- 1. Fostering Hope by Bridging the Gap How to Meet the Unique
Developmental andEmotional Needs of Foster Children
2. Emotional Needs ofYoung Children
- Goals for the first 3 years of life:
- What is Necessary to Reach These Early Goals?
3. Emotional Needs ofYoung Children
- It is through interacting with others, particularly caregivers,
that young children develop the competence they need to engage in
relationships and act in the world
- Often see deficits here with foster children
4. Developmental Milestones 0-6 Months
- Natural Reflexes and Muscle Development
- Expressing Sounds, Begin to Imitate Sounds
- Pushing, Reaching, and Grabbing with Limbs
- Beginning awareness of their dependency and helplessness
- Temperament begins to emerge
- Children in chaotic, neglectful, and/or abusive homes can show
delays in these areas.
- May look like failure to thrive children
- Can get stuck trying to reach these basic goals resulting in
continued developmental delays
5. Developmental Milestones 6-12 Months
- Standing While Holding On
- Emergence of first meaningful words
- An awareness of frustration and anger
- Learn at a basic level to trust the family to care for them and
keep them alive
- Delays in motor development
- Delays in language development
-
- May rely more on gesture or have minimal attempts to
communicate with others
- Difficulty forming a concept of their own and others
frustration and anger
- Lack this basic sense of trust
-
- Often have difficulty forming later even once in a safe
environment
6. Developmental Milestones 12-18 Months
- Increased vocabulary, small phrases emerge
- Imitation of facial expressions and words
- Parents are center for trust and getting needs met; also center
for frustration when needs are not met
- Curiosity; attention moves towards objects
- Focus is on repetition and practice
-
- May begin walking but have excessive clumsiness
- With unreliable parents will have difficulty with trust and
problems with where to place their frustration
- May show less interest in play and interaction with others and
the objects in their world
- Lack curiosity- will effect further development
- Trouble learning through repetition due to inconsistent
environment
7. Developmental Milestones 18-24 Months
- Continued language development- large increase in
vocabulary
- Gross Motor Coordination Develops for Increasingly Complex
Skills (e.g. running, throwing things)
- Clear Imitation of Others by quote or action
- Direct aggression when angry or envious
- Parallel play begins, start to be more aware of others
-
- Move towards and away from caregiver
- May lack ability to communicate with others verbally
- Continued delays in gross motor skills
- May not imitate others or show much interest in interpersonal
relationships
- Can see excessive aggression towards others or self; inability
to modulate aggression
- May not begin parallel play or get stuck here and dont become
more interactive
- Excessive clinginess or withdrawal from caregiver
8. Developmental Milestones2-3 Years
- Language in Full-throttle and continuing to expand
- Concept of wanting some independence and separation from
parents
- Beginning awareness that parents are the same kind of person
whether angry or happy with them
- Focus shifts from getting basic needs met (e.g. food,
nurturance) to control
-
- Cleanliness vs. Messiness
-
- Learning to master their environment
-
- May reach and then regress
- Limited language, difficulty communicating with others
- Clinginess or withdrawal from parents; difficulty with
strangers
- Lack of awareness about emotions of others not effecting who
the person is; confused about emotions in general
- Focus may remain on getting basic needs met
9. Developmental Milestones 3-5 Years
- Speech now includes full sentences and complex sentence
structure
- Knowing what behaviors parents approve and dont approve of
- Begin interactive play and sense of competition
-
- Play becomes more imaginative
- Awareness of their own gender and differences of opposite
gender
- Increased emotional sophistication
-
- Begin to realize they dont change just because their mood
does
-
- Some may only have a few words
- Lack understanding of what behaviors are appropriate and
inappropriate
- Parallel play or problematic peer interactions
-
- Play does not become more sophisticated
- Lack curiosity about gender, excessive confusion about gender,
hypersexuality
- Delayed emotional development
-
- Dont understand their feelings or others, and dont know how to
regulate their mood states
10. Developmental Milestones 5-7 Years
- Basic skills for educational development in place; curiosity
established
- Lessened emphasis on earlier developmental struggles, not focus
on school
- Awareness of caregivers as necessary for their own successful
development
- Gross and Fine Motor Coordination moves towards complex skills
(e.g. riding a bike, sports, etc.)
- Beginnings of abstract reasoning make sense (i.e. bad
jokes)
- Play increases in sophistication and will reenact drama
- Lack of curiosity; delays in areas needed for success in
school
- Inability/difficulty moving forward, still negotiating early
developmental struggles
- Difficulty relying on adults for help/guidance, dont seek
assistance when needed
- May be more clumsy than peers, can effect socialization (e.g.
difficulty with sports)
- Lack evidence of abstract reasoning, thinking may remain
concrete for a long period- will eventually cause learning
difficulties
- May lack sophistication; may not play much; reenactment may be
of trauma
11. Developmental Milestones 7-11 Years
- Focus on interests, friends, competition, rules, and all things
school related
- Focus on developing skills and learning about the world
- Less problems with authority than in prior years
- Speech and language development takes on more of an adult
quality
- Imitation takes a full form in sophisticated dramatic play
patterns
- Difficulty focusing on age appropriate demands due to energy
taken by focus on past demands and experiences
- Often have social difficulties with peers and adults
- Mental illness symptoms may become increasingly present,
inattention results in difficulty at school
- Problematic behaviors may increase
- Play less creative; stuck reenacting unresolved stages and/or
trauma
12. Developmental Milestones 11-13 Years for Girls
- Prepubescent time with preparation for the bodily changes
during puberty
- Emotional arousal begins to display more in cycles
- Speech and play becomes focused on other friend/enemies
- Social relationships are emphasized to work out developmental
needs
- Beginning to understand that parents are adults, not gods
- Curiosity takes a more self and other-centered focus
- Early developing girls tend to be more anxious and worried
about how they appear to others
- May have more intense emotional arousal and increased
difficulty modulating their emotions
- May have difficulty with social relationships
-
- Peer group that is a poor influence
- May split between foster/adoptive caregivers and parents as all
good and all bad
- May lack the curiosity they need to work towards their adult
identity
- May become hypersexual and seek out nurturance, acceptance, and
their identity through relationships with males
13. Developmental Milestones 11-13 Years for Boys
- Prepubescent time focuses more on coping with aggression and a
hierarchy
- Sports become a more clear focus for status
- Early developing boys tend to feel more powerful and work
through the anxiety of reaching puberty early faster than
girls
- Interest in girls is not sophisticated and may not be evident,
but an awareness of sexuality begins to emerge
- Social status is focused on success and attributes
- Prior difficulties coping with aggression can intensify, may
begin to have legal difficulties
- May have increased difficulty sublimating aggression through
sports or other activities
- May have difficulty with sexual awareness and what it will
eventually look like for them to be an adult male
- Their focus for social status may be through excessive
inappropriate behavior (e.g. bully, troublemaker, etc.)
14. Developmental Milestones 13+ Years
- Adolescents will try out different identities searching for
what feels right for them
- Increased desire for independence
- Focus more on peers and their opinions than caregivers
- Increased focus on relationships with opposite gender
peers
- Begin to form goals for the future
- Often girls who did not struggle earlier begin to have
difficulty when they reach puberty
- May foreclose on their identity or attempt to remain childlike
and not move forward
- May attempt to be excessively independent or remain overly
dependent
- Social problems, often feel isolated and victimized
- Hypersexuality is common, girls may seek out relationships with
older men as parental substitutes
- Lack goals and motivation towards their future
15. Development of Childs Play
16. Childs Play Stages
17. Disrupted and Disturbed Play
- Aggressive / Hyper-aroused
18. Childs Drawing
19. Childs Drawing
20. Childs Drawing
21. Drawing as a Vehicle
- In his schematic drawing, the child tailors pictorial creations
not according to his knowledge of the environment, but according to
the flow of his ideas and feelings.If a person is important in his
picture, he may make him larger than the other figures, using size
as an emphatic device. . . Similarly, the child may exaggerate a
part of an object to stress its important functions . . .
Exaggeration, shrinking, or omission of parts may also express
things that cannot be fulfilled in reality.(Horovitz, Lewis, Luca,
1967:59)
22. Trauma in Drawings
-
- Viewed pornography in bed with father
-
- Cared for mother and younger brother
23. Trauma in Drawings
24. Trauma in Drawings
25. Trauma in Drawings
26. Understanding Abuse as Seen in Drawings Figure 1 from Sexual
Abuse of Children: Selected Readings US Dept of Health and Human
Services 27. Understanding Abuse as Seen in Drawings Figure 2 from
Sexual Abuse of Children: Selected Readings US Dept of Health and
Human Services 28. Understanding Abuse as Seen in Drawings Figure 3
from Sexual Abuse of Children: Selected Readings US Dept of Health
and Human Services 29. Understanding Abuse as Seen in Drawings
Figure 4 from Sexual Abuse of Children: Selected Readings US Dept
of Health and Human Services 30. Understanding Abuse as Seen in
Drawings Figure 5 from Sexual Abuse of Children: Selected Readings
US Dept of Health and Human Services 31. Understanding Abuse as
Seen in Drawings Figure 6 from Sexual Abuse of Children: Selected
Readings US Dept of Health and Human Services 32. Understanding
Abuse as Seen in Drawings Figure 7 from Sexual Abuse of Children:
Selected Readings US Dept of Health and Human Services 33.
Understanding Abuse as Seen in Drawings Figure 8 & 9 from
Sexual Abuse of Children: Selected Readings US Dept of Health and
Human Services 34. Understanding Abuse as Seen in Drawings Figure
10 & 11 from Sexual Abuse of Children: Selected Readings US
Dept of Health and Human Services 35. Understanding Abuse as Seen
in Drawings Figure 12 from Sexual Abuse of Children: Selected
Readings US Dept of Health and Human Services 36. Moral Development
37. Piagets Stages of Moral Development
-
-
- Difference between younger than 10 and older
-
- Regard rules as fixed and absolute
-
- Handed down by adults or by God
38. Piagets Stages of Moral Development
- Older Children (over 10 yo)
-
- Can be changed if all agree
-
- Devices used so all get along
-
- Base judgments on intentions
-
- Intellectual development does not stop
39. Moral Development Kohlbergs Theory
- Some overlap with Piaget but went beyond
- 1958, 72 boys, middle & lower class families in
Chicago
- Later added others to the study
40. Kohlbergs Theory 6 Stages
- Level 1: Preconventional Morality
- See morality as something external to themselves
-
- Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
-
- Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange
- Both Stage 1 & 2 are about punishment
41. Kohlbergs Theory 6 Stages
- Level 2: Conventional Morality
- See morality as more than favors
-
- Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships
-
-
- Shift from expectation of unquestioning obedience to
relativistic outlook to concern for good motives
42. Kohlbergs Theory 6 Stages
- Level 2: Conventional Morality
-
- Stage 4:Maintaining Social Order
-
-
- Shift from expectation of unquestioning obedience to
relativistic outlook to concern for good motives
43. Kohlbergs Theory 6 Stages
- Level 3: Postconventional Morality
-
- Stage 5:Social Contract & Individual Rights
-
- Stage 6: Universal Principles
44. Moral Development Summary of Kohlbergs Theory
-
- Stage is characterized by compliance with rules to avoid
punishment and get rewards
-
- Moral judgment is self-centered and children act based on
self-interest
-
- Early focus is on avoiding punishment
-
- Later focus moves towards obedience with rules in hope of
reward
45. Moral Development Kohlbergs Theory
- Ages ~10-13 /16 for stage 4/ 20s-30s for males(Stage 3, 4,
5)
-
- Emphasis is on conforming to rules to get approval from
others
-
- Begin to internalize standards of authoritative people in their
lives
-
- Early in stage their concern is for gaining approval through
obedience
-
-
- Want to be seen as a good boy/girl
-
- Later in stage focus moves towards doing ones duty and
maintaining social order
46. Moral Development Kohlbergs Theory
- Ages 13-Adulthood/Mid 20s (Stage 6)
-
- Recognizing that there are sometimes conflicts between moral or
socially accepted standards
-
- Begin to make moral decisions based on whats right, fair, or
just
-
- Early in stage will value the will of the majority and welfare
of society
-
- Final level is morality based on what the individual believes
is right, regardless of legal restrictions and what others
think
-
- Many individuals never reach or complete this stage
47. How Moral Development Occurs
- Not genetic blueprint or maturation
- Rather through discussion and challenges
-
- The role of asking What do you think, versus telling or
lecturing
-
- Debate: obey laws without question
-
-
- Totalitarian government/Nazi Germany
48. How the Unusual Needs & Difficult Behaviors Impact the
Family 49. So you decided to become a foster parent . . .
- Who better than a foster child?
50. Qualifications
- In the state of Wyoming the qualifications for becoming a
foster parent are :
- good physical and emotional health,
- no documented history of abuse or neglect of a child,
- and no significant criminal history (Wyoming Foster/Adopt
Parent Association, 2005).
- create a therapeutic environment
- be a healthy role model, offering a predictable, safe, and
nurturing family experience
- Most people who want to engage in human service think: of
course, or no problem.
51. Expectations
52. Reality.
53. Reality.Statistics show:
- Family history of mental illness or substance abuse.
- Serious emotional and behavioral problems.
- Cognitive and learning disabilities
54. 55. Common Difficulties Seen inFoster Children
- Low frustration tolerance
- Difficulty coping with stress (internal and external)
- Inability to delay gratification
-
- Difficulty going to sleep and/or staying asleep
- Overly hash/punitive with self and/or others
- Psychomotor agitation or retardation
56. Common Difficulties Seenin Foster Children
- Aggressive Behaviors (self, others, property)
-
- E.g. tantrums, spitting, hitting, breaking things, etc.
- Lack of concern/regard for others
- Playing with, eating, or smearing feces
- Inability to seek assistance from adults
57. An Underestimated Challenge Create a therapeutic
environment,be a healthy role model, offering a predictable, safe,
and nurturing family experience, to children who have no inner
locus of control 58. The Rollercoaster Ride
- Foster children often engender the very opposite emotions of
what foster parents expected
59. The Rollercoaster Ride
- You expected feelings of :
60. Pushing Buttons Foster children pull for repeating the
trauma 61. Important challenges forfoster parents include:
- Recognizing the limits of their emotional attachment to the
child
- Understanding the mixed feelings toward child
- Understanding mixed feelings toward the child's birth
parents
- Recognizing their difficulties in letting the child return to
birth parents
- Dealing with the complex needs (emotional, physical, etc.) of
children in their care
- Working with sponsoring social agencies
- Finding needed support services in the community
- Dealing with the child's emotions and behavior following visits
with birth parents
62. Challenges other childrenin the house face:
- Different requirements for privileges
- New person disrupts harmony
63. Understanding the Difficult Behaviors & Recognizing
Emotional & Developmental Needs 64. Preschool- Case Example
#1
- Problems identified during intake
65. Preschool-Case Example #2
- Problems identified during intake
66. PreschoolCase Example #2 Cont.
- After 1 year of treatment:
-
- Child has improved significantly in all developmental
areas
-
- No current violence against self and greatly reduced violence
against others
-
- No night terrors, minimal sleep disturbance, now able to sleep
alone in own room
-
- Can tolerate frustration and put feelings into words
-
- Can ask for help when needed and state how adults can provide
assistance
-
- Play themes are becoming more developmentally appropriate and
sophisticated (e.g. questions about gender, dyadic and triadic
interactions)
67. Elementary School- Case Example #3
68. Elementary School- Case Example #4
69. Middle/High School- Case Example #5
- Problems identified during intake
70. Middle/High School- Case Example #6
- Problems identified during intake
71. How to work through it
- Many different approaches, but . . .
- The most important thing for any child with emotional
difficulties, an unstable background, and/or trauma, is . . .
72. How to work through it
- Many different approaches, but . . .
- The most important thing for any child with emotional
difficulties, an unstable background, and/or trauma, is . . .
73. How to work through it:
- Useful psychological evaluation
- Accurately medicated(if necessary)
- Real, immediate, effective support
74. How to work through it . . . A useful psychological
evaluation
- Caninclude all of the following areas:
75. How to work through it . . . A useful psychological
evaluation
- Shouldinclude an explanation or summary of these components to
help explain:
- Areas of developmental need
- Ways that the individual/family can help
76. How to work through it . Assessment Tools(type of tests)
- Getting the information you need
- Intellectual & Cognitive measures
77. Diagnosis
- Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
- Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
- Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
- Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD)
78. How to work through it . Psychosocial
-
- Can be difficult with foster children
- Includes the culture and subculture, and an awareness of the
familys standards
- Accounts for losses and trauma
- Understands the importance of the way each area would affect
the normal development of the child
79. How to work through it . Psychosocial
- The childs interactions begin to frame their expectations
- Birth order, exposure to children
- The way the child responds to others
- Areas of undeveloped maturity
80. How to work through it . Psychosocial
- Lack of developmental milestones
- Psychological problems that would occur even in the perfect
family
81. How to work through it . . . Behavioral
-
- expression of temperament
-
- repetitive patterns of behavior
-
- capabilities of expressing needs
-
- neurology, genetics, and biochemistry and the interplay with
the real world
-
- Behavioral disorders/disabilities
82. How to work through it . . .Emotional
- The childs development and areas of struggle
- Temperamental preferences for various phases
- Internal biochemistry and how it affects interactions
- How s/he responds to own pain or pleasure
- Emotional disorders/disabilities
83. How to work through it . . .Cognitive & Intellectual
- Memory, Speed of processing, Capacity for different kinds of
thoughts, Attention, Learning, Verbal and Nonverbal Abilities
- Areas of strength and weakness
- How the deficits interplay with reality-based situations
- What parents can reasonably expect
- What teachers can expect in performance
- Cognitive disorders/disabilities
84. How to work through it . . .continued
- Accurate diagnosis informs treatment
- Accurately medicated (if necessary)
-
- Statistic of greatest success with combined approach
-
- Different issues, same behavior
85. How to work through it . . .continued
- When to medicate with psychotropics:
- Diagnosable mental disorder
- Disorder improves with medication
- Level of distress is high enough that benefit from therapy is
impossible without reducing distress
- Typically effective behavioral approaches have not reduced
psychiatric symptoms
86. How to work through it . . . Psychotropics
- Difficulties with meds & children
- Off label use with children
- Little research on long term effects
87. How to work through it . . . Psychotropics
- Antidepressants : Depression or anxiety
- Antipsychotics : Psychosis or PTSD
- Mood stabilizers : Bipolar Disorder
88. Useful Recommendations
89. Therapeutic Services
-
- Individual combination of play/talk therapy
-
- Parent-child play therapy
90. How Does Therapy Work?
- Provides a safe, structured, and consistent environment where
the child can express anything without fear of consequence
- Interpretations of play or talk themes provides the child with
increased insight about problems
- Provides support to help the child move forward developmentally
and emotionally
- Play: Children use play to express what they are unable to
express in words
91. Goals of Therapy/ How It Can Help
- Help children negotiate early childhood difficulties
- Help children get back on track developmentally
- Decrease problematic behaviors and symptoms of mental
illness
- Help children to stop repeating patterns from biological family
with their new family
- Help foster parents learn how to parent children with these
unique needs
- Improve social skills and interpersonal relationships
- Increase skills needed for success in other areas (e.g. school,
work)
- Improve self-esteem and self-confidence
- Provide support and guidance to all individuals involved with
these children, increasing the effectiveness of the team
92. When to Refer forTherapeutic Services?
- Psychological evaluation identified a need for services
-
- Clinical symptoms may or may not be easily evident
- Foster parents, teachers, etc. are having difficulty working
with the child
- Child having significant difficulties in one or more areas
- Childs functioning begins to decrease
- Foster family needs support/guidance
93. Discipline & Behavior Plans 94. Discipline
- Research shows that effective parents :
-
- raise well-adjusted children who are more self-reliant,
self-controlled, and curious than children raised by parents who
are punitive, overly strict, or permissive.
-
- operate on the belief that both the child and the parent have
certain rights and that the needs of both are important
-
- are more likely to set clear rules and explain why these rules
are important
-
- reason with their children and consider the youngsters' points
of view even though they may not agree with them.
95. Theories Behind Behavior Plans
- Positive and Negative Reinforcers
- Positive and Negative Punishment
96. Discipline for difficult children(i.e. lack of internal
stability)
- Follow-through & commitment
97. Effective Discipline(consequences)
- Flexibility when appropriate
- Delivery ought to be immediate
98. Behavior Plan Examples of Problem Behavior
- Verbal Aggression, Cursing
- Touching, Sexual Touching
99. Behavior Plan Physical Aggression
- 6 year-old highly verbal & intelligent male
- 4 year-old male with autism
100. Behavior Plan Verbal Aggression
101. Behavior Plan Oppositionality
102. School
- Children develop not because they are shaped through external
reinforcements but because their curiosity is aroused.
103. How to work through it . . .
- Useful psychological evaluation
-
- Recommendations for therapy, home, & school
- Accurately medicated (if necessary)
-
- Meds are helping, not exacerbating issues
-
- Evaluation gave you an idea on how to make progress
104. How to work through it . . .
-
- Everyone is consistent, on the same page and using the behavior
plan at school, home, day care, etc. . .
- Real, immediate, effective support
105. Among infants placed in foster care at less than a year of
age, the nature of the infant-foster mother relationshipis a
reflectionof the foster mothers attachment style. Conversely , with
toddler placements (and older children), the child-foster mother
relationship reflects the childspreviousattachment
experiences(Stovall & Dozier, 1998). 106. FosterParentGroup
- Foster Parents often blame themselves
107. Foster Parenting the Defiant Child
- One parent played against the other
- The perfect loving family is squashed
- Parents withdraw from social functions
- Feel their parenting is unfair, overly strict, hostile
108. Foster Parent Group (FPG)
109. Retention:Foster Family Shortage
- 40% of foster families leave fostering in the first year of
being licensed
-
- role confusion and lack of support from the agency is a major
reason,
-
- behaviors of the children,
-
- interaction with the birth families,
-
- worker-foster family-birth family relations.
110. Concerns & How to Address Them:Retention
- Foster parents are typically: Unprepared, Underserved,
Underappreciated.
- Foster Parent Role Ambiguity : Statements include:
-
- We were unclear about what agency social workers expected of
us
-
- We were never really included in case planning
-
- Complete information was kept from us
-
- Our input was treated as trivial, or minimized
111. Concerns & How to Address Them : Education
- Lack of Relevant Pre/Post Placement Training
- Exit surveys and research show foster parents cite feeling
inadequately preparedand not having relevant on-going
training.
- Unprepared for the realities of their foster child
- Challenging bx problems but no resources to address
- No system in place to identify their specific needs
112. Concerns & How to Address Them : Support
- Lack of Avenues of Support and Connections needed to deal with
day-to-day fostering duties.Comments included:
- Im afraid to ask my case manager for a respite break, last time
I did I got the feeling that, I must not be handling the job
correctly.
- When I called my worker to schedule respite, she told me firmly
that was something she didnt do, I would have to arrange my own. I
dont know any other foster parents
- Our agency does not encourage our foster parents to exchange
phone numbers. If had someone to call for help, I wouldnt always
have to rely on my worker.
113. Concerns & How to Address Them :Therapeutic
-
- identifying their own abilities, motivations and qualifications
in light of the children they foster
-
- allows foster parents to see how the foster child might be
tapping into their unresolved issues, allowing them to master this
so they might best help the child
114. Our Findings with a FPG
-
- Topic Classification Definitions
115. Our Findings with a FPG
-
- Initial Trends : Months 1-3
-
- Middle 1 Trends : Months 3-6
-
- Middle 2 Trends : Months 6-9
116. Efficiency, Support, Education
- All going through similar situations
117. References & Resources
- h ttp://www.fosterparents.com
- National Foster Parent Associationhttp://www.nfpainc.org
- Wyoming Foster Parent Association
- Pat Hans, State President
- American Academy for Child and & Adolescent Psychiatry
- Alica Clark, Psy.D. & Karla Steingraber, Psy.D., LifeQuest
Behavioral Health
- http ://www.aacap.org
http://www.angelfire.com/dc/childsplay/devplay.htm
- http://www.originalplay.com/develop.htm
- http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/pl2.shtml
- http://www.ipt-forensics.com/library/images5.htm
- http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/arts/jarboe.htm
- American Art Therapy Association on the WWW
at:http://www.arttherapy.org/ .
- New Horizons for Learninghttp://www.newhorizons.org
- http://www.childdevelopment.com.au/self-assessment/
- For more information visitwww.childdevelopment.com.au
- Viktor Lowenfeld & Betty
Edwardshttp://www.learningdesign.com/Portfolio/DrawDev/kiddrawing.html
- http://faculty.indy.cc.ks.us/jnull/eledstages.htm
-
http://www.learningdesign.com/Portfolio/DrawDev/kiddrawing.html
- http://www.csea-scea.ca/TeachingIdeas/stages.html
- http://www.artjunction.org/young.php
118. Contact Information
- Aprioris Psychological Health Services