CORTICAL ASSESSMENT OF ANTICIPATORY REACTIONS IN TENNIS PLAYERS

BY

SAIFUL EBNE HASIB

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, BANGLADESH AS A REQUIREMENT FOR POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN SPORTS

SCIENCE (SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

BANGLADESH INSTITUTE OF SPORTS (BKSP) ZIRANI, SAVAR, DHAKA

JUNE 2004

BANGLADESH INSTITUTE OF SPORTS

DEPARTMENT OF SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY

Dated 25th June 2004

I do hereby certify that Saiful Ebne Hasib, conducted the project research

study entitled CORTICAL ASSESSMENT OF ANTICIPATORY REACTIONS IN

TENNIS PLAYERS adopting the standard procedures and norms set for the Post-

Graduate Diploma Course in Sports Sciences, in the Department of Sports

Psychology, of the National University of Bangladesh. The present study was a

unique one and Mr. Hasib under my supervision, made his level best

independent endeavor in this regard.

Dr. Srilekha Saha Sport Psychologist Bangladesh Institute of Sports Dhaka-1349 Bangladesh

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I avail my self of the opportunity to express my heartiest gratitude

to Dr. Srelekha Saha, sports Psychologist, B. K. S. P for his valuable suggestion.

Counseling & guidance, friendly advice, keen interest & constant inspiration &

encouragement during the course of this investigation & preparation at this

report & formulating all the statistical treatment of my project.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Grig. Gen. Mohammad Ali

Mondal, ndc, and Director General of BKSP for his kind permission to submit the

project to the national University, Bangladesh, Dhaka.

I express my holly gratitude to Faruqul Islam Director of training BKSP for

his ornamental counseling from time to time during the entire period of the

study.

I also express my deep sense of gratitude to Md. Rokon Uddin, Tennis

coach, for their whole hearted cooperation for collecting data.

I express my thanks to Dr. A. K. Uppal and all others sports scientists,

department of sports science, BKSP for their constant support from time to time

during the entire period of my study.

I also express my deep sense of gratitude to my parents for their kind co-

operation & help.

With all my sincere most feelings and regards.

Saiful Ebne Hasib Student, Post-Graduate Diploma Course Faculty ofSports Science, Bangladesh Institute of Sports Dhaka-1349, Bangladesh.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES v

Chapter:

I INTRODUCTION

Introduction and Review 2

Objectives 7

II METHODOLOGY

Subjects 9

Materials 9

Measures 10

Rationality 10

III RESULTS

Results 19

IV DISCUSSION

Discussion 22

V CONCLUSIONS

Conclusions 30

Recommendations 31

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 N, df and critical values of the present study 19 2 Mean of the obtained basal CFF scores 19 3 Mean (M), standard deviation (SD) and rank difference correlation values

(p) for the significant relationship between the variables of tennis players in 10 MPH condition. 20

4 Mean (M), standard deviation (SD) and rank difference correlation values

(p) for the significant relationship between the variables of tennis players in 60 MPH condition. 20

v

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW

2

INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW

Behavioral approaches assume that all behavior is determined by past

reinforcements and present contingencies. In cognitive approaches, in contrast,

the individual is an active perceiver and interpreter of information, and cognitive

processes are key to understanding motivation and behavior. In search of the

inherent network that exists within the individual performer, which helps him to

bring forth the earnestly needed peak performance several line of thought was

evolved to conceptualize the processes underlying in it. There arose a larger

numbers of approaches to identify and predict possible relationship between

peak performance and psychological make up of the athletes. The vital

importance is the fact that successful sports performance is associated with

many traits, some of which are fundamental to the production of peak

performance (Vealey and Greenleef, 1998 and Saha et al, 2000). Arousal has

been explained of sudden information hitting our central nervous system and the

greater the cortical bombardment the higher is arousal and anxiety. According to

Eysenck (1955) and Rabbitt (1969), cortical arousal is the indication of increased

cortical inhibition to heightened arousal. Whereas perceptual motor skills means

repetition of stimulus, repetition of response (motor programming and response

execution) and repetition of a rule relating members of a common signal set to

the same response.

3

The more immediately processed information requires getting assimilated

and accommodated with the cognitive schema and unless it is matched with the

previous one it can cause dissonance in cognitive process. Hence it is clear that

optimum cortical arousal initiated by ascending reticular activating system

(ARAS) is mostly essential for cognitive possessing, while the extent of excitatory

activity in reticular activity system (RAS) would depend on personality make-up

of the individual. The RAS also has descending tract, which influences motor

functions. There is good reason to believe in that the descending tract of the

RAS may be in part responsible for the improvement in the speed and

coordination of reactions under higher level of arousal (Saha, 2001b). Optimum

excitatory ARAS would facilitate in faster reactions, since it keeps up a sports

performer ready to react to any incoming stimulus. It may remain important for

him, since he may have already reached up to a state of over stimulation

wherein his ARAS can not accept the future excitement.

A player’s personality is as critical in determining success in the sports

arena as physical ability. True, a seven-stone weakling is unlikely to become an

effective central defender regardless of personality but equally the well

proportionate and skillful athlete will not succeed without such attributes of

personality as determination and will to win. Effective utilization of time and a

feeling of the passing of time are quite important. Alternative performance in

alert situations often demand high arousal an accurate signal detection ability

(Saha et al, 2001), skill the too elite performers often desirable there

4

expectances during peak performance as involving a slowing down of time. This

contrasts with extremely rapid passage of time that common people often feel

and similarly the average level of athletes also reported to have the similar

expectances of rapid passage of time. This usually happens when an individual

performers poorly, and hence feels rushed are panicked and by means gets more

disturbed and feels like checking.

The ability to anticipate an opponent’s actions based upon partial or

advance sources of information are essential in sport because of the severe time

constraints placed on the performer (Abexnethy, 1987). A considerable research

base confirms the experts superior ability to use such information to reliable

anticipate an opponent’s actions (Williams et al, 1999). Skilled performers use

their superior knowledge to control the eye movement patterns necessary for

seeking and picking up important sources of information. They are appears more

attuned to relative motion cues and are also able to successfully perceive

information presented as point light displays (PLD) word, Williams and Davids

(1999) demonstrated that skilled tennis players are able to successfully anticipate

the direction of an opponents short when presented as PLD. Also unlike their

novice counterparts, experts exhibit more consistent visual search strategies

when viewing PLD compared with a normal display. Research suggests that

skilled performers are able to make use of expectations or situational

probabilities to facilitate anticipation. Experts use their superior knowledge base

to dismiss many events as being highly improbable and can attach are hierarchy

of probabilities to the remaining events, thus facilitating anticipation (Williams et

5 al, 1999).Hence, we have already gathered a lot of information with regard to

the anticipatory skills of expert players, but of remains unclear whether these are

stable characters, or are

subjects to be changed. That means, whether it is always possible for an

expert players to anticipate playing situations enough accurately and promptly.

Further to add questions remain with what happens to those who are not up to

that level of good players.

REVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS LITERATURES

A player’s ability to use advance postural cues is particularly important in

fast ball sports where the speed of play and ball velocity dictate that decisions

must often be made in advance of the action. High speed film analysis indicates

that players who react to the ball as opposed to anticipating its intended

destination, are unlikely to be successful (Glencross and Cibich, 1977). The

temporal occlusion paradigm has been used to examine anticipatory cue usage in

sport. In this approach, participants are presented with filmed sequences that

are representative of their customary view of the action.

Passing into open space and placing the ball accurately and timely for a

moving teammate are important skills in soccer (Williams, 1973; McMorris and

Copeman, 1991). This ability of anticipation-coincidence can be defined as the

timing of an own response to coincide with a response triggered by an outside

source. Since testing this skill under filled conditions is difficult to achieve a strict

laboratory situation was chosen at the beginning (Henry and Grose, 1968).

6

Morris and Burwitz (1989) found that soccer goalkeepers anticipate ball

flight while Salmela and Fiorito (1979) made similar findings for ice hockey

goaltenders. Recent studies have shown that pre-contact cues are used in

number of sports (Abernethy, 1987). Most of these studies have examined

expert novice differences in anticipation. Studies of cognitive function in the

sports of basketball (Allard et al, 1980), hockey (Starkes and Deakin, 1984) and

rugby (Nakagawa, 1982) have shown that expert perform at a higher cognitive

standard that do less experienced participants in their particular discipline. This is

due mainly to superior methods of information processing. It is not clear what

effect the exercise intensity and duration have on cognitive function during

performance in game.

The cortical pattern is the end of sensation, and it presages the beginning of

perception. The form of the spatial pattern depends on the intracortical synaptic

connections, which have been shaped through learning from past experience.

The olfactory area can only generate spatial patterns that result from

connections that were modified during experience with a limited number of

adroitness. Each mean field pattern is a construction of the cortex that is

simultaneously transmitted to both the motor area of the cortex and to the

hippocampus formation, along with the sensory driven activity pattern. However,

owing to the way in which the cortical pathways are organized, it is the mean

field construct that is effectively received by target areas, while the sensory

driven activity pattern that triggered the cortical state transition is deleted

(Freeman, 1992).

7

A neural mechanism exists that keeps perceived time sufficiently close to

the flow of events in real time that actions are effective even in the course of

exceedingly rapid external flows. Existence of that mechanism was revealed by

experiments conducted by neurophysiologist. Libet (1994), when studied it in

collaboration with neurosurgeons to measure the time lapse between stimulus

and awareness. The perception of time and perception of causality have the

origin in their same intentional cycle that produces goal directed actions that

accompanied by preference, attention and learning from the perceived

consequences of acting. Therefore the perception of time and causality are

inextricably linked.

On such a background in this present study, it was decided to incorporate

evaluation of the level of cortical activation as a supportive document of

perceptual efficiency and cognitive competence, which would facilitate in

accuracy of anticipation required in the game of tennis.

OBJECTIVES

1. To judge the level of anticipation in tennis players.

2. To study the level of CFF in tennis players.

3. To estimate the impact of CFF if any on the level of anticipation in tennis

players.

CHAPTER II

METHODOLOGY

9

METHODOLOGY

SUBJECTS

20 tennis players of Bangladesh Krira Sikhha Prathistan (BKSP) in the age

range of 13-16 yr.s, with a mean age of 14.82 yr.s and SD of 1.91 yr.s were

volunteered. They were the students of class VII to XI. All the players were

categorized into two experimental groups and each group consisted of 10

subjects (Gr. A and Gr. B). The subjects of Gr. A comprised of high performer

tennis players and Gr. B comprised of low performer tennis players. They were

recognized as high performer and low performer according to their coaches. All

the players having three to six years training experience according to their age.

MATERIALS

1. Flicker Fusion Apparatus (CFF) (12021) (Lafayette Instrument, USA).

2. Bassin Anticipation Timer (BAT) (50575) (Lafayette Instrument, USA).

10

MEASURES

The Flicker Fusion Apparatus was used to measure the cortical arousal

level of the subjects through visual ability and the Bassin Anticipation Timer was

used to assess the level of anticipation in the subjects.

RATIONALITY

One of the finest aspects of human cognition that helps in sports behavior

is anticipation. It is the predicted value of subtle change in stimuli based on

certain assumptions with respect to changes in the spatial characteristics of the

physical existence of the stimuli. As for example, in case of visual anticipation

(what we do most of the time in our game situations) an individual athlete needs

to carry out extremely narrow attentional focus to concentrate accurately onto

the source of the stimulus in concern and to predictably relate to the gradual

changes in spatial existence of the stimulus toward the ultimate goal of reaction.

In these the players requires to accurately identify with the intensity and

directional changed in the stimulus and again he or she required to predict

accurately the corresponding spatial changes in the stimulus in that the players

on almost predictably locate and/or follow even the finest changes in the location

of stimulus.

Hence, it becomes more important for the behavioral researchers to

identify with the patterns of cues related to the shuttle changes in physical

existence of the stimulus, so that those cues in turn would help in predicting the

probable changes in the stimulus in the newer future, that might have been

11

caused by the opponent players on or by any natural opposing factors such as,

flow of air humidity ground condition, external temperature.

Thus one of the most important basic components of anticipation, which

could be objectively identified, is the possibility of predictable behavioral

changes. It is the earnest task offer player to predict future direction and

intensity of the movement, of an opponent based on assumptions already

prepared in the cognitive schema of that player. That is the cognitive task of

accommodation the newer visual cues with respect to the older ones, so that it

does not create much of disequilibrium/ dissonance to delay the appraisal of the

spartial character of the stimulus and to optimize the predictability of the future

movement direction and intensity of the stimulus on the basis of that cognitive

schema.

Now the question comes whether these anticipatory cue utilization in the

field correspond to that in the laboratory condition? From a Lagnaris point of

view it is quite absurd to relate the both in same platform. Not only that for

majority of sports trainer’s players, sports organize and event for a large number

of sports science students it seems an issue of critical concern. But for the

experimental sports psychologists or sports science researchers, this question

however inspires the quest for similarity competitive or field

Stuations with the appropriate changes brought in to the laboratory

conditions. Some time it is quite possibility setting of a unique experimental

paradigm in which the extraneous or erroneous variables would be aptly

12

controlled by applying systematic rigorous methodology (Chattopadhyay et al,

1994). This is of much importance for no assessment of real time mental set up

during competitive performance is possible and at this on test it is the customary

practice to carry out simulated laboratory experiments to optimize conceptually

what happens in the minds of players during competitions.

13

PARADIGM OF EXPERIMENT

SET-A

Basal assessment of cortical activation was done using two-flash threshold

(Critical flicker threshold 100 Hz. /sec.) to obtain the status of phasic level of

CNS arousal before any stimulus induction, and thereby ascertaining the changes

in cortical level (inhibition or activation) in consequence of alteration in

perceptual level of the subjects (two trials were given to obtain the basal

arousal).

SET-B

PHASE –I (Assessment of Cortical activation was measured followed by assessment of Anticipation with lower level of stimulus speed)

VARIABLES ANTICIPATION (BAT) CFF SPECIFIC

STIMULATION MPH - 10

100 Hz./sec.

NO.OF TRIALS 8 4

SET-C

PHASE –II (Assessment of Cortical activation was measured followed by assessment of Anticipation with higher level of stimulus speed)

VARIABLES ANTICIPATION (BAT) CFF SPECIFIC

STIMULATION MPH - 60

100 Hz./sec.

NO.OF TRIALS 8 4

This paradigm was followed to the all of the tennis players.

STANDARD METHOD OF ADMINISTRATION

14

Flicker Fusion Apparatus:

The processor unit of CFF apparatus was connected with 220 volts AC

connector. The external initiator cord was attached with the processor and the

response switch was attached with the subjects unit, i.e., viewing panel of the

instrument. There after the power switch was put on; and the luminance range;

descending order; stimulus power, and sweep (flicker rate) were set by the

experimenter. Proper instructions were given to the subjects.

Bassin Anticipation Apparatus:

Keep the instrument ready for use as per the instructions of the manual.

Warning signal time (ranging from 0.5 to 3.0 sec.s) and Runway light –speed (1

MPH to 999 MPH) should be adjusted according to the need. Digital clock ranges

from 0.001 to 9.999 seconds. To the stationary visual field (0-20 degree) the

subject sits at the end of the instrument. The responses of the subjects are

contingent upon the runway speed and the accuracy in anticipation is judged as

the index of high performance.

PROCEDURE

All the subjects were brought to the department of sport psychology of

BKSP for the data purpose of collection of data for the experiment. In the

beginning they were given proper instructions with regard to the standard

15

method of administration and the purpose of the experiment. They were also

kept aware of their role in the experiment. At first they were assessed with the

phasic assessment of basal CNS arousal using two-flash threshold (Critical flicker

threshold). Thereafter data was taken employing BAT for assessment of the level

of anticipation using slower stimulation (i.e., lower level of stimulus speed- MPH-

10) following standard method of administration. They were given eight trials

and data were collected and kept documented for the final analysis of data.

Thereafter once again CFF (flicker rate- 100 Hz. /sec.- , four trials were given)

was assessed to ascertain, whether anticipation task had induced any alteration

in cortical level. Thereafter in phase- II of experiment they were assessed with

BAT for assessment of the level of anticipation using slower stimulation (i.e.,

higher level of stimulus speed- MPH- 60) following standard method of

administration. They were given eight trials and data were collected and kept

documented for the final analysis of data. Similar to that of the Phase of I once

again CFF (flicker rate- 100 Hz. /sec.) was assessed to ascertain, whether

anticipation task had induced any alteration in cortical level, (i.e., inhibition or

activation). Here, four trials were given to all of the subjects.

INSTRUCTIONS Instruction for critical flicker fusion test:

“Please sit here comfortably and put your eyes within the hole of the

viewing panel of this instrument. Touch the thumb of your right hand on to the

switch of the instrument. We are going to assess your ability to visualize

16

something. At first at the ‘start’ signal you will see two white flashing lights.

Gradually they will start to flicker and your task will be to let us know right at the

point, where you saw it to flicker first by pressing the key at once. This will

happen for few times. If you face any problem during the course of experiment,

please let me know immediately”.

Instruction for anticipation test:

“Please come here and stay calm. Here you can see an instrument. It is

called as Bassin Anticipation Timer. It measures some very important

psychological factors related to high performance in sports. Your task is simple.

You have to listen to my instructions very carefully. Here you hold on this key.

Look there you can see a yellow light? I’ll give you a ready signal, and thereafter

you’ll see the yellow light glowing for a few seconds, and then some red lights

will be glowing intermittently following this path very rapidly. It will seem like the

red lights are running towards you. Now, your task is to press the key just on

dot, when you’ll see the last of the red lights glows at the end and passes by.

Your task actually is to do that as simultaneously as possible so that, you can’t

be late to respond or you don’t press earlier than the arrival of the red light at

that end-point. I hope you could understand to what I said. Let’s try for some

times to see whether you could understand your task correctly. This will happen

for few times. If you face any problem during the course of experiment, please

let me know immediately”.

17 STATISTICAL TREATMENT

Descriptive statistics i.e. measure of central tendency – mean (M),

measures of variability – standard deviation (SD) and Spearman’s rank difference

coefficient correlation (p) were computed for analysis of the data.

CHAPTER III

RESULTS

19

RESULTS

Descriptive statistical treatment (M and SD) was done to all the obtained

data. Then correlation coefficient (p) by the spearman’s rank-difference

correlation method was done to ascertain whether there exists any relationship

between two variables (CFF and BAT). From the obtained results it is clear that

there is a significant negative correlation between CFF and BAT in .05 levels

(Table-II) and .01 levels (Table-II). It indicates that increment in CFF scores

inhibited the accuracy in anticipation obtained by the BAT scores.

Table-I

N, df and critical values of the present study

N df CRITICAL VALUE

0.05 0.01 10 8 .632 .765

Table-II

Mean of the obtained basal CFF scores

Subjects Statistics Variables (CFF) HP Mean 38.43 LP Mean 37.89

20

No mean difference was observed. Hence, prior to the introduction of the

perceptual task (anticipation) the subjects of two experimental groups were on

similar status cortical activation.

Table-III

Mean (M), standard deviation (SD) and rank difference correlation

values (p) for the significant relationship between the variables of

tennis players in 10 MPH condition.

Subjects Statistics Variables CFF BAT

HP M 39.36 L-.04 SD 3.33 .02 p -.691 *

LP M 36.05 .04 SD 4.01 L-.01 p -.702 *

* P<0.05

Table-IV

Mean (M), standard deviation (SD) and rank difference correlation

values (p) for the significant relationship between the variables of

tennis players in 60 MPH condition.

Subjects Statistics Variables

CFF BAT HP M 44.07 L-.13

SD 4.29 .06 p -.821**

LP M 33.95 L-.21 SD 7.01 .11 p -.793**

* P<0.05

CHAPTER IV

DISCUSSION

22

DISCUSSION

The obtained result has depicted an encouraging nature of changes

especially with regard to the changes in the level of cortical activation. Subjects

of the present experiment were selected following purposive sampling method,

and hence it was almost understood that, majority of them wouldn’t have

significant level of pre-existing problems in cortical regulation either in the form

of inhibition or activation, that could influence their perceptual task of time

anticipation of visual stimulation.

Observed data with regard to the pre- stimulus introduction assessment of

the level of CNS arousal indicated that, there existed no difference between the

two groups of tennis players, with respect to the basal level of CNS arousal.

Thus, the result implied that, the players of the two differential groups had no

prior differences with regard to the CNS arousal. This implied that, whatever be

the future introduction of the stimuli, which could alter the perceptual level and

hence, could bring forth some alteration in the level of CNS activation in the

players. The alterations, if any, observed in the level of cortical activation, then

would be considered due to the introduction of the stimulation itself, which

caused the perceptual discrimination and resulted in the changes in the level of

cortical activation. rom the results showed in the Table-III, it is evident that the

subjects of both the groups performed almost similar to each other in scores

obtained in BAT and the data also appeared highly consistent, suggesting a

23

possibility that the perceptual discriminatory task in the form of anticipation had

similar impacts on the subjects, who are accustomed to do similar type of activity

(training and playing Tennis). More so, perhaps the task was not carrying

differential levels of difficulty level to the players of the two different groups,

who are basically selected and categorized on the basis of their inherent

differences in performance in the game of Tennis.

Tennis being the game in which players are required to react to the

continuously changing direction and intensity of stimulation coming from the

visual field. As per the requirement of the game, players need to face with

continually changing perceptual tasks. This happens, since the velocity and the

direction of the balls coming from the opponent player’s return are essentially

unpredictable in nature, and hence, the player requires focusing onto some

specific cues, that he/she can identify from the opponent player’s movements,

playing style etc. Players vary in this specific capacity in focusing onto the

relevant cues with respect to the opponent the player. Thereafter the question of

identification of the specific cues, leading toward the prediction of the movement

and subsequent placing of returns or placing of services from the opponent,

arises. Once this identification is done, here comes the question of assessment

of the velocity and exact direction of the returns from the opponents, and the

task itself refers to assessment of the probable time the ball would lapse to

reach. This perceptual discriminatory task is termed anticipation of time with

regard to the specific visual stimulation. Hence, it is obvious that the players who

24

are better able to judge this time lapse in match condition would have more time

to shift his or her position to react upon the ball as accurately as possible by

placing an appropriate return to the opponent. This ability to anticipate in the

field situation is simulated in the laboratory situation depending on the accuracy

of the experimental setting. The assessment of anticipation time incorporating

Bassin Anticipation timer provides the experimenter with the information

concerning the index subjects, with regard to their ability to anticipate the

probable time lapse in occurrence of the stimulation in concern.

Hence, it is clear that the whole process of anticipation of time requires a

lot of sensory processing, requiring high level of integrated activation of the

ascending reticular tract. An over-burden in ascending reticular system would

lead to delay in processing and hence, would be the delayed anticipation, and a

delayed anticipation would end up in a wholesome misinterpretation of the

perceptual situation involved in the game. Contrary to that, a faster sensory

information processing might lead to a better anticipation and availability of

adequate time to react upon the situation in the form of better and accurate

returns in the game of Tennis. Thus, it is obvious that the individuals having

better ability to anticipate time would have better cortical integration leading

toward faster and better information processing, and the success in sports

performance in consequence.

25

Results from the Table- III also suggest the justification of the notion

concerning relation between the two above-mentioned processes. Like it

happened with assessment of BAT, the two groups had more or less similarity in

the level of CNS basal arousal too, with the score of the LPs, lower than that of

their high performer counterparts. The most interesting feature of the Table-III

is the observed correlation between the level of cortical activation and the level

of anticipation. The significant relationship between the two variables, suggest

that there exist relationship between the level of CNS activation and perceptual

discrimination. Moreover, the negative relationship indicated that the shorter was

the anticipatory time the more was level of CNS activation. This actually implied

that the accuracy in anticipation was influenced by the heightened cortical

activation. Actually heightened cortical activation perhaps facilitated in the faster

sensory information processing in the ascending reticular activation system,

leading to accurate anticipation and that might have helped the high performers

in judgement of the reactions of the opponent players. Not only that, the faster

anticipation and faster sensory information processing would lead to a better

assumption concerning the movement and the directions and intensity of the

returns of the opponent as accurately as possible. Most essentially those are the

special abilities of the superior quality of players.

Since, the anticipatory task in set-I was only involving perceptual

discrimination of visual stimulation coming with a slower, speed and the players

of both the groups were accustomed to respond to reactions from opponents

26

having much faster pace, none of the subjects had faced any problem with

regard to anticipating the stimuli accurately. This being the reason, it is observed

that assessment of CFF followed by the assessment of anticipation task, didn’t

cause much significant alteration in the level of CNS arousal, as compared to that

of the basal pre-existing level, assessed by employing CFF measures (Table-II).

Further to add, the relationship between scores obtained on CFF and BAT being

negative, it is proved that the subjects having higher level of cortical integration

could anticipate more accurately and thereby took shortest delay in anticipating

visual stimuli.

The relatively difficult or challenging perceptual situations would lead to

some problems concerning adequate and faster sensory processing, and hence

would lead to difficulty in anticipation of the occurrence of stimulation. Though

this alteration in intensity of the stimulation is a regular feature in actual playing

situation, a lot of the players can’t adopt to those changes readily, and that’s

why they fall back and are considered as low level performers. But, this inability

or lack of ability in processing stimulation could result in extreme level of cortical

crisis in the players in concern. The results of Set- C of the experiment (Table-

IV), prove that the players of the low performer group had faced problems in

anticipating, and that’s why they had much delayed and inconsistent anticipation,

as compared to their high performer counterparts. Not only that, majority of the

HPs were found to be able to anticipate the challenging task of anticipating the

faster visual stimulation (60 MPH), as accurately as possible and as fast as well,

27

and that’s why the score obtained from them appeared so consistent. Now, the

question comes what different happened to these players, as compared to the

others (LPs), which might have helped them to perform better during

assessment of BAT, and/or this might be a regular feature of these players. The

scores obtained by those HPs in CFF, prove that they had a high level of cortical

integration compared not only to the LPs, but also to their own basal Level of

cortical activation. Hence, it could be assumed that, there happened an

increment in the level of cortical activation, either leading toward disintegration

or integration in the CNS adaptation process. Since there is a marked

improvement in CFF scores as compared to the basal score of CFF observed in

the HPs, it could be postulated that, the cortical activation reflected better CNS

regulation in them. This finding got further support, hence a high correlation

between the scores obtained on CFF and BAT (60-MPH), indicated that

performance of BAT with higher intensity of visual stimulation didn’t cause any

problem in the level of cortical activation. More so, the evidences of relationships

between these two processes also depicted that, at least in HPs performance of

BAT was influenced by the heightened level of CNS regulation, which might be

well defined as higher-order cortical integration. Again, it might be postulated

from the observed relationship that, a better performance in anticipation of

visual stimulation didn’t put much pressure on the cortical arousal regulation

system, leading to any inhibition. Thus, it appeared clear that the better accuracy

in anticipation was aptly facilitated by improved cortical competence, and vice

versa.

28

The cortical competence in LPs also found to facilitate in performance in

BAT. A minute scrutiny of the data indicated that the high performance in BAT

(i.e., faster BAT) was related to higher CFF scores. Thus, it might be postulated

from the observed finding that the higher-order cortical activation in the form of

better cortical integration probably helped in faster sensory processing of

stimulation and thereby might have resulted in faster anticipation of visual

stimulation in the players of both the groups, and, since the cortical regulation

and the level of sensory processing is better in the high performer players, they

could benefit most from that, as compared to their low-performer counterparts.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS

30

CONCLUSIONS

1. High performer tennis players are better able to anticipate accurately,

particularly during more difficult anticipatory activities as compared to the

low performers.

2. The level of critical flicker fusion ability of the high performer tennis

players are better than the low performer tennis players.

3. Critical flicker fusion ability has positive impact on anticipatory

performance in both high and low performer tennis players.

31

REFERENCES

Abernethy. B (1978) Anticipation in sport: A review Phys. Educ. Rev. 10, 5-16. Allard. F., Graham, S. and Paarsalv, M. E. (1980) perception in sport: Volleyball.

J. sport psycholo., 2, 14-21. Chattopadhyay P. K.; Saha. S. and Saha Srilekha (1994). Recent trends in

research on psychological aspects of games and sports in India: A critical review. Social Science International, 10 (1 and 2), 51-60.

Eysenck. H. J. (1955) Cortical inhibition, figural after effect & theory of

personality. Journal of abnormal & social psychology, 51, 94-106. Freeman, WJ (1992) Tutorial in neurobiology: From single neurons to brain

chaos. International Journal of Bifurction and Chaos 2: 451-482. Glencross D. and Cibich, B. (1977), A decision analysis of games skills. Australian

Journal of sports Medicine. 9, 72-75. Henry. F. M. and Grose, J. E. (1968) coincidence timing apparatus. Res. Quart.,

792-797. Libet B (1994) Neurophysiology of Consiousness: Selected papers and new essay

Boston MA: Birkhauser. McMorris, T. and Copeman, R. (1991) Anticipation of soccer goal keepers facing

penalty kicks papers presented at the second world congress: science and football, 22-25, 5, veldhoven, Netherlands.

32 Morris, A. and Burmtz, L. (1989) Anticipation and movement strategies in elite

soccer goal keepers at penalty kicks papers presented at the British Association of sports science Annual conference, Exeter, September.

Nakagawa, A (1982) A field experiment on recognition of game situations in ball

games. The case of static situations in rugby football. Jap, J. Phys. Ed. 27, 17-26.

Rabbitt P. M. A. (1969) Psychological refractory dealy & response stimulus

interval duration in serial choice response Acta Psychological, 30, 195-219.

Saha, S. (2001b). Identification of certain psychological and psychophysiological

factors related to high and low level soccer performance. Unpublished doctoral thesis.

Saha, S.; Saha, Srilekha; Mukhopadhyay, Pritha; Cattopadhyay, P. K; and

Biswas. D. (2000) Achievement motivation as predictor of arousal modulation in high soccer performs. In; Mohan. J. (Ed); Sports psychology 2000. (in press).

Saha. Sri Saha, Srilekha; Chattopadhyay. P. K; and, Mukhopadhyay, Pritha;

(2001) The nature of skin conductance orienting activity in high soccer performers, Bangladesh Journal of Sports Science, Vol. 1. 54-65.

Salmela, J. H. and Firoito, P. (1979). Visual cues in ice Hockey goaltending.

Canadian Journal of sports sciences. 4, 565-59. Starkes, J. L. and Deakin, J. (1984) perception in sport: a cognitive approach to

skilled performance in cognitive sport; psychology (Odsw. F. Straub and J. M. Williams) Sport Science Association, New York, 115-178.

33

Vealey, R. S., and Greenleaf. C. A. (1998). Seeing is believing. Understanding

and using imagery in sport. In J. M. Williams (Ed). Applied sport psychology: personal Growth to peak performance (3rd ed, 237-269). Mountain view CA: Mayfield.

Williams. L. R. T. (1973) Anticipation and timing in motor skills. New Zealand J. H

Health. Phy. Educ. Recp. 49-51. Williams A. M. & Davids, K (1999) Declarative knowledge in sport. A byproduct of

experience or a characteristic of expertise Journal of sport & exercise psychology. 17. 259-278.