nicias

Some Athenians + Spartans wanted to end war

Fifty-year truce, named for chief negotiator

Restored political conditions to pre-war state

A Tenuous Peace

Neither side honored all commitments

Several of Sparta’s allies refused ratification

415 B.C. = Alcibiades convinced Athens to attack Sicily

Alcibiades

Wealthy

Handsome

Educated by Pericles

Friend of Socrates; potential “philosopher-king”

Brilliant military strategist

An Ambitious Athenian Expected political

promotion

Experience, intelligence, noble upbringing

Leaders said he needed time to mature

Arrogant, unscrupulous

Vandalism and Escape

Festival

Alcibiades accused of vandalizing religious statues (Hermae)

Ordered to stand before the court

Fled to Sparta, divulged military secrets

Recalled to Athens Later, wanted to

return to Athens

Athens said, “Yes.”

Described Sparta’s military plans, offered advice

Convinced Athenians to attack, subdue Sicily

Sicilian Expedition Sicily fought to maintain

freedom

Persia provided ships + money; allied with Sparta

Devastating loss for Athens

200 ships, 4,500 Athenian soldiers, 45,000 allied troops

Loss of prestige; sparked rebellions; empowered Sparta

Lysander & the Spartan Victory Athens won battles, but

finances + support dwindled

Lysander = Spartan commander; obtained Persian support

Cut off food supplies through Hellespont

Athenians finally starved into submission

Athenian Unconditional Surrender: 404 B.C.

Long walls torn down

Navy destroyed – except for 12 ships

Democratic government dissolved

Forced to be Sparta’s ally

Empire dismantled

Competition for Leadership in the Fourth Century B.C.Hegemony

Hegemony of Sparta

Hegemony = “leadership”

Vacuum of power after Athenian Empire collapsed

Rivalry among Greek cities for leadership

Sparta emerged as leader

Lysander’s Leadership

Returned Greek cities in Asia Minor to Persians

Installed board of ten oligarchs in each:

City along European coast

Aegean island

Spartan Challenges Limited population, Helot uprisings,

conservatism

Corinth and Thebes resented Spartan abuses

Installed oligarchic government in Athens

“Thirty Tyrants” (named for outrageous behavior)

Athenians hated them

Conflict with Persians

405 B.C. = Death of Persian ruler, Darius II

Succeeded by Artaxerxes II (king who married Esther?)

Younger brother, Cyrus, contested his rule

Asked Sparta for help

Spartans win, but Cyrus died in battle

Aegislaus

Greeks in Asia Minor had supported Cyrus

Feared Artaxerxes’ revenge, asked Sparta for help

Sparta sent army to Asia Minor

Army led by new Spartan king, Aegislaus

Frightened Persians

Corinthian War Persians promised Greeks

support if they fought Sparta

Thebes said ok, organized alliance

Alliance included Argos, Corinth, and resurgent Athens

Resulted in Corinthian War (395-387 B.C.)

Ended Spartan aggression in Asia

Persian Victory & Athens Restored Persian fleet destroyed Sparta’s naval empire

Athenians took advantage of this:

Rebuilt walls, enlarged navy

Recovered some of lost empire in Aegean

War ended when Greeks accepted Persian treaty

Management of Greece

Persians worried about Athens

Told Sparta manage Greece

All alliances dissolved, except Peloponnesian League

Spartan army kept poleis in check

Threatened to put Spartan allies in positions of leadership

A SPARTAN SHIELD

Spartan Abuse of Power Sparta seized Thebes

During peacetime, without warning or cause

Similar attempt on Athens

Athens joined with Thebes

Athens rebelled earlier; gained independence

Athens/Thebes defeated Sparta

Spartan Defeat

Thebans urged central Peloponnesus to make changes:

Form league, free Helots, establish own city

Accomplished at Sparta’s expense

Lost farmland, workers, power, prestige

Surrounded by hostile neighbors

Hegemony of Thebes

Power based on:

Democratic constitution

Control over Boeotia

Leadership of two popular generals

Epaminondas

Most popular Theban general

Thebes dominated Greece

North of Athens + Corinthian Gulf

Challenged new Athenian Empire for power in Aegean

End of Theban Dominance Many poleis resisted

Theban control.

Battle of Mantinea

Epaminondas led Boeotian army into Peloponnesus

Army successful but Epaminondas died

BOTH Theban generals died; ended Theban dominance

Second Athenian Confederation

Organized in 378 B.C.

Goal: Resist Spartan aggression in Aegean

Hoped to avoid past mistakes and abuses

Athens still repeated abuses; allies revolted

By 355 B.C., Athens abandoned most of the empire

A Return to Chaos

After 200 years of almost continuous warfare, the Greeks returned to the chaotic disorganization that characterized the time before the founding of the Peloponnesian League.

Changes During the Classical PeriodFor Better…Or, For Worse

Changes were generally tied to the cities Poverty in the cities

Stronger class divisions

Professionalism in the army

Changes in demographics

Population in some cities

Population in some cities

Response to Change

People responded in various ways:

Look to the past for explanation and direction

Despair, then look for new answers

Avoid the topic altogether

Art, Literature & Philosophy

Reflected “tension”

Friction, conflict Victory Pride in man’s achievements

Despair, frustration

Cynicism

Attic Tragedy: 5th Century B.C. Major form of Greek

poetry

“Attic” = from Attica

Aeschylus = most famous poet of this period

Other famous playwrights include Sophocles and Euripides

Dramatic Contests

Part of religious festival, honored Dionysus

Poets submitted plays to archon:

Three tragedies and one satyr play

Plays usually had common theme

Prizes

Given to the three best competitors

Prizes: three actors and a chorus

Actors paid by state

Chorus provided by wealthy citizen

The Audience

Most tragedies performed in Athens’ Theater of Dionysus

Natural amphitheater Superior acoustics

Audience of 30,000

Purpose of Attic Tragedy

Focused on important issues

Usually from mythology

Sometimes from history or contemporary event

Dealt with difficult questions:

Religion, politics, ethics, morality

Old Comedy Introduced early in

5th century B.C.

Main playwright = Aristophanes

Scathing satire against political, public figures

▪ Pericles, Cleon, Socrates, Euripides

Middle Comedy 4th century B.C.

Few political subjects

New kind of story line

Humorous, realistic depiction of daily life

Plots of intrigue

Mild satire

New Comedy Role of chorus

diminished

Menander

Abandoned mythological subjects altogether

Wrote about domestic tragi-comedy

Tragedy in 4th Century B.C. No tragedies from 4th

century B.C. survived

Euripides’ tragedies resurfaced, became increasingly popular

Few references to the gods

Focused on psychology and individual behavior

Literature Emphasis on stories

about everyday life

Plot moves toward simpler comedies

Fewer stories about epic heroes, lofty topics

PhilosophyThe Search for Answers

Birth of Philosophy Originated in Ionia

6th century B.C.

Movement away from religious myths

Celebrated man’s reason, ability to find Truth

Combined religion, morals, and metaphysics (the nature of being)

Man began asking important questions.

Do gods cause everything?

Are the gods real? What is real?

Can man affect change?

How to live well =

Right opinions about God, world, man, virtue

The CosmologistsSeeking Answers about the Universe

Overview of the Cosmologists Questioned nature of the cosmos

(universe)

“Single, eternal, imperishable substance = basis for reality”

Wanted to understand the “One”

Everything emerges from the “One”

Thales: The First Philospher Contemporary of Solon

“Water = basic element for everything in nature”

Omitted gods from origin of nature

Believed earth floated on water

First to predict eclipse of the sun

Anaximander Rejected Thales belief

about water

“Indefinite substance (Boundless) = source of all”

“Boundless” contains powers of heat and cold

Heat and cold produced nucleus (seed of world)

Influenced ideas about evolution

Anaximenes

“Air is primary substance”

Believed world was orderly

“Rainbow made of sun’s rays falling on dense air”

The Religious MysticsWhat is the soul?

Overview of Religious Mystics Soul more important than body

Immortality

Transmigration of the soul (reincarnation)

Ate no meat

Influenced Plato

Pythagoras: Coined the term “philosophy” Taught transmigration of

souls (reincarnation)

“Order in universe based on numbers”

Mathematical, geometrical, astronomical science

Knew that earth is a sphere

Developed Pythagorean theorum

Heraclitus “You can never step into

same stream twice”

“Material world is in state of flux”

Matter itself is constantly changing

“Fire (constantly changing) = source of all things”

Parmenides

Disagreed with Heraclitus

“Change is an illusion of the senses”

“Reality is fixed, unchanging”

Founder of formal logic

Believed in True Being: “one,” transcendent, permanent, perfect

Empedocles Identified four basic

elements: Fire, Water, Earth, Air

“Reality is permanent but mobile”

Four elements move by two opposing forces

Love and Strife

Like magnet’s attraction or repulsion

Democritus Called the “laughing

philosopher”

“World made of innumerable tiny, solid, indivisible, unchangeable particles: atoms”

Atoms move, create shapes/colors that senses perceive

Anaxagoras

Friend of Pericles

“World made of tiny fundamental particles: seeds”

“Seeds unite on rational basis by nous, or mind”

Made distinction between matter and mind

The Medical PhilosopherSearching for Answers through Observation

Hippocrates: Father of Medicine Started a school

Observed ill patients, classified symptoms

Predicted future course of an illness

Rejected supernatural explanations and cures

SophistsTraveling teachers

Sophists

Paid, traveling teachers of rhetoric, dialectic, argumentation

Taught students how to win arguments

Some claimed to teach wisdom

Socrates believed sophistry was wrong

“Distracts people from pursuit of Truth”

Critias

Sophist

“Law is contrary to nature”

“Law man-made, so weak controls strong”

Extremist

“Gods invented, keep people from doing what they wish”

Socrates – “I am NOT a Sophist!” Never wrote anything

Plato wrote “dialogues,” Socrates was a character

Xenophon also wrote about Socrates

Did not consider himself wise

Denied he was a teacher or sophist

The Barefoot Philosopher Socrates walked around Athens,

barefooted

Odd looking: Bulging eyes, large nose

Successfully argued that he was superior looking

Taught by asking questions (Socratic Method)

The Socratic Method of Teaching Leading questions get people to think

(“Aha!”)

Believed people do wrong because of ignorance

Don’t know what is virtuous

Educate in virtue, right living will follow

BOTH student AND teacher learns

Trial and Execution Angry Athenians accused him of:

Corrupting the youth

Bringing new gods into the city

Stood trial

Choice: exile or execution

Chose death: drank poison from hemlock plant

The Cynics

The Cynics

Extremists

Based philosophy on Socratic teaching

Disdained worldly pleasure and wealth

Withdrew from political life

Antisthenes

Founded the Cynics

Follower of Socrates

Diogenes: The Most Famous Cynic

Wore rags, lived in a tub

Performed shameful acts in public

Made living by begging

“Happiness found in satisfying natural needs in simplest, most direct, public way”

Diogenes’ View of Religion

Ridiculed all religious observances

Plato said Diogenes was Socrates gone mad.

Cynics’ Belief about Virtue

“Virtue = wisdom and happiness”

“Virtue comes from proper style of life”

Can’t be taught, does not come from philosophy

(Socrates said the opposite)

Cynics’ View of the Polis

Abandoned concept of polis altogether

Diogenes said he was kosmopolites, “citizen of the world”

Plato

Plato

Socrates’ most important student

Became greater than Socrates

First systematic philosopher

Applied philosophy to political events, ideas

Plato’s Dialogues

Wrote 26 philosophical discussions

Almost all were dialogues

“Conversations” between Socrates and various people

Background

Noble Athenian family

Wanted to participate in politics but didn’t

Socrates’ execution

Reign of Thirty Tyrants

Plato’s School: The Academy Influential school

Purpose: train statesmen, citizens

Closed by Justinian in 6th century A.D.

Political Beliefs

“Truth can be discovered by REASON”

Disliked democracy because power given to “amateurs”

Philosopher = “lover of wisdom” should lead polis

“We should question, challenge authority”

Commitment to the Polis

“Polis is based on virtues: order, harmony, justice”

Goal of the polis: Produce good people

“Man was meant to live in community”

“Community helps man become good”

Knowledge and Training

“Knowledge” (episteme)

True, unchanging wisdom

Only for a few philosophers

Philosophers need training (helps philosopher see “reality”)

Plato’s Philosopher-King

Only philosophers qualified to rule

Prefer “life of contemplation”

Will accept responsibility from sense of duty

Justice & Holiness

Tried to define justice and holiness

These are inherent in the Good

Discovery possible only through philosophy

Preserving the Polis

“Preserve polis through moral + political reform”

Alleviate causes of strife:

Private property, family

Anything that comes between citizen and polis

The Good

Man must have knowledge of the Good

Understand philosophical principles first

Right action follows

Artistotle

Background

Plato’s student

Son of court doctor in Macedon

Studied at the Academy

Joined Platonic colony in Asia Minor

Taught Alexander the Great

Aristotle’s School

Founded Athenian school: the Lyceum

Goal: Gather, order, analyze all human knowledge

Aristotle’s Writings Wrote dialogues on

Platonic philosophy; none survive

158 collections of information

Served as basis for scientific works

Only the Constitution of the Athenians remains

Birth of Science

Philosophy led to scientific studies:

Logic, rhetoric

Physics, astronomy, biology (including marine biology

Ethics, politics

Literary Criticism (categorized genres)

Aristotle’s Scientific Method Observe evidence

Physical evidence OR opinion

Apply reason; discover patterns/inconsistencies

Compare + contrast

Explain with metaphysical principles

The Good Life

Emphasized balanced life

Moderation in all things

Goal: “The Good Life”

Contemplative but enough wealth to live comfortably

Beliefs about the Polis

Sophists: “Polis is a man-made convention”

Aristotle said no:

Polis is natural, necessary

Polis will change over time

Polis will improve

Aristotle’s Core Beliefs

Everything evolves to final, perfected form

Institutions serve human needs, helps continue species

Marriage + household necessary to polis

Purpose of polis: moral (not military, economic)

The State and the Good Life

Best polis combines justice and stability

Good constitution stresses moderation

Aristotle’s Middle Class “Power should rest with

middle class”

Most numerous and stable

Not arrogant from wealth or malicious from poverty

Mixed Constitution best

Democracy AND oligarchy

Aristotle’s Last Days

Alexander died; Athenians rebelled from Macedonian rule

Aristotle fled

Died in Calcis (in Euboea) the next year

Isocrates

Contemporary of Plato and Aristotle

Headed important rhetorical/ philosophical school in Athens

Political Beliefs

Supported Philip of Macedon

Sought unity and leadership

Urged imperial conquest

Plato said, “No – problem is moral”

Aristotle said, “Apply virtue, moderation; empower middle class”

The Hellenistic WorldThe Fourth Century B.C.

Hellenism

“300 years when Greek culture spread from Greece to Egypt, into Asia”

Hellenistic culture:

Mixture of Greek + Near Eastern cultures

Hellenistic world larger than classical Greek world

The Macedonian ConquestConquering the Greeks

Rise of Macedon

4th century B.C.

North of Thessaly

“Protect Greece” from invading tribes to the north

Early Political Structure Ruled loosely by a king

Family line, army support, quarrels over throne

▪ People pretended to be rightful heir; murder common

Council of nobles checked king’s power

Could reject weak or incompetent king

Related to Greeks Spoke Greek dialect; nobles considered

themselves Greek

Kings claimed descent from Heracles

Royal house claimed descent from Argos

Tried to bring Greek culture into their court

Eventually won acceptance at Olympic games

Challenged Athens for Control Gradually drove

Athenians from Thermaic Gulf

(near Thessaloniki)

Built fleet to confront Athenian navy

Used ships to harass Athenian trade

Philip II

Reigned as regent for infant nephew

Overthrow nephew; made himself king

Admired Greek culture

Had been hostage in Thebes

Exposed to Greek politics and warfare

An Able King

Talent for war

Diplomatic

Ambitious

Pacified tribes on his frontiers

Philip Gains Control of Northern Aegean

Gold + silver mines enabled him to:

Found new cities

Bribe politicians in foreign towns

Reorganize + strengthen his army

Bribe soldiers to fight as mercenaries

The Macedonian ArmyPhilip’s Improvements

A Professional Army Versatile, powerful

army; national, professional

Infantry drawn from:

Macedonian farmers

Macedonian hill people

Often rebellious; this created loyalty

Weaponry and Tactics

13-foot pikes, not 9-foot pikes

Stressed accuracy with pikes, swords

Heavier fighting clothes

Open phalanx to, held enemy until cavalry charged flank

The Cavalry

Made up of Macedonian nobles, clan leaders

Called the Companions

Lived closely with the king, loyal to him

Mercenaries United barbarians,

unhappy Macedonians

Job of mercenaries:

Military secrets

Get info: new weapons, tactics, siege machinery

Philip expanded army with 40,000 more men

Invasion of GreecePhilip on the March

Thessaly

Asked Philip to lead war against Phocis

Philip agreed, then took over Thessaly

Turned against Thrace, Greek cities along Aegean

Forced three kings to accept his overlordship

Demosthenes Athenian statesman

and orator

Philip’s chief opponent

Issued series of speeches, called The Philippics

Said Philip wanted to control Greece

Urged resistance

Athenian Response

Most Athenians agreed with Demosthenes

BUT, most were unwilling to move against Philip

Preferred the “path of peace”

Inaction led to defeat

Isocrates

Athenian philosopher

Thought Philip would bring unity + leadership

Macedonian HegemonyGoverning Greece

Focusing on Athens

Not as harsh as feared

Demosthenes could still engage in politics

Athens spared from attack IF:

It gives up rest of empire

Follow Macedon’s lead

League of Corinth

Supposed to:

Provide autonomy, freedom from tribute & garrisons

Suppress piracy & civil war

Members to make independent, foreign policy

NOT TRUE; Philip ruled, period.

Philip Turns toward Persia

Corinth became seat of Philip’s confederacy

Philip announced plans to invade Persia.

Philippi

Named pre-existing city “Philippi” after himself

Probably city where Paul was imprisoned

Philippian jailer

Philippian letter probably written to Christians here

Olympias

Philip had several wives

Yet, only one queen, Olympias

Mother of his heir, Alexander

Assassination: 337 B.C. Assassinated – just before he attacked

Persians

Who was responsible?

Persians?

Olympias?

Egyptian consort, Cleopatra? (not the famous one)

Philip’s Tomb

Click icon to add pictureA golden chest with the star of Macedon imprinted on it

Artifacts from Philip’s Tomb?

CROWN ARMOR

Philip’s empire

The Macedonian Conquest

Alexander the GreatConquering King

Bucephalus

Plutarch: The Story of Bucephalus

A Thessalian, named Philoneicus, brought a wild horse to Philip II.

Philip was angry because the horse seemed unstable, but Alexander had watched Bucephalus and gave his father a challenge.

A Boy’s Perception

Although Alexander was only 12 years old, he had noticed that Bucephalus was shying away from his own shadow.

Alexander gently led Bucephalus into the sun so that his shadow was behind him.

Eventually Bucephalus allowed Alexander to ride him.

Alexander the Prince

Philip said, "Look thee out a kingdom equal to and worthy of thyself, for Macedonia is too little for thee.”

What’s in a Name?

Alexander named the horse Bucephalus because the horse's head seemed "as broad as a bull’s.”

In Memory Of…

Bucephalus died of battle wounds in 326B.C. in Alexander's last battle.

Alexander founded the city of Bucephala in memory of his beloved horse.

An Extraordinary Life

Upbringing

Tutored by Aristotle

Gave Alexander copy of Homer’s Iliad

Learned military science in father’s school

Fought first battle: 16

Commanded cavalry: 18

336 B.C.: Alexander becomes King

Inherited throne at age 20

Created greatest empire the world had ever seen

Earned title “Alexander the Great”

Extraordinary courage, inspired loyalty among soldiers

Inheriting Philip’s Army

Highly efficient army

Royal Army mostly from Macedonia

Some soldiers from League of Corinth

Professional soldiers from other parts of Greece

Persia

Persia

Persia was stronger: more troops, ships, wealth

BUT Persia lacked efficient leadership, military science

334 BC: Alexander invades Persia

Led 35,000 soldiers into Asia Minor

Defeated Darius III

Darius fled

Darius’s mother, wife, children were captured

Alexander treated them humanely

Egypt

332 BC: Alexander arrives in Egypt

Marched into Egypt; captured with little trouble

Called:

“Liberator”

“Pharaoh”

“Son of Re”

Alexandria

In Egypt, ordered new capital city built

Died before he could see it

Alexandria’s population: at least half a million

One of ancient world’s leading cities

The Museum of Alexandria Famous for achievements

in science + scholarship

Ptolemy II founded the first “Museum”

A temple to the Muses

Huge library next to temple

▪ Housed Greek, Egyptian writings

The Library

Housed half a million works

Helped preserve knowledge of Classical Greece

Pharos Marble lighthouse for

ships

One of the “Seven Wonders of the World”

Destroyed by earthquakes in 14th century A.D.

1480 A.D. = stones, marble used for Arab fort

On the March Again

The Gordian Knot

Marched into Gordium

Wagon tied to pole with complicated knot

Prophecy about “cutting the Gordian knot”

Now: ability to solve a difficult problem

331 BC: Great King of Persia Destroyed Persian army

Again, Darius escaped

Greeks pursued him

Darius murdered by his own troops

Alexander crowned Great King of Persia

Persian Influence

Persian Influence

Married Roxana, daughter of Sogdian chief

Received Persian noblemen into his confidence

Adopted dress, customs of Persian court

Worried Macedonians

327 B.C. = Friend taunted Alexander; killed with a spear

The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

Brilliant but Dangerous Carried copy of Iliad on

campaigns

Housed in casket taken from Darius’ spoils

Drunken rages; killed friend

Executed nobles who plotted against his life

Burned Persepolis, Persian capital

Creating an Empire

Never planned to build an empire

Mainly wanted to get rid of Persian threat

Cultural Influences

India

Pressing On toward India Crossed Hindu Kush

mountains

Engaged fierce tribes of the hills

Defeated Porus

Porus commanded large army + used war elephants

Enough is Enough

By the time he reached India, many of his soldiers refused to march any further.

Turned and started for home

Winter of 325-324 B.C. = terrible hardships

323 BC: Death of Alexander

His army reached Babylon

There, Alexander caught fever — and died

32 or 33 years old

Alexander Conquered the Known World

Alexander’s army marched over 5,000 miles

Empire stretched as far as northern India

Consolidated Persia in 3 years

Founded 70 cities:

15 named Alexandria, most famous in Egypt

“National” Identity

Under Alexander’s leadership, nature of polis changed

More like a city in a nationalized state

Creative + political freedom ceased to thrive

The Hellenistic Age is Born

The Hellenistic Age came into being – mostly because Alexander helped to spread Greek culture throughout the eastern part of the known world.

The SuccessorsDividing the Empire

A Weak Start Alexander’s succession was weak

Son and mother = executed or murdered

Weak-minded half-brother = either executed or murdered

Generals became governors, managed parts of empire

Surviving governors claimed kingship over their provinces

The Successors

Kingdom divided between Alexander’s generals

Three successors helped preserve, spread Hellenistic culture:

Ptolemy I

Seleucus I

Antigonus I

Ptolemy I One of Alexander’s most

trusted generals

One of seven bodyguards

Only a few years older than Alexander; childhood friend

Ruled Egypt and founded Ptolemaic Dynasty

Cleopatra was last rulers

The Ptolemaic Empire

Seleucus Ruthlessly expanded

his territory

Founded Seleucid Dynasty in Mesopotamia

Ruled Babylonia

Ruled eastern part of empire, including Arabia

Seleucid Empire

Antigonus I

26 years older than Alexander

Alexander appointed him satrap of Phrygia

Held territory with greater power than other "successors."

The One-Eyed

Tall warrior

Fought Persians and lost an eye

Gave him a ferocious appearance

Nicknamed “The One-Eyed”

The Reign of Antigonus I

Founded Antigonid Dynasty in Asia Minor, Macedon

Governed his kingdom well

Appreciated Greek culture

Appreciated freedom of Greek cities in Asia Minor

A Temporary Prosperity First 75 years prosperous: money from

Persian battles

Greeks moved into new areas; increased goods, markets

Hellenistic kings familiar with Greek ways

Preserved Greek culture, values, political structure

Hellenistic CultureChanges in the Fourth Century B.C.

Hellenistic Philosophies

Changes in Philosophy

Schools continued in Athens but changed:

Academy adopted Skeptics’ philosophies

Lyceum became center for literary, historical studies

Skeptics

Skeptics

Founder: Pyrrho

Pointed out philosophical fallacies in rival schools

“Nothing can be known; accept conventional morality”

Cynics

Cynics

Denounced morality and status quo

Advocated crude, “natural” life

Shocked and outraged public

Diogenes: The Most Famous Cynic

Diogenes reportedly walked around the streets of Athens, in broad daylight, carrying a lantern.

When asked why he was doing this, Diogenes said that he was searching for an honest man.

Diogenes and Alexander the Great

Alexander once had an opportunity to meet Diogenes, who was reclining in the sunshine.

Thrilled to meet the famous philosopher, Alexander asked if there was any favor he might do for him.

"Yes,” Diogenes replied. “Stand out of my sunlight."

Accounts of Diogenes’ Death

Numerous reports:

held his breath till he died

became ill from eating raw octopus

suffered an infected dog bite

Last Words…. Someone once asked Diogenes how he wished to be

buried. He said he wanted to be thrown outside the city wall so wild animals could feast on his body.

“Wouldn’t you mind that?” the man asked.

"Not at all,” Diogenes said, “as long as you provide me with a stick to chase the creatures away!"

“But how could you use the stick? Wouldn’t you lack awareness?” the man asked.

“If I lack awareness,” the philosopher replied, “then why should I care what happens to me when I am dead?"

Epicureans

Epicureans

Founded by Epicurus

“Happiness achieved through reason”

“Nothing after death, so no need to fear death”

“Gods exist but uninterested in human affairs”

Epicureans

Wanted to liberate people from:

Reliance on the gods

Belief in supernatural

Fear of death

Epicureans Emphasis on pleasure, good life

(hedonism)

Pleasure = “absence of pain, trouble or responsibility”

Withdrew from society

Avoided business and public life

Advocated “restrained selfishness”

Stoics

Stoics

Founder: Zeno

Established a school

Combined philosophies of Socrates, Cynics, Eastern thought

The Stoic’s Goal in Life

“Live in harmony with yourself and with nature.”

“God and nature are the same.”

Logos = guiding principle in life, divine reason

“Everyone has spark of divinity”

“After death, spark returns to eternal, divine spirit”

Stoic Ideas about Virtue “Pursue virtue; differentiate between good,

evil, indifferent”

Good: prudence, justice, courage, temperance

Evil: folly, injustice, cowardice

Indifferent: life, beauty, health, strength, pleasure, wealth

“Misery results from passion; passion = soul’s disease”

The Dominant Philosophy Stoics fit into post-Alexandrian world

because of:

Apathy

Willingness to maintain status quo

Docile submission

Literature

Changes in Literature Hellenized Greeks preserved manuscripts,

made copies

Museum at Alexandria; supported scientists, scholars

Literary criticism emerged; judge, preserve best works

Biographies of authors written during this time

Architecture

Changes in Architecture Hellenistic monarchies had

money for building projects

Needed new cities; introduced grids

Improved existing cities

Hellenistic temples and agoras followed Classical models

Sculpture

Changes in Sculpture Wealthy people wanted art

More uniform style

Exceptions in Alexandria, Rhodes

Moved away from balanced tension, idealism

More sentimental, emotional, realistic

Mathematics and Science

Changes in Mathematics & Science Inspired by Plato’s, Aristotle’s works

Alexander interested in science

Took scientists with him on expeditions

Collected, recorded data

Scientists gathered at Museum in Alexandria; discussed ideas

Euclid

Wrote Elements

Textbook on plane and solid geometry

Archimedes

Invented theory of lever in mechanics

Invented hydrostatics

“Eureka!” (bathtub discovery)

Heraclides

Astronomy based on Babylonian astronomical tables

“Mercury, Venus circulate around sun, not earth”

Aristarchus

“Sun, other fixed stars, do not move”

“Earth revolves around sun in circular orbit”

“Earth rotates on axis”

Hipparchus

Constructed model of universe based on geocentric theory

Explained movements of sun, moon, planets

Eratosthenes

Wrote treatise on geography

Calculated circumference of Earth to within about 200 miles

Some things did not change…

Life science: biology, zoology, medicine

During 3rd century B.C., almost a retreat from science through astrology, magic