ASSIGNMENTBehavioral Science

Prepared for:Prof. Dr. Mohammad Abdul Bari

Faculty Member

Prepared by:Dr. S.M. Yasir ArafatID No. 14-2-42-0004

Executive MPH

Faculty of Science & EngineeringDepartment of Public health

ASAUB

December 05, 2014

Diffusion Process & Barriers of Communication

Diffusion Process

A summary of Diffusion of Innovations (Les Robinson, Jan 2009):Diffusion of Innovations seeks to explain how innovations are taken up in a population. An innovation is an idea, behavior, or object that is perceived as new by its audience.

Diffusion of Innovations offers three valuable insights into the process of social change:

- What qualities make an innovation spread?- The importance of peer-peer conversations and peer networks.- Understanding the needs of different user segments.

These insights have been tested in more than 6000 research studies and field tests, so they are amongst the most reliable in the social sciences.

What qualities make innovations spread?Diffusion of Innovations takes a radically different approach to most other theories of change. Instead of focusing on persuading individuals to change, it sees change as being primarily about the evolution or “reinvention” of products and behaviors so they become better for the needs of individuals and groups. In Diffusion of Innovations it is not people who change, but the innovations themselves.

Why do certain innovations spread more quickly than others? And why do others fail? Diffusion scholars recognize the qualities that determine the success of an innovation.

1) Relative advantageThis is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes by a particular group of users, measured in terms that matter to those users, like economic advantage, social prestige, convenience, or satisfaction. The greater the perceived relative advantage of an innovation, the more rapid its rate of adoption is likely to be.There are no absolute rules for what constitutes “relative advantage”. It depends on the particular perceptions and needs of the user group.

2) Compatibility with existing values and practicesThis is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters. An idea that is incompatible with their values, norms or practices will not be adopted as rapidly as an innovation that is compatible.

3) Simplicity and ease of useThis is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use. New ideas that are simpler to understand are adopted more rapidly than innovations that require the adopter to develop new skills and understandings.

4) TrialabilityThis is the degree to which an innovation can be experimented with on a limited basis. An innovation that is trialable represents less risk to the individual who is considering it.

5) Observable resultsThe easier it is for individuals to see the results of an innovation, the more likely they are to adopt it. Visible results lower uncertainty and also stimulate peer discussion of a new idea, as friends and neighbors of an adopter often request information about it.

According to Everett Rogers, these five qualities determine between 49 and 87 percent of the variation in the adoption of new products.

Reinvention is a key principle in Diffusion of Innovations. The success of an innovationdepends on how well it evolves to meet the needs of more and more demanding andrisk-averse individuals in a population (the history of the mobile phone is a perfect example).A good way to achieve this is to make users into partners in a continuous process of redevelopment. Computer games companies, pharmaceutical corporations and rural research institutes are examples of organisations that seek to make users active partners in improving innovations by supporting user communities or by applying participative action research techniques.

The importance of peer-peer conversations and peer networksThe second important insight is that impersonal marketing methods like advertising and media stories may spread information about new innovations, but it’s conversations that spread doption.

Why? Because the adoption of new behaviors involves the management of risk and uncertainty. It’s usually only people we personally know and trust – and who we know have successfully adopted the innovation themselves – who can give us credible reassurances that our attempts to change won’t result in embarrassment, humiliation, financial loss or wasted time. They are the people whose lived example is the best teacher of how to adopt an innovation.

Early adopters are the exception to this rule. They are on the lookout for advantages and tend to see the risks as low because they are financially more secure, more personally confident, and better informed about the particular behavior. Often they will grasp at innovations on the basis of no more than a well worded news article. The rest of the population, however, see higher risks in change, and therefore require assurance from trusted peers that an innovation is do-able and provides genuine benefits.

Adoptions due toMass media

Adoptions due to interpersonal communication

Time

The Bass Forecasting Model.Source: Mahajan, Muller and Bass (1990) as reproduced in Rogers, E.M. (2003) p210.As an innovation spreads from early adopters to majority audiences, face-to- face communication therefore becomes more essential to the decision to adopt. This principle is embodied in the Bass Forecasting Model (below), which illustrates how face- to-face communication becomes more influential over time, and mass media less influential.

The emphasis on peer-peer communication has led diffusion scholars to be interested in peer networks. Many diffusion-style campaigns now consciously attempt to utilise peer networks, for instance by using Popular Opinion Leader techniques or various “viral marketing” methods. These methods – which are becoming increasingly popular – aim to recruit well-connected individuals to spread new ideas through their own social networks.

Opinion leader tactics have been successful in raising the standards of practice by medical doctors, promoting weatherisation of homes and encouraging safe sex in gay communities.

Rogers notes that by 2003 there had been eight RCTs – the gold standard in evaluation – all of which demonstrated the success of opinion leader tactics in producing behavioural changes.

Understanding the needs of different user segmentsDiffusion researchers believe that a population can be broken down into five different segments, based on their propensity to adopt a specific innovation: innovators, early adopters, early majorities, late majorities and laggards. Each group has its own “personality”, at least as far as its attitude to a particular innovation goes. When thinking about these groups, don’t imagine it’s our job to shift people from one segment to another. It doesn’t work that way. It’s best to think of the membership of each segment as static. Innovations spread when they evolve to meet the needs of successive segments.

Innovators:The adoption process begins with a tiny number of visionary, imaginative innovators. They often lavish great time, energy and creativity on developing new ideas and gadgets. And they love to talk about them. Right now, they’re the ones busily building stills to convert cooking oil into diesel fuel and making websites to tell the world about it. Unfortunately their one-eyed fixation on a new behaviour or gadget can make them seem dangerously idealistic to the pragmatic majority. Yet no change program can thrive without their energy and commitment.

How to work with innovators:• Track them down and become their “first followers”, providing support and publicity for their ideas.• Invite keen innovators to be partners in designing your project.

Early adopters:Once the benefits start to become apparent, early adopters leap in. They are on the lookout for a strategic leap forward in their lives or businesses and are quick to make connections between clever innovations and their personal needs.They love getting an advantage over their peers and they have time and money to invest. They’re often fashion conscious and love to be seen as leaders: social prestige is one of their

biggest drivers. Their natural desire to be trend setters causes the “take- off ” of an innovation. Early adopters tend

to be more economically successful, well connected and well informed and hence

Late Majority

Early Majority LaggardEarly Inovator

Diffusion scholars believe any population or social network can be broken down into five segments, for any given innovation.

more socially respected. Their seemingly risky plunge into a new activity sets tongues wagging. Others watch to see whether they prosper of fail, and people start talking about the results. And early adopters like to talk about their successes. So the buzz intensifies. Early adopters are vital for another reason. They become an independent test bed, ironing out the chinks and reinventing the innovation to suit mainstream needs.

Fortunately early adopters are an easy audience. They don’t need much persuading because they are on the lookout for anything that could give them a social or economic edge. When you call a public meeting to discuss energy-saving devices or new farming methods, they’re the ones who come along. They’re the first people to install a water tank, mulch their garden, buy laptops for their kids, or install solar panels.

How to work with early adopters:

• Offering strong face-to-face support for a limited number of early adopters to trial the new idea.• Studying the trials carefully to discover how to make the idea more convenient, low cost and marketable.• Rewarding their egos e.g. with media coverage.• Promoting them as fashion leaders (beginning with the cultish end of the media market).• Recruiting and training some as peer educators.• Maintaining relationships with regular feedback.

Early majority:Assuming the behavior leaps the chasm, it may eventually reach majority audiences. Early majorities are pragmatists, comfortable with moderately progressive ideas, but won’t act without solid proof of benefits. They are followers who are influenced by mainstream fashions and wary of fads. They want to hear “industry standard” and “endorsed by normal, respectable folks”. Majorities are cost sensitive and risk averse. They are looking for simple, proven, better ways of doing what they already do. They require guaranteed off-the-shelf performance, minimum disruption, minimum commitment of time, minimum learning and either cost neutrality or rapid payback periods. And they hate complexity. They haven’t got time to think about your product or project. They’re too busy getting the kids to football and running their businesses. If they do have spare time they’re not going to spend it fussing around with complicated, expensive, inconvenient behaviors. They want to hear “plug-and- play”, “no sweat” or “user-friendly” and “value for money”.

How to work with the early majority:

• Offering give-always or competitions to stimulate buzz.• Using mainstream advertising and media stories featuring endorsements from credible, respected, similar folks.• Lowering the entry cost and guarantee performance.• Redesigning to maximise ease and simplicity.• Cutting the red tape: simplify application forms and instructions.• Providing strong customer service and support.

Late majority:They are conservative pragmatists who hate risk and are uncomfortable your new idea. Practically their only driver is the fear of not fitting in, hence they will follow mainstream fashions and established standards. They are often influenced by the fears and opinions of laggards.

How to work with the late majority:

• Focusing on promoting social norms rather than just product benefits: they’ll want to hear that plenty of other conservative folks like themselves think it’s normal or indispensable.

• Keep refining the product to increase convenience and reduce costs.• Emphasise the risks of being left behind.• Respond to criticisms from laggards.

Laggards:Meanwhile laggards hold out to the bitter end. They are people who see a high risk in adopting a particular behavior. Some of them are so worried they stay awake all night, tossing and turning, thinking up arguments against it. And don’t forget they might be right! It’s possible they are notreally not laggards at all, but innovators of ideas that are so new they challenge your paradigms! In the early stages, where you are focusing on early adopters, you can probably ignore the views of laggards, but when you come to work with late majorities you’ll need to address their criticisms, because late majorities share many of their fears.

How to work with laggards:• Giving them high levels of personal control over when, where, how and whether they do the new behaviour.• Maximising their familiarity with new behaviours. Let them see exactly how other laggards have successfully adopted the innovation.

Each of these adopter personalities is very different. It’s vital to know which one you are addressing at a given time. And no, you usually can’t address them all at once. Why? Because behaviours only mature gradually. The exception is when you have customized quite different behaviours for each group. Weight Watchers is an example. It has a traditional calorie- counting method that suits early adopters, a “points value” method that suits early majorities, and a “no count” system for everyone else. How big is each segment? Rogers went as far as assigning precise notional percentages for each segment:

Innovators: 2.5%Early Adopters: 13.5% Early majority: 34% Late majority 34% Laggards 16%

However the “20:60:20 Rule” is a good all- purpose rule of thumb.

When designing a change project we need to know one vital fact: the percentage in a given social system who have already taken up the innovation. That figure tells us which segment we are addressing next. It gives you great insight into how to design your project and how to pitch your communications.Of course, no one is an innovator or a laggard about all new ideas. That would be too exhausting. In reality, most people are majorities about most things, and only innovators or laggards about certain specific things.

Diffusion process (adoption of new ideas):Social scientists have evolved many models to explain process of changes within individuals. According to widely accepted model people appear to pass through a series of stages before adoption of new practice. The stages are:1. Awareness-knowledge about new idea or practice, has limited knowledge about use, benefit and limitation2. Interest-when person is willing to listen i.e. seek more details.3. Evaluation- whether beneficial, if it is, to what extent? It is a mental exercise for decision-making.4. Trial- goes to practice. It is important and there is need to help for sustaining the practice.5. Adoption-person is satisfied with new practice after trial and adopts the process.

Stages of changes TTM Theory

Stage of Change Characteristics Techniques

Pre-contemplation Not currently considering change: "Ignorance is bliss"

Validate lack of readiness. Clarify: decision is theirsEncourage re-evaluation of current behaviorEncourage self-exploration, not actionExplain and personalize the risk

Contemplation Ambivalent about change: "Sitting on the fence"Not considering change within the next month

Validate lack of readinessClarify: decision is theirsEncourage evaluation of pros and cons of behavior changeIdentify and promote new, positive outcome expectations

Preparation Some experience with change and are trying to change: "Testing the waters"Planning to act within1month

Identify and assist in problem solving re: obstaclesHelp patient identify social supportVerify that patient has underlying skills for behavior changeEncourage small initial steps

Action Practicing new behavior for3-6 months

Focus on restructuring cues and social supportBolster self-efficacy for dealing with obstaclesCombat feelings of loss and reiterate long-term benefits

Maintenance Continued commitment to sustaining new behaviorPost-6 months to 5 years

Plan for follow-up supportReinforce internal rewardsDiscuss coping with relapse

Relapse Resumption of old behaviors: "Fall from grace"

Evaluate trigger for relapseReassess motivation and barriersPlan stronger coping strategies

Barriers of communicationIntroduction: Communication is the process of exchanging information. Information is conveyed as words, tone of voice, and body language. Studies have shown that words account for 7 percent of the information communicated. Vocal tone accounts for 55 percent and body language accounts for 38 percent. To be effective communicators, team members must be aware of these forms, how to use them effectively, and barriers to the communications process.

Defining Communication and Describing the Process

DEFINITION: Communication can be defined as the process of transmitting information and common understanding from one person to another (Keyton, 2011). The word communication is derived from the Latin word, communis, which means common. The definition underscores the fact that unless a common understanding results from the exchange of information, there is no communication. Communication is the process of transmitting information and common understanding from one person to another. In this article, I discuss the communication process, barriers to communication, and improving communication effectiveness.

Effective Ways To Communicate: Providing information in accordance with SOP’s.

Providing information when asked.

Repeating, as necessary, to ensure communication is accurately received.

Requesting and providing clarification when needed.

Ensuring statements are direct and unambiguous.

Informing the appropriate individuals when the mission or plans change.

Communicating all information needed by those individuals or teams external to the team.

Use nonverbal communication appropriately.

Use proper order when communicating information.

PROCESS

Encode Sender Decode

Medium

Message

Noise

Decode Receiver Encode

Feedback

Figure 1. The communication process.

Barriers to Effective CommunicationA school administrator has no greater responsibility than to develop effective communication (Pauley, 2010). Why then does communication break down? On the surface, the answer is relatively simple. I have identified the elements of communication as the sender, the encoding, the message, the medium, the decoding, the receiver, and the feedback. If noise exists in these elements in any way, complete clarity of meaning and understanding does not occur. The author, George Bernard Shaw wrote, “The greatest problem with communication is the illusion that it has been accomplished” (Shaw, 2011). Four types of barriers (called ―noise, Figure 1) are process barriers, physical barriers, semantic barriers, and psychosocial barriers (Eisenberg, 2010).

Process BarriersEvery step in the communication process is necessary for effective and good communication. Blocked steps become barriers. Consider the following situations:•Sender barrier. A new administrator with an innovative idea fails to speak up at a meeting,

chaired by the superintendent, for fear of criticism.•Encoding barrier. A Spanish-speaking staff member cannot get an English- speaking

administrator to understand a grievance about working conditions.•Medium barrier. A very upset staff member sends an emotionally charged letter to the

leader instead of transmitting her feelings face-to-face.•Decoding barrier. An older principal is not sure what a young department head means

when he refers to a teacher as "spaced out."•Receiver barrier. A school administrator who is preoccupied with the preparation of the

annual budget asks a staff member to repeat a statement, because she was not listening attentively to the conversation.

•Feedback barrier. During a meeting, the failure of school administrators to ask any questions causes the superintendent to wonder if any real understanding has taken place.

Because communication is a complex, give-and-take process, breakdowns anywhere in the cycle can block the transfer of understanding.

Physical BarriersAny number of physical distractions can interfere with the effectiveness of communication, including a telephone call, drop-in visitors, distances between people, walls, and static on the radio. People often take physical barriers for granted, but sometimes they can be removed. For example, an inconveniently positioned wall can be removed. Interruptions such as telephone calls and drop-in visitors can be removed by issuing instructions to a secretary. An appropriate choice of media can overcome distance barriers between people.

Semantic BarriersThe words we choose, how we use them, and the meaning we attach to them cause many communication barriers. The problem is semantic, or the meaning of the words we use. The same word may mean different things to different people. Words and phrases such as efficiency, increased productivity, management prerogatives, and just cause may mean one thing to a school administrator, and something entirely different to a staff member.

Technology also plays a part in semantic barriers to communication. Today's complex school systems are highly specialized. Schools have staff and technical experts developing and using specialized terminology—jargon that only other similar staff and technical experts can understand. And if people don't understand the words, they cannot understand the message.

Psychosocial BarriersThree important concepts are associated with psychological and social barriers: fields of experience, filtering, and psychological distance (Antos, 2011)). Fields of experience include people's backgrounds, perceptions, values, biases, needs, and expectations. Senders can encode and receivers decode messages only in the context of their fields of experience. When the sender's field of experience overlaps very little with the receiver's, communication becomes difficult. Filtering means that more often than not we see and hear what we are emotionally tuned in to see and hear. Filtering is caused by our own needs and interests, which guide our listening. Psychosocial barriers often involve a psychological distance between people that is similar to actual physical distance. For example, the school administrator talks down to a staff member, who resents this attitude, and this resentment separates them, thereby blocking opportunity for effective communication.Successful communication by school administrators is the essence of a productive school organization. However, as discussed previously, communications do break down. Several communication theorists (Abrell, 2004; Auer, 2011; Larson, 2011; Shettleworth,2010; Weiss, 2011) have focused on the major areas where failures in communication most frequently occur. The following are the major areas where communication breakdowns most frequently occur in schools:•Sincerity. Nearly all communication theorists assert that sincerity is the foundation on which all true communication rests. Without sincerity—honesty, straightforwardness, and authenticity—all attempts at communication are destined to fail.•Empathy. Research shows that lack of empathy is one of the major obstacles to effective communication. Empathy is the ability to put one's self into another's shoes. The empathetic person is able to see the world through the eyes of the other person.•Self-perception. How we see ourselves affects our ability to communicate effectively. A healthy but realistic self-perception is a necessary ingredient in communicating with others.• Role perception. Unless people know what their role is, the importance of their role, and what is expected of them, they will not know what to communicate, when to communicate, or to whom to communicate.•Efforts to distort the message. Pitfalls in communication often occur in ourefforts—both consciously and unconsciously—to distort messages.• Images. Another obstacle to successful communication is the sender's image of the receiver and vice versa. For example, on the one hand, school administrators are sometimes viewed as not too well informed about teaching, seen as out of touch with the classroom, and looked on as paper shufflers. On the other hand, some school administrators view teachers as lazy, inconsiderate of administrative problems, and unrealistic about the strengths and weaknesses of their students. Such views lead to a"we-they" attitude.•Vehicle for message. The vehicle by which we choose to send messages is important

in successful communication. In most cases, the vehicle to be used is defined by the situation.•Ability to communicate. Some of the ways we communicate raise barriers by inhibiting discussion or causing others to feel inferior, angry, hostile, dependent, compliant, or subservient.

• Listening ability. Frequently, people fail to appreciate the importance of listening, do not care enough to become actively involved with what others are saying, and are not sufficiently motivated to develop the skills necessary to acquire the art of listening.•Culture. Our cultural heritage, biases, and prejudices often serve as barriers to communication. The fact that we are African-American or white, young or old, male or female have all proved to be obstacles in communicating effectively.•Tradition. Past practice in a school helps determine how, when, and what we send and receive. For example, a school administrator who has an authoritative style may find that his staff will not share information readily. If a new administrator with a collaborative style replaces the authoritarian one, the new administrator may find that it takes a while for his colleagues to speak out on important issues.•Conditioning. The manner in which communication is conditioned by the environment influences the accuracy of messages sent and received. If we work for administrators who set a climate in which we are encouraged to share information, we soon become conditioned to communicate accordingly.•Noise. A major barrier to communication is what communication experts call noise. Noise consists of the external factors in the channels and the internal perceptions and experiences within the source and the receiver that affect communication.•Feedback. Faculty and staff tell their leaders that they want feedback. However, feedback improperly given can impede communication rather than improve it. Administrators and followers both need more training in how to use feedback more productively.

Improving Communication EffectivenessEffective communication is a two-way process that requires effort and skill by both sender and receiver. Administrators will at times assume each of these roles in the communication process. In this section, I discuss guidelines for improving communication effectiveness, including senders’ and receivers’ responsibilities, and listening.

Sender's ResponsibilitiesSeveral communication theorists (Cheney, 2011; Keyton, 2011; Tourish, 2010) have gleaned ten commandments of good communication, which are particularly applicable to the sender. These commandments, together with a basic understanding of the communication process itself, should provide a good foundation for developing and maintaining an effective set of interpersonal communication skills, which schooladministrators can use when communicating with various school stakeholders.1. School administrators need to clarify their ideas before communicating. The more systematically administrators analyze the problem or idea to be communicated, the clearer it becomes. This is the first step toward effective communication. Many communications fail because of inadequate planning. Good planning must consider the goals, attitudes, and needs

of those who will receive the communication and those who will be affected by it.2. Administrators need to examine the true purpose of each communication. Before administrators communicate, they must ask themselves what they really want to accomplish with their message—obtain information, initiate action, or change another person's attitude? Administrators need to identify their most important goal and then adapt their language, tone, and total approach to serve that specific objective. Administrators should not try to accomplish too much with each communication. The sharper the focus of their message, the greater its chances of success.

3. Administrators need to consider the total physical and human setting. Meaning and intent are conveyed by more than words alone. Many other factors influence the overall impact of a communication, and administrators must be sensitive to the total setting in which they communicate: the circumstances under which an announcement or decision is made; the physical setting—whether the communication is made in private or otherwise; the social climate that pervades work relationships within the school or department and sets the tone of its communications; custom and practice—the degree to which the communication conforms to, or departs from, the expectations of the audience. Be constantly aware of the total setting in which you communicate. Like all living things, communication must be capable of adapting to its environment.4. Administrators need to consult with others, when appropriate, in planning communications. Frequently, it is desirable or necessary to seek the participation of others in planning a communication or in developing the facts on which to base the communication. Such consultation often lends additional insight and objectivity to the message. Moreover, those who have helped plan the communication will give it their active support.5. Administrators need to be mindful, while communicating, of the overtones as well as the basic content of the message. The administrator’s tone of voice, expression, and apparent receptiveness to the responses of others all have tremendous impact on those the administrator wishes to reach. Frequently overlooked, these subtleties of communication often affect a listener's reaction to a message even more than its basic content. Similarly, the administrator’s choice of language—particularly her awareness of the fine shades of meaning and emotion in the words used—predetermine in large part the reactions of the listeners.6. Administrators need to take the opportunity, when it arises, to convey something of help or value to the receiver. Consideration of the other person's interests and needs— trying to look at things from the other person's point of view—frequently points up opportunities to convey something of immediate benefit or long-range value to the other person. Staff members are most responsive to administrators whose messages take staff interests into account.

7. Administrators need to follow up their communication. An administrator’s best efforts at communication may be wasted, and she may never know whether she has succeeded in expressing her true meaning and intent if she does not follow up to see how well she has put her message across. An administrator can do this by asking questions, by encouraging the receiver to express his or her reactions, by follow-up contacts, and by subsequent review of performance. An administrator needs to make certain that every important communication has feedback so that complete understanding and appropriate action result.

8. Administrators need to communicate for tomorrow as well as today. Although communications may be aimed primarily at meeting the demands of an immediate situation, they must be planned with the past in mind if they are to maintain consistency in the receiver's view. Most important, however, communications must be consistent with long-range interests and goals. For example, it is not easy to communicate frankly on such matters as poor performance or the shortcomings of a loyal staff member, but postponing disagreeable communications makes these matters more difficult in the long run and is actually unfair to your staff and your school organization.9. Administrators need to be sure that their actions support their communications. In the final analysis, the most persuasive kind of communication is not what administrators say, but what they do. When leaders’ actions or attitudes contradict their words, others tend to discount what they have said. For every administrator, this means that good supervisory practices—such as clear assignment of responsibility and authority, fair rewards for effort, and sound policy enforcement—serve to communicate more than all the gifts of oratory.10. Administrators need to seek, not only to be understood, but to understand—be a good listener. When an administrator starts talking, he often ceases to listen, at least in that larger sense of being attuned to the other person's unspoken reactions and attitudes. Even more serious is the occasional inattentiveness a leader may be guilty of when others are attempting to communicate with him. Listening is one of the most important, most difficult, and most neglected skills in communication. It demands that the administrator concentrate not only on the explicit meanings another person is expressing, but also on the implicit meanings, unspoken words, and undertones that may be far more significant. Thus, an administrator must learn to listen with the inner ear if he is to know the inner person.

Receiver's ResponsibilitiesCommunication depends on the ability not only to send but also to receive messages. So the ability to listen effectively greatly enhances the communication process. But many of us are not good listeners. Effective listening skills can be developed, however. Summarized following are ten rules for good listening (Kneen, 2011)):

1. Stop talking. You cannot listen if you are talking. For example, Polonius inHamlet said: "Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice."2.Put the talker at ease. Help a person feel free to talk. This is often called a permissive environment.3. Show a talker that you want to listen. Look and act interested. Do not read your mail while someone talks. Listen to understand rather than to oppose.4. Remove distractions. Don't doodle, tap, or shuffle papers. Will it be quieter if you shut the door?5. Empathize with talkers. Try to help yourself see the other person's point of view.6. Be patient. Allow plenty of time. Do not interrupt a talker. Don't start for the door or walk away.7. Hold your temper. An angry person takes the wrong meaning from words.8. Go easy on argument and criticism. These put people on the defensive, and they may clam up or become angry. Do not argue: Even if you win, you lose.

9. Ask questions. This encourages a talker and shows that you are listening. It helps to develop points further.10. Stop talking. This is first and last, because all other guides depend on it. You cannot do an effective listening job while you are talking.

Nature gave people two ears but only one tongue, which is a gentle hint that they should listen more than they talk. Listening requires two ears, one for meaning and one for feeling. Leaders who do not listen have less information for making sound decisions.

Active ListeningActive listening is a term popularized by the work of Carl Rogers and Richard Farson (n.d.) and advocated by counselors and therapists (Brownell, 2009; Burstein, 2010). The concept recognizes that a sender's message contains both verbal and nonverbal content as well as a feeling component. The receiver should be aware of both components in order to comprehend the total meaning of the message. For instance, when a staff member says to her supervisor, "Next time you ask me to prepare a report, please give me some advance notice." The content conveys that the staff member needs time, but the feeling component may indicate resentment for being pressured to meet a deadline with such short notice. The supervisor, therefore, must recognize this feeling to understand the staff member's message. There are five guidelines that can help school administrators to become more active listeners (Rogers & Farson, n.d.).1. Listen for message content. The receiver must try to hear exactly what the sender is saying in the message.2. Listen for feelings. The receiver must try to identify how the sender feels in terms of the message content. This can be done by asking: "What is he trying to say?"3. Respond to feelings. The receiver must let the sender know that her feelings, as well as the message content are recognized.4. Note all cues, verbal and nonverbal. The receiver must be sensitive to the nonverbal messages as well as the verbal ones. If the receiver identifies mixed messages, he may ask for clarification.5. Rephrase the sender's message. The receiver may restate or paraphrase the verbal and nonverbal messages as feedback to the sender. The receiver can do this by allowing the sender to respond with further information.The last guideline is one of the most powerful of the active listening techniques and is used regularly by counselors and therapists. It helps the receiver avoid passing judgment or giving advice, and encourages the sender to provide more information about what is really the problem.

ConclusionCommunication is the process of transmitting information and common understanding from one person to another. The elements of the communication process are the sender, encoding the message, transmitting the message through a medium, receiving the message, decoding the message, feedback, and noise.A number of barriers retard effective communication. These can be divided into four categories: process barriers, physical barriers, semantic barriers, and psychosocial barriers. To improve the effectiveness of communications, schools must develop an awareness of the

importance of sender's and receiver's responsibilities and adhere to active listening skills.References

Abrell, R. (2004). Preventing communication breakdowns. Reston, VA: NationalAssociation of Secondary School Principals.

Antos, G. (2011). Handbook of interpersonal communication. The Hague, TheNetherlands: Mouton De Gruyter.

Auer, P. (2011). Theories and methods. The Hague, The Netherlands: Mouton DeGruyter.

Brownell, J. (2009). Listening: Attitudes, principles, and skills. Boston, MA: Pearson. Brun, J. P. (2010). Missing pieces: 7 ways to improve employee well-being andorganizational effectiveness. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Burstein, J.

(2010). Have you heard?: Active listening. New York, NY: CrabtreePublishing.

Canary, H. (2011). Communication and organizational knowledge: Contemporary issues for theory and practice. Florence, KY: Taylor & Francis.

Cheney, G. (2011). Organizational communication in an age of globalization: Issues, reflections, practices. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.

Eisenberg, E. M. (2010). Organizational communication: Balancing creativity and constraint. New York, NY: Saint Martin’s.

Everett M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, Fifth Edition 2003, Free Press, New York, p221Green, R. L. (2010). The four dimensions of principal leadership: A framework for

leading 21st century schools. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Hirst, E. (1989) Reaching for 100 percent participation in a utility conservation programme The Hood River project, Energy Policy Vol 17(2) pp155-164

Keyton, J. (2010). Case studies for organizational communication: Understanding communication processes. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Keyton, J. (2011). Communication and organizational culture: A key to understanding work experience. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Kelly, J.A. et al (1997) Randomised, controlled, community-level HIV-prevention intervention for sexual- risk behaviour amongst homosexual men in US cities, The Lancet Vol 350, 9090; Health Module p1500

Kneen, J. (2011). Essential skills: Essential speaking and listening skills. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Larson, R. K. (2011). The evolution of human language: Biolinguistic perspectives. NewYork, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Lunenburg, F.C,& Irby, B. J. (2006). The principalship: Vision to action. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage.

Lutgen-Sandvik, P. (2010). Destructive organizational communication: Processes, consequences, and constructive ways of organizing. New York, NY: Routledge.

Matthews, L. J., & G. M. Crow (2010). The principalship: New roles in a professional learning community. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Pauley, J. A. (2010). Communication: The key to effective leadership. Milwaukee, WI: ASQ Quality Press.

Rogers, C. R., & Farson, R. F. (n.d.). Active listening. Chicago, IL; Industrial RelationsCenter, University of Chicago.

Sergiovanni, T. J. (2009). The principalship: A reflective practice perspective. Boson, MA: