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Professor Sam Moyo looks at issues surrounding land and agriculture and their relationship with poverty in Zimbabwe. Presented at 'Moving Forward with Pro-poor Reconstruction in Zimbabwe' International Conference, Harare, Zimbabwe, (25 and 26 August 2009)
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African Institute for Agrarian Studies
Land Issues, Agriculture and Poverty
Sam Moyo
29 June 2009
Presented at CASS Conference on “Zimbabwe: Toward Poverty Focused Reconstruction and Development”, (25-26 August), Wild Geese Lodge, Harare
1.0 PERSPECTIVES ON ZIMBABWE’S AGRARIAN REFORM
1.1 Perspectives on Zimbabwe’s Pre-2000 Agrarian Situat ionCOMMON PERCEPTIONS REALITY
Smallholders “subsistence” producers • 80% national food
• 70% marketed maize, pulses, etc
Most food supplied by large farmers • Mainly high value foods
• High nutrition foods (milk, fruit)
Little smallholder exports • Cotton; Tobacco; Paprika;
• Beef via LSCF
Rural employment mainly on large farms • LSCF: 320,000 (50% FT)
• Com. Areas: 2 million+
Food production was adequate
(“bread basket to basket case”)
• Output declines from 1995+
• High malnutrition levels throughout
Customary Tenure Bad and
Freehold Tenure good
• Mixed performance results
- LSCF land underutilization
- High smallholder productivity
• Historic state investment bias
• Wider non-tenure financing issues
Environmental “crisis”
in C. Areas
- Overcrowding/resilience
- Low inputs system
- Low water/rainfall resources
1.2 Perceived post Fast Track land and agrarian outcome s
COMMON PERCEPTIONS REALITY
All large framers displaced • Many remaining
Mostly elites got land (Zanu PF) • Non-elites 140,000 (A1)
• 15,500 (A2) – includes ‘petty’ elites
Total agricultural output collapse • Declined overall but complex
• Less for some (eg cotton, beans)
Main problem is lost/lack of skills • Inputs supply is key
Production declines ‘irreversible’ • Slow upward turn (beans, tobac)
All new farmers unproductive • Differentiated investment patterns
• New output focus
No investments on farms
(tenure/banks)
• Financing constraint
• Mixed investment pattern
Support systems dead (inputs/services) • Inadequate/new finance forms
Environment destroyed (trees/animals) • New clearance/regulation!
Land tenure insecurity • Complex interrelated factors
Farm types/numbers Farm type: Area
2.0 AGRARIAN STRUCTURE: ASSET DISTRIBUTION
2.1b The emerging agrarian structure
2.2a Farm size allocations by model type
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
1-20
21-50
51-120
121-250
251+
No. beneficiaries
farm
siz
e ra
nges
(ha)
A2
A1
2.4 BIPPAs Farm size (ha) Ranges (2007; n=266)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
< 50
100-299
500-999
2000-2999
5000-9999
20000-50000
No. BIPPAs
Fa
rm s
ize
s
2.5 Large Estates: farm size range (ha) (2007; n= 105)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
2000-2,999
3,000- 4,999
5,000- 5,999
6,000- 9,999
10,000- 14,999
15,000- 29,000
30,000- 50,000
>50,000
No. Large Estates
Fa
rm s
ize
s
2.6 Remaining white farms: Farm sizes ranges (Ha) (2007; n= 725)
0 50 100 150 200
<50
100-299
500-999
2000-2999
5000-9999
> 50000
No. Remaining White Farms
Fa
rm s
ize
2.7 Labour Patterns in Newly Redistributed Areas
2.7a Structure of Rural Labour in New Resettlement Area s (A1 & A2)
Level of
labour use
No. of
HH
% of
HH
Average labour used (No. persons)
Hired In Family* Family
+Full
Time
Hired
Out*Full
time
Part
Time
Low1 1351 64.67 0.0 5.52 3.61 3.61 0.13
Medium2 195 9.33 1.0 7.69 3.53 4.53 0.14
High3 543 25.99 7.55 12.87 3.77 11.31 0.10
Total 2089 100.00 2.05 7.64 3.64 5.70 0.12
1. Household utilises family labour in combination with part time labour hired in; 2. Household hires in one fulltime worker plus some part time workers; 3. Household hires in at least two fulltime workers plus some part time w orkers *not statistically different across labour classes
3.1 Social Differentiation of Beneficiaries and Exc lusion3.1.1 Origins of the beneficiaries
2.2 Social differentiation of beneficiaries (origins, jobs, labour)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Other*
CA
LSCF
Urban area
Employment
elsewhere
No. beneficiaries
Origins
Female
Male
A2
A1
3.1.2 Gender dimensions of access to redistributed land
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Male
Female
No. beneficiaries
Sex of plot ownerA2
A1
3.1.3 Employment histories of beneficiaries: class background?
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Other
Security forces
CS unskilled
CS semi-skilled
CS managerial/skilled
Self employed
Pvt unskilled
Pvt semi-skilled
Pvt managerial/skilled
Not employed
Current
Past
*Pvt – Private, CS- Civil Servant ; **Other – Farm worker, domestic worker, informal,
student/diaspora
4.0 EMERGING LAND TENURE SYSTEM & SECURITY ISSUES
4.1 Emerging land tenure system: forms of tenure an d security issues
KEY ISSUES FREEHOLD LEASEHOLD PERMITS (old & new/A1)
CUSTOMARY STATE LAND
ILLEGAL SQUATTERS
Legal basis (laws)
√√√√ √√√√ √√√√ √√√√ √√√√ Adverse possession
Assigned Few remain Expanded (ca 20,000)
Expanded (ca 250,000)
1.2 million √√√√ Self
Duration Perpetual 25 to 99 years Perpetual Perpetual ? n /a
Records - Survey- Registration
√√√√ Few (116) registered or surveyed
Not yet n/a Few not recorded
No
Collaterable √√√√ Sometimes? No No √√√√ No
Transactable (sale)
√√√√ (CONPI) Yes on minister’s approval
Not in law (informally)
Informally √√√√ Yes
Inheritable Yes Yes Yes (customary law)
Yes (customary law)
n/a Yes
Gender rights (Spouse right)
Optional Right registrable (?)
Spouse right registrable
Customary practice (?)
n/a ?
4.2 Emerging land tenure system: land administratio n issuesKEY ADMIN ISSUES
FREEHOLD LEASEHOLD PERMITS (old & new/A1)
CUSTOMARY STATE LAND
ILLEGAL SQUATTERS
No. of claimants 1,000 (est) 17,000 (est) 300,000+ (official/other)
750,000-1 million households (census?)
- Forest areas- Park areas- Parastatal farms
20,000?
Land Area (ha) 1.5 million (est)
4.5 million (est)
9.5 million (est) 16.4 million 6.3 million
Assigned tenure documents
- Title- CONPI
- Offer letter- Lease (2007)- No documents
- Oral allocation- A1 offer letter- Draft permit- No offer/squatter
- No document- Written agreements
- Gazetted map- Title deed-Unallocated
n/a
Land register Deeds registry (central)
- Allocation list- Deeds (central)?
- Allocation list (district)
-Sabhuku’s list (local)
- No inventory- Titles
No
Authority (controls)
- Market- State- Courts
- State- Courts
- State- Family heads
- Trad Leaders- Family heads-State
State State
Dispute resolution Courts (?) - Courts- MLRR
- MLRR- Courts (?)
- Trad Leaders- Trad courts
Courts ?
Police powers (protection)
Yes (waning) Yes (limited) Limited Limited Yes (ignored)
?
Dispute intensity High Med Low Very low Some High Demand for conversion
n/a Med to high Some Very low n/a Doc
4.3 Land Tenure Security: Nature and SourcesSource of land conflicts A1 A2 Total
No. % No. % No. %No land conflicts 1 366 82.7 351 80.1 1 717 80.2Conflicts types 285 17.3 87 19.9 372 17.8
Boundary disputes 145 8.0 42 9.6 187 9.0
Access to natural resources 38 2.3 11 2.5 49 2.3
Access to infrastructure 40 2.4 9 2.1 49 2.3Animal disputes - - 1 0.2 1 0.1
Conflict over land/ownership of land
49 3.0 23 5.3 72 3.4
Double allocation 1 0.1 1 0.2 2 0.1Eviction 4 0.2 - - 4 0.2Exchanging plots 3 0.2 - - 3 0.1Fraud/forged documents 1 0.1 - - 1 0.0
Trespassers 3 0.2 - - 3 0.1Land re-planning issues 1 0.1 - - 1 0.0
Total 1 651 100.0 438 100.0 2089 100.0
Source: AIAS Survey; N=2089, A2=438
5.1 Agricultural Production Tendencies
5.1.1a Maize and total cereal production (tons) in Z imbabwe
5.1.1b Sub-sectoral maize Production Trends (1980 – 2009)
5.1.2 Soya beans, groundnuts, beans & sunflower outpu t trends
5.1.3 Key exports’ output trends
5.2 Commodity Production Constraints Matrix (2000-200 7)Commodity Sub
sector 1OutputTrend 4
Key production constraintsDrought Inputs Market2 Land3 Skill Finance
Main foods Maize SF -11.8 *** *** ** *** **Wheat MLF -2.6 *** * * ***Small grains SF -1 *** **Edible beans ALL -32 * *** **Ground nuts SF -3 * ***OilseedsSoya beans MLF -28 *** * ***Sunflower MLF -61 *** * **Key exportsTobacco MLF -77.6 * * *** ***Cotton SF 3.7 * *Estate cropsSugar ES 15.6 * **Tea ES 43.6 ** **coffee ES -51.6 ** **Citrus ES 36.9 ** *** ***LivestockBeef ALL *** ** *** ***Dairy MLF *** * * *** ***
1 Key: SF = Small farmers; MLF= Medium-Large farmers; ES = Estates; *-Severity of constraint4comparing 1990s average to 2005/6 output- pre—hyperinflation period; 2Output price control/market access; 3Combined effects of transfers;
tillage; use
5.4 Zimbabwe Fertilizer Production and Consumption: 1999
– 2008
6.0 MOVING FORWARD: LAND AND AGRARIAN REFORM
6.1 Dominant Perspectives on Agrarian Decline & Rec overy
COMMON PERCEPTIONS EMERGING REALITIESRecovery possible only if LSCF is reconstituted
- Dynamic/diverse forms of farming at play
Reproducing past output patterns is most beneficial
- Yes more food - Not other commodities- Why continue some exports
(e.g. tobacco)
Some exports are too complex for small farmers
- Exports contribution curve is growing
Investment only if “title” is provided to all farmers
- Non-freehold investment occurs
- Enabling new farmers works
Financing is limited by scale economies and title
- New market structures emerging
- New financing mechanisms emerging
Environmental “crisis” or tragedy is pending
- Land clearing can stabilize- New forms of environmental
stewardship
6.2 Policy matrix: factors affecting agricultural prod uctionPOLICY ARENA CONSTRAINING FACTOR/ PROCESSES SOURCE FAC TORWEATHER • Droughts, flooding
• Mitigation/irrigationExternal Technology
LAND TRANSFERS AND TENURE
• Reduced sizes/area planted (some crops)• Land disputes and conflicts• Tenure security
Wider policy
Land tenure
New resource & production structure; tenure
INPUTS USE
• Agro-industrial supply bottlenecks (Seed, fertilizer, agro-chemicals)
• Distribution bottlenecks (markets/transport)• Access/affordability (credit)
Macro-econ and agricultural policy
constraint
Technology &
capital
FARMER SKILLS AND ORGANIZATION
• Skills “deficit”• Extension services deficiency• New farmer organization
Micro-institutional Extension
Training
FARM INVESTMENTS AND FINANCING
• On-farm infrastructure/irrigation deficits• Domestic financing models/deficiency
- State (Credit/subsidies): inadequate- Private (credit/sub-contract):
inadequate• External financing (BoP loss)
- Retreat of merchants (tobacco, hort) - Bretton Woods/Bi-lateral loans loss
• Smallholder recovery aid deficits
Macro-econ policy
Deficiency & negative external policies (isolation/ratings)
Finance
System shift
Reduced lending
MARKETS LOSS
• Marketing channels control/monopolies (capacity, incoherence, infeasible)
• Price controls: Unviable/infeasible• External agricultural markets loss(horticulture; beef; etc)
• Tourists (image) and multipliers loss
• Trade restrictions, smuggling
External policies and economic policy incoherence
Roles of
state,
markets; external relations
6.3 Moving Forward: Framing1. Context• Political Aspect: National healing; Integration; De epen Democracy and Rights • Economic Policy Framework: Liberalised Prices, Trad e and Capital Account• Normalise international relations: isolation, finan cial sanctions and more aid
2. Land Reform Irreversibility and Accountability F ramework � Adapt new land holding structure to address exclusi ons/equity
(Gender, farm workers, ethnicity, landless poor, whites and foreign)
� Strengthen Tenure System Transformed: Diverse form s need security
(leases, permits; freeholds; C. areas)- Secure rights (use, transfer, exclusion and collate rability- Capable, equitable land administration/adjudication (protection)
� Sustainable Land Use Regulation
- Agricultural land use regulation and incentives- Natural resource management systems (conservancies, forestry)
� Compensation for acquired farms needs negotiation
3. Agrarian Reform: Bi-Modal Agrarian Strategy?
� Promote diverse production and marketing systems; n ational interests
- Liberalisation of inputs and outputs markets (less parastatal monopoly) - Reform of state interventions (marketing, new subsi dies; public support)- Mediate correlation of class forces and capital