Suicide

The Rise of SociologyThe Rise of Sociology

Sociological positivism views the individual as a Sociological positivism views the individual as a body that is acted upon, and whose behaviour is body that is acted upon, and whose behaviour is determined by external forcesdetermined by external forces

Little or no role is given to the concept of free will Little or no role is given to the concept of free will or individual choiceor individual choice

The study of crime remains in the tradition of The study of crime remains in the tradition of positivistic method: something that can be positivistic method: something that can be measured using the methodology of the natural measured using the methodology of the natural sciencessciences

In Durkheim’s view there is a In Durkheim’s view there is a consensusconsensus about about what is or isn’t criminalwhat is or isn’t criminal

Suicide: Sociological or Suicide: Sociological or PsychologicalPsychological

The central tenets of positivism are scientific The central tenets of positivism are scientific method, determinism, consensusmethod, determinism, consensus

Durkheim’s study of suicide showed how the Durkheim’s study of suicide showed how the seemingly individualistic decision to take one’s seemingly individualistic decision to take one’s own life was due to social and economic issuesown life was due to social and economic issues

In this way Durkheim was able to show how social In this way Durkheim was able to show how social factors explained individual and group action such factors explained individual and group action such as crime, thus in the same way external forces as crime, thus in the same way external forces caused suicide, external forces caused crimecaused suicide, external forces caused crime

Such an argument moved suicide away from Such an argument moved suicide away from psychological reasons to sociological reasonspsychological reasons to sociological reasons

Suicide RatesSuicide Rates

Durkheim’s research showed different patterns in suicide Durkheim’s research showed different patterns in suicide rates in different countries, and these patterns were stable rates in different countries, and these patterns were stable as opposed to a random individual actas opposed to a random individual act

They were higher in Protestant countries than Catholic They were higher in Protestant countries than Catholic countriescountries

The rise and fall in suicide rates appeared to be related to The rise and fall in suicide rates appeared to be related to social factors, such as economic recession, surprisingly in social factors, such as economic recession, surprisingly in times of economic prosperity and fell in times of war and times of economic prosperity and fell in times of war and political upheavalpolitical upheaval

Finally there were variations in suicide rates between Finally there were variations in suicide rates between different members of society, for example unmarried and different members of society, for example unmarried and the childless had higher rates of suicidethe childless had higher rates of suicide

Explanations of Suicide RatesExplanations of Suicide Rates

To prove his case, Durkheim collected To prove his case, Durkheim collected statistics from several European countriesstatistics from several European countries

His explanation for the different His explanation for the different variations/patterns in suicide rates, he felt variations/patterns in suicide rates, he felt was due to different levels of social was due to different levels of social integration, for example Catholic families integration, for example Catholic families had strong family networks that could had strong family networks that could explain the lower suicide rates in southern explain the lower suicide rates in southern European countriesEuropean countries

Four Types of Social StructuresFour Types of Social Structures Durkheim suggested four types of social structures that led Durkheim suggested four types of social structures that led

to different types of suicideto different types of suicide Egotistic social structures, like modern Western countries, Egotistic social structures, like modern Western countries,

focuses on individualism therefore integration is weak so focuses on individualism therefore integration is weak so suicide rates are highsuicide rates are high

Altruistic social structures, individuals are so well integrated Altruistic social structures, individuals are so well integrated that they value the group more then their individualitythat they value the group more then their individuality

In anomic (normlessness) social structures, the normal In anomic (normlessness) social structures, the normal social structure have broken down, because of rapid social social structure have broken down, because of rapid social change and the resulting uncertainty leads to suicidechange and the resulting uncertainty leads to suicide

Finally in very oppressive societies, such as concentration Finally in very oppressive societies, such as concentration camps, have fatalistic social structures in which people camps, have fatalistic social structures in which people lose the will to live. lose the will to live.

Suicide & MethodologySuicide & Methodology

From his analysis of suicide, Durkheim is arguing that human From his analysis of suicide, Durkheim is arguing that human beings are constrained by social forces, social facts can be beings are constrained by social forces, social facts can be studied using the methodology of the natural sciencesstudied using the methodology of the natural sciences

Durkheim’s book Suicide: A study in Sociology identified his Durkheim’s book Suicide: A study in Sociology identified his rules of sociological method. As suicide rates are social rules of sociological method. As suicide rates are social facts, social facts are real living forces that act on the facts, social facts are real living forces that act on the individual and these facts can be measuredindividual and these facts can be measured

Statistical Evidence - it uncovered the patterns in suicide Statistical Evidence - it uncovered the patterns in suicide rates between different European Countriesrates between different European Countries

Correlation and Analysis – he found correlations between Correlation and Analysis – he found correlations between suicide rates and a range of social factssuicide rates and a range of social facts

Causation – having discovered a correlation, Durkheim Causation – having discovered a correlation, Durkheim wanted to find causal connections, which in this case was wanted to find causal connections, which in this case was determined by social integration.determined by social integration.

Conclusions – Positivist perspectiveConclusions – Positivist perspective

Realism or Positivism – though Durkheim’s approach is Realism or Positivism – though Durkheim’s approach is positivist in nature – he’s looking for ‘real laws’ in the same positivist in nature – he’s looking for ‘real laws’ in the same way the natural sciences research the ‘law’s’ of gravity.way the natural sciences research the ‘law’s’ of gravity.

However as Durkheim is identifying ‘laws’ that aren’t However as Durkheim is identifying ‘laws’ that aren’t observable or measurable like family size, he adopts a observable or measurable like family size, he adopts a realist approachrealist approach

Realists argue that the causes of things we observe lie in Realists argue that the causes of things we observe lie in underlying structures and processes that cannot be underlying structures and processes that cannot be observedobserved

From a Realist standpoint both the natural and social From a Realist standpoint both the natural and social sciences operate in the same waysciences operate in the same way

Suicide – An Interpretivist ViewSuicide – An Interpretivist View

From an interpretivist perspective people act in From an interpretivist perspective people act in terms of meanings and it’s the job of sociologists terms of meanings and it’s the job of sociologists to interpret the meanings which direct human to interpret the meanings which direct human actionaction

In The Social Meanings of Suicide Jack Douglas In The Social Meanings of Suicide Jack Douglas argues that the first step in studying suicide is to argues that the first step in studying suicide is to interpret how individuals who commit suicide interpret how individuals who commit suicide define and give meaning to their actiondefine and give meaning to their action

Douglas admits this is easier said than done, Douglas admits this is easier said than done, however he provided 3 Steps in discovering the however he provided 3 Steps in discovering the meaningsmeanings

Douglas’ Steps 1 to 3Douglas’ Steps 1 to 3

Step 1 is:Step 1 is: An analysis of suicide notes (if available)An analysis of suicide notes (if available) An examination of personal diariesAn examination of personal diaries Interviews with people who knew the victimInterviews with people who knew the victim Analyse the events preceeding the suicideAnalyse the events preceeding the suicide Interview those who’ve survived suicide attemptsInterview those who’ve survived suicide attempts Douglas rejects Durkheim’s classification method Douglas rejects Durkheim’s classification method

saying it’s too deterministic – it failings to saying it’s too deterministic – it failings to recognise the meaning of the suicide for the victimrecognise the meaning of the suicide for the victim

Douglas’ Steps 1 to 3Douglas’ Steps 1 to 3 Step 2Step 2 The next step is to look for patterns of meaning which The next step is to look for patterns of meaning which

interviews have shown to be common with suicides, as interviews have shown to be common with suicides, as opposed to attaching meaning to the act as with Durkheim opposed to attaching meaning to the act as with Durkheim ( a telelogical position)( a telelogical position)

Revenge Suicide – example make a formere lover feel Revenge Suicide – example make a formere lover feel guiltyguilty

A Search for Help Suicide – a ‘cry for help’ when all else A Search for Help Suicide – a ‘cry for help’ when all else has failedhas failed

Escape Suicide – an escape from life when it becomes Escape Suicide – an escape from life when it becomes unberableunberable

Reptance Suicide – an means of expressing sorrow for Reptance Suicide – an means of expressing sorrow for some wrong doingsome wrong doing

Self-Punishment Suicide – a way of punishing oneself for a Self-Punishment Suicide – a way of punishing oneself for a misdeedmisdeed

Douglas’ Steps 1 to 3Douglas’ Steps 1 to 3

Step 3Step 3 For this Douglas argues you need to link the For this Douglas argues you need to link the

patterns of meaning with the wider beliefs of patterns of meaning with the wider beliefs of the culturethe culture

For example in Western culture suicide is For example in Western culture suicide is seen as an act of deperationseen as an act of deperation

Whereas in other cultures it’s expected, for Whereas in other cultures it’s expected, for example the suicide of the elderly in example the suicide of the elderly in nomadic culturesnomadic cultures

Suicide and StatisticsSuicide and Statistics

Douglas is critical of Durkheim’s acceptance of the Douglas is critical of Durkheim’s acceptance of the reliability and validity of official statistics on suicidereliability and validity of official statistics on suicide

Douglas argues suicide statistics are the result of Douglas argues suicide statistics are the result of negotiated meanings, by this he means family and negotiated meanings, by this he means family and friends might try and conceal the death of a loved friends might try and conceal the death of a loved one because of the stigma attachedone because of the stigma attached

And this might influence the coroners verdictAnd this might influence the coroners verdict How might you argue that crime statistics are a How might you argue that crime statistics are a

result of negotiated meanings?result of negotiated meanings?

Application of Suicide to CrimeApplication of Suicide to Crime In the same way Durkheim assumes there’s a consensus In the same way Durkheim assumes there’s a consensus

on what is a suicide, there’s the assumption that there’s an on what is a suicide, there’s the assumption that there’s an agreed definition on what a crime isagreed definition on what a crime is

And so in adopting Durkheim’s scientific approach in And so in adopting Durkheim’s scientific approach in researching crime via qualitative methodologies your researching crime via qualitative methodologies your findings could be invalid as the questionnaire is findings could be invalid as the questionnaire is constructed on an assumed consensus on what is a crime constructed on an assumed consensus on what is a crime making you findings invalid, plus not all deviant acts are making you findings invalid, plus not all deviant acts are defined as a crimedefined as a crime

You could find patterns of correlation between suicide and You could find patterns of correlation between suicide and certain countries, but this doesn’t mean there’s causation. certain countries, but this doesn’t mean there’s causation. Similarly this occurs with crime figures, you might find a Similarly this occurs with crime figures, you might find a correlation between crime and poverty, but it doesn’t follow correlation between crime and poverty, but it doesn’t follow you found a casual connectionyou found a casual connection

Also you might find a correlation but never find out why Also you might find a correlation but never find out why people do things, unlike interpretivist methodologiespeople do things, unlike interpretivist methodologies

Application of Suicide to CrimeApplication of Suicide to Crime

Douglas’ research tried to uncover the meaning as Douglas’ research tried to uncover the meaning as to why people committed suicideto why people committed suicide

Douglas argues that the label suicide is a result of Douglas argues that the label suicide is a result of negotiated meanings – in other words they’re negotiated meanings – in other words they’re socially constructed – and this process needs to socially constructed – and this process needs to be understood; the same occurs with crime, it’s a be understood; the same occurs with crime, it’s a socially constructed definitionsocially constructed definition

The negotiated meanings in crime statistics The negotiated meanings in crime statistics occurs, this starts with the police in deciding occurs, this starts with the police in deciding whether an act is criminal or not. Also in the social whether an act is criminal or not. Also in the social world not all acts are ‘negotiated’ between the world not all acts are ‘negotiated’ between the members of society as being criminal – just think members of society as being criminal – just think of tax evasion being different to tax avoidanceof tax evasion being different to tax avoidance

Evaluation of DouglasEvaluation of Douglas

Suicide statistics are socially constructed Suicide statistics are socially constructed from the definitions and meaningsfrom the definitions and meanings

These meanings are derived from family, These meanings are derived from family, friends and officialsfriends and officials

Extreme InterpretivismExtreme Interpretivism

Atkinson takes the interpretivist position to its Atkinson takes the interpretivist position to its extreme, to what is known as a phenomenological extreme, to what is known as a phenomenological approachapproach

This position sees suicide as simply a meaning This position sees suicide as simply a meaning and there’s no reality beyond that meaning, and there’s no reality beyond that meaning, therefore suicide statistics are not right or wrong therefore suicide statistics are not right or wrong they simply arethey simply are

The job of the sociologist is to discover the The job of the sociologist is to discover the meanings and find out how they’re constructedmeanings and find out how they’re constructed

Phenomenologists see the process of Phenomenologists see the process of categorisation as being key. Statistics are simply categorisation as being key. Statistics are simply the products of opinions of those who produce the products of opinions of those who produce themthem

They believe it’s impossible to produce factual They believe it’s impossible to produce factual data and so impossible to have causal data and so impossible to have causal explanationsexplanations

Phenomenologists do not try to don’t look at what Phenomenologists do not try to don’t look at what causes crime but how certain events become causes crime but how certain events become defined as crimesdefined as crimes

From this suicides are not objective ‘social From this suicides are not objective ‘social facts’ with causes that can be explained, they facts’ with causes that can be explained, they are meanings. To try and discover the ‘causes’ are meanings. To try and discover the ‘causes’ of suicide will simply result in uncovering the of suicide will simply result in uncovering the meanings used to classify a death as suicide. meanings used to classify a death as suicide.

Therefore there are no objective facts with Therefore there are no objective facts with causes which can be explained there are only causes which can be explained there are only meanings to be uncovered and understoodmeanings to be uncovered and understood


Atkinson conducted observations of Atkinson conducted observations of inquests, interviewed coroners and an inquests, interviewed coroners and an examination of coroner’s recordsexamination of coroner’s records

Atkinson claimed coroners have a ‘common-Atkinson claimed coroners have a ‘common-sense theory’ of suicide. If the facts fit the sense theory’ of suicide. If the facts fit the theory, then a verdict of suicide is likely theory, then a verdict of suicide is likely

Atkinson says coroners start by looking for Atkinson says coroners start by looking for ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ cues to indicate ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ cues to indicate suicidesuicide


Primary cuesPrimary cues Suicide notesSuicide notes Type of death – gassing, drowning, drug overdoseType of death – gassing, drowning, drug overdose Place and Circumstance of death Place and Circumstance of death Secondary CuesSecondary Cues Life histories or biography – mental illness, few Life histories or biography – mental illness, few

friends, financial problems, disturbed childhoodfriends, financial problems, disturbed childhood Categorising Suicide – if the circumstances of a Categorising Suicide – if the circumstances of a

death meet all the relevant criteria of a ‘typical death meet all the relevant criteria of a ‘typical suicide’ then a verdict of suicide is more likelysuicide’ then a verdict of suicide is more likely

By C Thompson [email protected] C Thompson [email protected]

Health & Medicine

Suicide