CHAPTER 1

BACKGROUND

Ginger, a very useful herb plant, is said to be originated from

India, China and Java, yet is also native to Africa and the West

Indies. It is grown throughout the tropical areas of the world

and also commonly found in South East Asia especially in Indo-

Malaysia. The main producer of ginger is Jamaica. Ginger is

scientifically named as Zingiber officinale Roscoe. On 1807, an

English botanist, William Roscoe (1753-1831) named the plant as

Zingiber officinale in his publications. Ginger has been used for

a few purposes since very early times. It is used as a medicine

since many years ago. It is also widely used as a cooking herb,

condiment, spice and home remedy for a long time ago. In

medicinal uses, the ginger root is an effective treatment for

nausea caused by motion sickness or other sickness. This kind of

medical usage was found by earlier researchers, D.B. Mourey and

D.E. Clayson. For morning sickness, it is not recommended to take

the ginger root because morning sickness commonly associated with

pregnancy. Ginger extract also has long been used in traditional

medical practices to decrease inflammation.

Today, many herbalists use ginger to help treat health problems

associated with inflammation, such as arthritis, bronchitis, and

ulcerative colitis. To shorten the story, ginger oil is used in

the treatment of fractures, rheumatism, arthritis, bruising,

carbuncles, nausea, hangovers, travel and sea sickness, colds and

flu, catarrh, congestion, coughs, sinusitis, sores on the skin,

1

sore throat, diarrhea, colic, cramps, chills and fever. Besides

that, ginger oil is used for cooking, as a flavoring for cookies,

biscuits and cake, and it is the main flavor in ginger ale, a

sweet, carbonated, non-alcoholic beverage.

In Zingiber officinale Roscoe, there are many constituents such

as acids, shoagaols, gingerol, essential oils, fiber, amino acids

and minerals. There are two ways of extraction, that is using

steam distillation and solvent extraction. In order to get

oleoresin, solvent extraction technique is used but to obtain

essential oil, steam distillation technique is used.

Steam distillation method is used for temperature sensitive

material like natural aromatic compounds. For this method, there

is no solvent is used to extract the material but pure water is

the main component to do it.

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Today, the essential oil from the ginger is widely used and the

most important is that the ginger oil is used in medical field

for a few sicknesses and the ginger flavor is containing aromatic

and pungent component which is important in the flavor

industries. The pungent components in ginger are proven

beneficial in treating health problems.

There is insufficient production of essential oil from ginger

rhizomes. This leads to serious health problems and financials.

2

This causes increased sickness and financial crisis of the

country.

In other hand, lack of recovery system is leads to improper

recovery of pungent and aromatic in flavour industry. This causes

decreases products with pungent and aromatic.

So, to solve these impacts, the project focuses on sufficient

product by extraction of essential oil from ginger rhizomes by

using steam distillation method.

1.2 OBJECTIVE

1.2.1 General Objective

Produce essential oils from the ginger rhizome using steam

distillation method.

1.2.2 Specific Objectives

Studying the effect of surface area of the ginger to get higher

yield.

Comparing the fresh and dry ginger rhizomes for extraction of

essential oil.

Analyzing the product using GC. This study is focus on using the

gas chromatography (GC) to analyze the essential oil from raw

material.

1.3 Introductions

Essential oils contain highly volatile substances that are

isolated by a physical method or process from plants of a single

botanical species. The oils normally bear the name of the plant

species from which they are derived. Essential oils are so termed

as they are believed to represent the very essence of odor and

3

flavor. Essential oil plants and culinary herbs include a broad

range of plant species that are used for their aromatic value as

flavorings in foods and beverages and as fragrances in

pharmaceutical and industrial products. Essential oils derive

from aromatic plants of many genera distributed worldwide. [1]

Steam distillation is used in the extraction of Essential Oil

from the plant material. It is a special type of distillation or

a separation process for temperature sensitive materials like

oils, resins, hydrocarbons, etc. which are insoluble in water and

may decompose at their boiling point. The fundamental nature of

steam distillation is that it enables a compound or mixture of

compounds to be distilled at a temperature substantially below

that of the boiling point(s) of the individual constituent(s).

Essential Oil contains components with boiling points up to 200°C

or higher temperatures. In the presence of steam or boiling

water, however, these substances are volatilized at a temperature

close to 100°C, at atmospheric pressure. [2]

Ginger’s essential oil is extracted by steam distillation from

the root of the plant. It is often blended with other essential

oils to produce many different mixtures for many different

ailments.

Analysis of Essential Oil is done by using Gas Chromatography

with Mass Spectrometer. The qualitative and quantitative analysis

is done to know the constituents in the oil and the percentage of

components present in the oil respectively, by doing so we can

know the purity of that particular oil.[3]

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GINGER

5

Ginger is the underground stem (rhizome) of a perennial herb,

which is used as a spice and as a preserve. The knobby rhizome is

dug up when the 1 meter tall leaves and stems of the plant

wither, which occurs between 6 and 12 months after planting. It

is then prepared for market by either scalding, to produce black

ginger, or by scraping and washing to produce white ginger. It is

sold in the fresh condition or, more frequently, in a peeled and

split dried form. Ginger is utilized widely as a spice, for

pickles, candies and as a medicinal herb. It can be produced in

many countries but it does best in moist, tropical conditions.

2.1.1 Forms of ginger

Ginger is usually available in three different forms:

• Fresh (green) root ginger

• Preserved ginger in brine or syrup

• Dried ginger spice.

Fresh ginger is usually consumed in the area where it is

produced, although it is possible to transport fresh roots

internationally. Both mature and immature rhizomes are consumed

as a fresh vegetable.

Preserved ginger is only made from immature rhizomes. Most

preserved ginger is exported. Hong Kong, China and Australia are

the major producers of preserved ginger and dominate the world

market. Making preserved ginger is not simple as it requires a

great deal of care and attention to quality. Only the youngest

(tender) stems of ginger should be used. It is difficult to

compete with the well established Chinese and Australian

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producers; therefore processors are advised against making this

product.

Dried ginger spice is produced from the mature rhizome. As the

rhizome matures the flavour and aroma become much stronger. Dried

ginger is exported, usually in large pieces which are ground into

a spice in the country of destination. Dried ginger can be ground

and used directly as a spice and also for the extraction of

ginger oil and ginger oleoresin. This brief outlines the

important steps that should be taken pre-harvest and post-harvest

to produce dried ginger.

2.1.2 General composition of the ginger rhizome

The ginger rhizome has the following chemical composition:

60% starch,

10% proteins,

10% fats,

5% fibers,

6% inorganic material,

10% residual moisture,

1-4% essential oil

2.2.1 Chemistry of ginger

The chemistry of Z. officinale has been the subject of sporadic

study since the early 19 century. In common with some other

pungent spices, considerable advances were made in the early part

of the 20th century, but it has only been in recent years that a

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fairly clear understanding of the relationship of its chemical

composition to its organoleptic properties has emerged. Ginger

like pepper (piper nigrum) and the fruits of the capsicum spices,

owes its characteristics organoleptic properties to two classes

of constituents: the odour and much of the flavour of ginger is

determined by the constituents of its steam-volatile oil, while

the pungency is produced by non-steam-volatile components, known

as the gingerols, which passes a 1- (4’-hyroxy-3’-methoxyphenyl)-

5-hydroxylkan-3-one structure.

2.1.3 Ginger Benefits

Ginger had always been used as medicines, or herbs and various

other purposes. Ginger may stimulate the digestive glands, both

to raise the appetite and digestion. Ginger is used as a

seasoning especially efficacious to increase appetite, strengthen

the stomach, and improves digestion. Oil of ginger contains

gingerol a distinctive fragrant ginger, efficacious to prevent

and treat nausea and vomiting, for example due to motion sickness

in women who are pregnant or younger. Also the taste is sharp

stimulating appetite, strengthens intestinal muscles, helping to

remove intestinal gas and help the heart function. In traditional

Asian medicine, ginger is used to treat colds, coughs, and

diarrhea, arthritis and bone diseases such as arthritis. Ginger

is also used to enhance the cleansing of the body through sweat.

2.2 Ginger oil

8

Fresh ginger oil is a light green or yellow mobile liquid,

possessing a characteristic aromatic odour of the spice. It is

produced by steam distillation from the dried rhizome of zingiber

official Rose.

The main constituents of the oil are sesquiterpenes and it lacks

pungency. Ginger oil is used primarily as a flavor in bakery

goods, cakes, ginger snaps, and spice snaps, as well as in soft

drinks of the ginger-oil type and in condiment mixtures.

2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Ginger Oil

Physical properties

The essential oils are practically insoluble in water, generally

lighter than water, and possess characteristic odor.

Table: 1 physical property of ginger oil.

Appearance Pale yellow liquid. Odor Characteristic spicy somewhat pungent ginger

odor. Solubility Soluble in alcohol and oils. Insoluble in

waterSpecific gravity 0.870-0.882@20℃Optical rotation -47 to -28@20℃Flash point 57℃Boiling point 97.5 ℃Chemical properties

Ginger essential oil is chemically instable, for example,

polymerizing easily happens to zingiberene under steam

distillation;

9

the sesquiphellandrene turns into aryl-turmeric.so some of

the ingredients will change during storage: geraniol and

geraniol acetate will decrease;

Nerolidol and β-geranial will increase.

The heated gingerol will be dehydrated and becomes

zingiberene. Therefore, the viscosity of ginger essential

oil increases under the oil is exposed to light and air for

long time, which forms non-volatile polymer residues,

reducing the optical rotation.

When the temperature exceeds 90 ℃, the compositions and

flavor of ginger essential oil occurs harmful changes.

Structure of gingerol

2.3 Essential oil of ginger

The aroma and flavour of ginger are determined by the composition

of its steam volatile oil, which is comprised mainly of

sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, monoterpene hydrocarbons and

oxygenated monoterpenes. The monoterpene constituents are

believed to the most important contributors to the aroma of

ginger and they tend to be relatively more abundant in the 10

natural oil of the fresh (green) rhizome than in the essential

oil distilled from dried ginger.

Oxygenated sesquiterpenes are minor constituents of the volatile

oil but appear to be significant contributors to its flavour

properties.

Investigations of the aroma and flavour of ginger have been

carried out almost exclusively on the steam-distilled essential

oil obtained from dried ginger. However, it should be appreciated

that this oil differs somewhat in its composition and

organoleptic properties from the natural volatile oil present in

dried ginger prior to distillation through the formation of

artefacts during the distillation process and subsequent storage.

2.4 Usage and application of Ginger Oil

As an essential oil with physiological activity, ginger essential

oil can be used as cosmetics and fragrances, food, spices and

herbs. Therefore, ginger essential oil has broad prospects for

application in food and cosmetic industries.

2.4.1 Foods

The aroma of ginger oil is pleasant and not spicy, which is

mainly used in foods, drinks, non-alcoholic refreshing beverages,

baked goods, special sweet wine and ginger beer, ginger wine and

other alcoholic flavors, seasonings, natural food flavorings;

also the raw material used in cigarette flavor. Besides that,

ginger oil is used for cooking, as a flavoring for cookies,

biscuits and cake, and it is the main flavor in ginger ale.

2.4.2 Cosmetics

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The aroma of ginger oil is strong, warm, and spicy with slight

lemon flavor, meanwhile with some characteristic flower aroma,

the source of aroma compounds and types is valuable for the

application development of cosmetics. Ginger essential oil is a

good choice to use in cosmetics, especially as flavor raw

material of men's perfumes, particularly oriental male cosmetics

(perfume).

2.4.3 Functional Foods

Due to its characteristic aroma and taste, ginger essential oil

can be used as a high quality concentrated flavoring material

alternative to traditional spicy raw materials used in food

processing and cooking; ginger essential oil has many

bioactivities assisting preventing modern civilization

diseases. Thus, the development of ginger in the field of

functional foods is also promising, especially as functional

seasonings, functional foods and even the entire food industry.

2.4.4 Pharmaceuticals

Ginger essential oil is helpful in dispelling cold desiccant,

dispelling wind and relieving pain, warming the meridians,

preventing and treating motion sickness of auto, vessel and

aircraft, anti-aging. Recent studies show that terpene compounds

in ginger oil are helpful to protect gastric mucosa and anti-

ulcer; and ginger essential oil has inhibitory effect on the

central nervous system; ginger oil also has anti-inflammatory

effect. Also Ginger oil is used in the treatment of fractures,

rheumatism, arthritis, bruising, carbuncles, nausea, hangovers,

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travel and sea sickness, colds and flu, catarrh, congestion,

coughs, sinusitis, sores on the skin, sore throat, diarrhea,

colic, cramps, chills and fever. Therefore, ginger essential oil

has a high medicinal value; the pharmaceutical applications are

extremely extensive.

2.5 Ginger oil production process

The fresh rhizome is harvested at between 8 to 9 months of age.

The roots and leaves are removed and the rhizomes are washed.

Washing the rhizomes are soaked for 2-3 hours in clean water then

soaked in a solution of 1.5-2.0% lime (calcium oxide) for 6

hours. This produces a lighter coloured (bleached) rhizome. After

soaking, the rhizomes are drained.

The rhizomes are dried until a final moisture content of 10%.

During drying, the rhizomes lose between 60 and 70% in weight.

Tray drier should be used to accelerate the drying process.

Sliced ginger pieces take only 5-6 hours to dry when a hot air

drier is used. It is important to monitor the air flow and

temperature during drying. The drying temperature should not

exceed 60°C as this causes the rhizome flesh to darken.

After drying, the rhizomes are cleaned to remove any dirt and

insects. An air separator can be used for large quantities, but

at the small scale it is probably not cost effective.

The dried rhizomes should be packaged into air-tight, moisture

proof packaging for storage. Dried rhizomes, slices and splits

should be stored in a cool place (10-15°C). At higher

temperatures (23-26°C) the flavour compounds start to deteriorate

13

and ginger loses some of its taste and aroma. The storage room

should be dry and away from the direct sunlight. During storage

the rhizomes should be protected from attack by insects and other

pests. The storage room should be clean, dry, cool and free from

pests. Mosquito netting should be fitted on the windows to

prevent pests and insects from entering the room. Strong smelling

foods, detergents and paints should not be stored in the same

room.

Then dried rhizomes ginger send to distillation column to produce

essential oil. The best ginger oil is obtained from whole

rhizomes that are unpeeled. Ginger oil is obtained using a

process of steam distillation. The dried rhizomes are ground to a

coarse powder and loaded into a still. Steam is passed through

the powder, which extracts the volatile oil components. The steam

is then condensed with cold water. As the steam condenses, the

oils separate out of the steam water and can be collected. It is

re-distilled to get the maximum yield of oil. The yield of oil

from dried ginger rhizomes is between 1.5 to 3.0%. The remaining

rhizome powder contains about 50% starch and can be used for

animal feed. It is sometimes dried and ground to make an inferior

spice.

2.6 Common techniques of extraction of ginger oils

Hydro distillation

Hydro diffusion

Steam distillation

Solvent extraction

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2.6.1 Hydro distillation

The technique involves distillation of water that is in direct

contact with fresh or sometimes dried macerated plant materials.

Plant material is grinded and weighed, then transferred into the

Clevenger set up. Plant material is heated in two to three times

its weight of water with direct steam. The distillation vessel is

heated over heating mantle and the water vapour and oil are

removed through a water cool condenser.

Advantage

It is necessary for the efficient distillation of certain

woody materials e.g. sandalwood and cinnamon barks

Disadvantages

The process is slow and the distillation time is much longer

thereby consuming more firewood or fuel making process

uneconomical. Variable rate of distillation due to difficult

control of heat extraction of the herb is not always

complete. Also the possibility exists for local overheating

and "burning" of the charge which can lead to poorer quality

oil not suitable for large capacity or commercial scale

distillations not suitable for high boiling hardy roots or

woody plant materials oldest and most primitive method.

2.6.2 Hydro diffusion

Hydro diffusion is a method of extracting essential oils in which

steam at atmospheric pressure (low-pressure steam <0-1 bar) is

15

passed through the plant material from the top of the extraction

chamber, thus resulting in the oils that retain the original

aroma of the plants.

Advantage

Hydro-diffusion over distillation is that the process is

quicker, especially for fibrous material such as woods and

barks

Disadvantage

The resultant oils are reported to have a superior aroma and

a richer colour obtained by ordinary distillation.

Nevertheless, oils captured by hydro-diffusion process are

not widely available.

2.6.3 Steam distillation

This is the most common method of extracting oils and Steam

distillation is the preferred method for all essential oils

produced in large quantity. Direct steam distillation is the most

efficient method. In this method instead of making the steam in

the kettle it is prepared in a boiler and then passed through the

bed of ginger at a certain pressure. The steam extracts most of

the essential oil and hence, this method is most economical and

quick. Steam is added and passed through the plant that contains

the plants aromatic molecules or oils. Once upon, the plant

releases these aromatic molecules and in the state, the fragrant

molecules travel within a closed system towards the cooling

device. Cold water is used to cool vapours. As they cool, they

condense and transform into a liquid state.

16

Advantages

Steam is widely used because of its high latent heat of

evaporation, relatively cheaper and widely available high

oil and reproducible yields, faster, lesser fuel the field

distillation / portable / directly fired type units based on

this techniques due to their very simple construction, low

cost and easy operation field distillation units are

extremely popular with essential oil producers in developing

countries. Such field units generally have capacities to

hold 100 kg to 2000 kg plant material. Furnace is mostly

fueled by locally available fire wood, straw or spent and

dried plant material which is being distilled.

Disadvantages

The temperature of the extraction chamber cannot be too

high, lest some components of the oil be altered or

destroyed. It can be seen from the experimental work done

that there is an art to distillation and that, especially

for low yield plants, much skill is needed. Time consuming

as low pressure steam oil separation is incomplete.

2.6.4 Solvent extraction

This method involves the extraction of the oils from the oil

bearing materials with the use of solvent. Solvent used depends

on the part of the plant to be used for extraction. For instance,

leaves, roots, fruits are extracted with benzene with or without

mixture of acetone or petroleum ether, in the cold or at boiling

point while flowers are extracted with ethers. The solvent enters

17

the plant to dissolve the oil waxes and colour. After the

extraction, the solvent is removed by distillation under reduced

pressure leaving behind the semisolid concentrate, this

concentrate are extracted with absolute ethanol. The second

extract is cooled to precipitate the waxes and then filtered.

This wax free alcoholic solution is distilled under reduced

pressure to remove alcohol and finally the essential oil.

Advantages

It can be performed at ambient temperature.

it is relatively energy efficient

it can be applied to separations involving thermally

unstable molecules

Disadvantages

Extraction solvent is needed.

Extra equipment is needed for recovery of solvent.

Some solvent may remained in the product.

Complete recovery of the solvent is difficult.

It take long time

Environmentally polluted because some solvent released to

environment

2.7 The selection criteria of steam distillation

Steam distillation is a relatively cheap process to operate at a

basic level, and the properties of oils produced by this method

are not altered.

As steam reduces the boiling point of a particular component of

the oil, it never decomposes in this method.

18

This method apart from being economical, it is also relatively

faster than other methods

It will not use any solvent and can make it safer than other

processes.

2.8 Technology of essential oil extraction from ginger rhizomes

Dry ginger shall first be milled by grinder to the required mesh

size. Steam distillation is the preferred method for all

essential oils produced in large quantities. The steam, produced

in a boiler is introduced into an evaporation vessel which

contains the ginger powder and water. The ginger powder is

located on a grid placed at a certain distance above the level of

the water which fills the bottom of the vessel. The water is

vaporized indirectly, by steam flowing in a pipe coil submerged

by the water. The water vapour, plus the distilled oil coming

from the evaporator vessel is recovered in a separate water

cooled condenser.

This mixture flowing out of the condenser is separated by

decantation in a Florentine flask. The essential oil is collected

at the top and distilled water leaves the flask at the bottom of

the flask. As water still contains some soluble parts of the oil,

it is sent back to the evaporator vessel to recover the soluble

components by means of second distillation (Noble and Terry,

2004).

19

20

21

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 METHODOLOGY

3.1.1 Material

Ginger rhizome was used in this project. The ginger rhizome is

obtained from locally found market. The collected samples were

washed thoroughly with water to remove earthy matter. Then they

were dried. Finally the dried ginger was cut to 2-5 cm flat chips

with heavy knives.

3.1.2 Extraction methods

The extraction can be conducted with or without solvent.

Extraction with solvent is less quality and highly economical.

But, to get the essential oil, extraction through steam

distillation is the most used method. Without any solvent, pure

water is used at its boiling point as steam to extract the

essential oil from ginger. The steam will help to release the

aromatic molecules from the ginger. The steam must be carefully

controlled. It is because to control the ginger from burning and

lost its purity.

3.2 LABORATORY FRAME WORK

3.2.1 Production Process of ginger oil by using steam

distillation

Harvest

The time of harvest after planting depends on the end-use. For

fresh products and preserves, one should harvest rhizomes while

22

they are still tender, low in pungency and fiber content,

therefore before they are fully mature. Harvest for dried spices

and oil is best at full maturity, when the leaves turn yellow;

leaving the rhizomes in the ground past that stage may reduce

pungency and oil content, and increase the fiber content. Maximum

oil contents are between 150 and 170 days after planting. The

maximum essential oil content was reached after 28 weeks on a

fresh-weight basis. Time from planting to maturity may be highly

affected by the type of soil in which ginger is grown.

In summary, the best harvest time for essential oil production:

8-9 months. Harvest for planting material is further delayed

until the leaves are completely dried out. Harvest is by manually

lifting the rhizomes from the soil that may have been loosening

at first. Harvest may be fully mechanized using special

equipment; the crop must be planted in such way that interspacing

between rows is adapted to equipment. Care should always be taken

to assure integrity of the rhizomes during harvest and

postharvest handling.

Washing, “killing”

Fresh rhizomes should be washed, and cleaned from debris, shoots

and roots. When available, pressure washing is preferred as it is

more efficient and tends to reduce the microbial load. Immersion

in boiling water, which also inactivates enzymatic processes

Soaking

The rhizomes may be bleached to improve appearance. After

washing, rhizomes are first soaked in water for 2 to 3 hours,

23

then steeped in a solution of 1.5 to 2.0% lime (calcium oxide)

for 6 hours, then drained and dried. This procedure is used when

a light bright color is desired.

Slicer

To minimize drying time ginger should be sliced by using a rotary

knife cutter. If the ginger is sliced, it takes only 5 to 6 hours

by using a cross-flow drier, while it takes 16 to 18 hours to dry

scraped whole ginger using the same equipment and conditions.

Drying

It is then dried in electrically operated tray drier at a

temperature of about 60oC. Even if ginger is to be used for

extraction purposes, this temperature is advisable as oil

contents in ginger are not affected till 80oC. Drying time is 24

hours in cross flow type drier and 14 hours in through-flow

drier. Average yield after drying is around 25%. Peeling or

scraping is not advisable because this process decreases the

fiber content by removing the outside corky skin, it also tends

to remove some of the oils constituents, as they are more

concentrated in the peel, and therefore reduces some of the

pungency. Drying should be done to 8-10% moisture, and should not

exceed 12%. Expected weight loss during drying is 60-70% ginger.

Cleaning and drying procedures should be done as fast as possible

after harvest to ensure minimum loss from microbial

contamination, mold growth and fermentation.

Separator and coarse grinder

24

An air screen separator will help remove dead insects, excreta

and extraneous matter, while a rotary knife cutter with a screen

separator will help remove residual insects and other extraneous

matter.

Packaging

Bulk rhizomes may be packed in jute sacks, wooden boxes or lined

corrugated cardboard boxes for storage. Dried ginger coarse are

packed in polythene bags and sealed. Dry course or powders are

packaged in multi-wall laminated bags. Some laminates are better

than others due to film permeability. The packaging material

should be impermeable to moisture and air. Sealing machines can

be used to seal the bags.

Storage

Dried rhizomes, slices and splits should be stored in a cool

place (10-15°C). At higher temperatures (23-26°C) the flavor

compounds start to deteriorate and ginger loses some of its taste

and aroma. The storage room should be dry and away from the

direct sunlight. During storage the rhizomes should be protected

from attack by insects and other pests. Natural pesticides such

as the leaves of Glycosmis pentaphylla or Azadirachta indica can

be added to the

Rhizomes to prevent damage from the cigarette beetle (Lasioderma

serricome). The storage room should be clean, dry, cool and free

from pests. Mosquito netting should be fitted on the windows to

prevent pests and insects from entering the room. Strong smelling

25

foods, detergents and paints should not be stored in the same

room.

Distillation

Ginger oil may be produced from fresh or dried rhizomes. Oil from

dried rhizomes will have less of the low boiling point volatile

compounds since they tend to evaporate during the drying process.

The difference between oils produced from fresh and dried

rhizomes can be seen in the citral content, usually lower in the

oil from dried plant material. Additionally, unpeeled or coated

rhizomes are preferably used for oil extraction to improve yield.

For steam distillation, dried rhizomes are ground to a coarse

powder and loaded into a still. The extractor for this process

will have three main parts. First, the steam will be supplied

into the vessel. The steam will contact to the raw material and

force the essential oils out of its raw material. Second, a

condenser will be used to change the mixture of vapors to be two

separated layer of water and essential oil. This two separated

mixture occurs because of the different in density. Lastly, the

mixture of water and essential oil will be collected in a vessel.

Oil yield from dried rhizomes is generally from 1.5% to 3.0%. The

rhizome powder stripped from its oil is made of about 50% starch

and may be used as livestock feed. It may also be further dried

and powdered to produce an inferior spice (4).

Separation process

Essential oil is separated from the water based on their density

difference. This mixture flowing out of the condenser is

26

separated by decantation in a Florentine flask. The essential oil

is collected at the top and distilled water leaves the flask at

the bottom of the flask. As water still contains some soluble

parts of the oil, it is sent back to the evaporator vessel to

recover the soluble components by means of second distillation.

Harvesting rhizomes at 8-9 months (dried ginger)

Washing

Soaking in water 6-12 hours

Peeling/scraping Washing

Drying

Bleaching

Drying

Storage

Steam distillation

27

Ginger oil

Figure 2: Block diagram of the extraction of essential oil from

ginger rhizome

3.3 Materials used in the laboratory

Materials:

Steam distillation

Pipe nozzle

Plastic pipes for water pump

Heating element

Drying oven

Cutter knife

Raw Materials:

Ginger (Zingiber Officinale)

Lime(CaO)

Water

Other materials:

Temperature gauges

Electrical wires

Contactor with liquid level controller

Stop watch

Weighing balance

Measuring cylinder

3.4 Experimental procedures

3.4.1 Experimental setup for steam distillation

First of all, Fresh rhizomes should be washed and cleaned

from debris, shoots and roots.

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The fresh ginger soaked with water for 2-3 hr

Then soak with 2% lime concentration for 5-6 hr

Ginger is cut into smaller pieces with the help of a cutting

knife.

After cutting of ginger, pieces or slice are dried in oven

for 5-6 hr at a temperature of 60oC and up to their moisture

content reaches 10%

Then the dried ginger is coarsely grinded by grinder or

cutter. Then fed the perforated bed to inside of the column

which their mass is 150g

After preparing the bed, the outlet of the column is

connected to a water cooler and the outlet of the condenser

is connected to the collecting flask.

29

Figure 3: steam distillation settled for extraction

essential oil

The steam at is passed into the column from the bottom. The

steam passed through the pores of the ginger bed and

extracts the volatile oil with it. This extractor is

carried out until hole of the volatile oil is extracted by

using 4lit of water to generate steam in the heater.

The vapor of water and oil condenses in the condenser and

falls into the collection flask. These flasks are generally

made of glass. In the flask, two layers are formed after

30

the condensed vapors are settled. Water layer remains on

lower side while oily layer floats on the water.

Oil is separated from flask by density difference or by

decantation process.

The ginger oil is packed in glass bottles. This packing is

done manually. An air tight seal is provided to prevent the

loss of oil through volatilization.

3.4.2 Experimental setup for direct heat (hydro distillation):

First of all, Fresh rhizomes should be washed and cleaned

from debris, shoots and roots.

The fresh ginger soaked with water for 2-3 hr

Then soak with 2% lime concentration for 5-6 hr

Ginger is cut into smaller pieces with the help of a cutting

knife.

After cutting of ginger, pieces or slice are dried in oven

for 5-6 hr at a temperature of 60oC and up to their moisture

content reaches 10%

Then the dried ginger is coarsely grinded by grinder or

cutter. Then fed to the hydro distillation which their mass

is 90g.

The hydro distillation is then equipped with a condenser.

After preparing the hydro distillation, the outlet of the

column is connected to a water cooler and the outlet of the

condenser is connected to the collecting flask.

31

Figure 4: hydro distillation settled for extraction of

essential oil

The vapor of water and oil condenses in the condenser and

falls into the collection flask. These flasks are generally

made of glass. In the flask, two layers are formed after the

condensed vapors are settled. Water layer remains on lower

side while oily layer floats on the water.

Oil is separated from flask by density difference or by

decantation process.

32

Figure 5: Oil and water separation flask

33

CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONLaboratory #1

What we observed that there was not water vapours and essential

oils passed to the separation flask. Due to the following

reasons:-

Low steam generating capacity of the equipment.

Leakage of the equipment, steam lost.

The height to diameter ratio is not proportional

to our sample.

Laboratory#2

Due to the failed of experiment#1 we are forced to use direct

heat to extract ginger oil from the ginger rhizomes. In this case

we observed that much amount of water vapours and less essential

oil were passed to separation flask. Also we observed that the

sliced (fined) ginger was passed with water vapour before its

essential oil was extracted and its pH was 3.5. The vapour ginger

oil was obtained from the coarse fresh ginger rhizome and there

was no transfer of ginger grinded with vapours which its pH was

5.53.Ginger’s essential oil was separated from water, its color

was pale yellow to brown and its odour was aromatic, ginger.

We got very small amount of oil. It is not desired value because

of the extraction efficiency of hydro distillation is very low.

In our case, the ginger essential oil we got from the dry ginger

has normally pale yellow colour while which obtained from fresh

ginger almost too brown colour. 34

CHAPTER 5

MATERIAL BALANCE, ENERGY BALANCE AND EQUIPMENT SIZING

5.1 Material Balance

Basis: Taking 1day of operation

Generally in our material balance calculation we use upstream

approach because of the reason that we don’t know amount of raw

material required to produce a unit of product and rather we know

amount of final product to be produced.

Input + generation – output – consumption = accumulation

The following rules may be used to simplify the material balance

equation:

35

If the balanced quantity is total mass, set generation = 0 and

consumption = 0. Except in nuclear reactions mass can neither be

created nor destroyed.

If the balanced substance is non reactive species (neither a

reactant nor a product), set generation = 0 and consumption = 0

If the system is at steady state, system nothing can change with

time, including the amount of balanced quantity (5).

Therefore, input = output

Material balance at laboratory:

2kg water

1kg ginger

m1

Dr

um Washing

0.5% Impurity

x % impurity

m2

2kg water

36

Assume the efficiency of drum washer is 99.5% in removing the

impurity from fresh ginger.

Over all material balance on washer

1kg = m1+m2 ………………… (1)

Impurity removed (m2) = (1*0.995*0.005) kg

= 4.975*10-3kg

The impurity in the fresh ginger = 0.005*1kg

= 0.005kg

So, the impurity remain after washing = 0.005kg – 0.004975kg

=

0.0025kg

Substitute m2 to equation (1): 1kg = m1 + 0.004975kg

m1 = 0.995kg

x = 0.00250.995 *100 = 0.25%

Balance on water soaking

1.5kg water

0.995kg Water soaking

m3

37

1.5kg m4

Water

Assume the soaking processes removes 99.8% of the impurity

remained in the ginger.

Overall balance on water soaking:

0.995kg = m3 + m4 …………………………………. (2)

Impurity removed (m4) = 0.998 *0.0025*0.995kg = 0.002482kg

Substitute m4 to equation (2), 0.995kg = m3 + 0.002482kg

m3 =

0.9925kg

The impurity remained in the fresh ginger = 0.0025*0.995 –

0.002482kg

= 5.5*10-6kg

Material balance on lime soaking:

0.07kg lime

0.9925kg Lime m5 = 0.9924kg

0.002% impurity soaking

38

0.07kg lime m6 = 5.5*10-6kg

Here all the remaining impurity removed from fresh ginger.

So, m5 = m3 - impurity remained in the fresh ginger

m5 = 0.9925kg – 5.5*10-6kg

= 0.9924kg

m6 = 5.5*10-6kg

If 2% lime is required for soaking. So, the amount of CaO

required by distilled water to make lime can be calculated as:

2kg = 100kg

X = 0.9924kg

X = 2kg∗0.9924kg100kg = 0.02kg

Therefore 0.02kg calcium oxide is required to make lime with

distilled water.

Material balance on dryer:

From the literature review the fresh ginger after drying lose its

weight from 60-70%.

Taking the average 65% weight loses.

0.9924 kg Dryer m7

m8

Over all material balance: 39

0.9924kg = m7 + m8…………………………………………… (3)

Weight lose after drying (m8) = 0.65*0.9924kg

m8 = 0.645kg

Substitute m8 in equation (3):- 0.9924kg-0.645kg = m7

m7 = 0.347kg

Material balance on hydro distillation:

For 1kg dried and sliced ginger 4kg water is required to

generate steam. 65% of the water that enter to steam generator

converts to steam and the remaining water left in the steam

generator. The process runs four hours per batch. So, we have two

batches per a day. Since the process runs eight hours in a day.

Therefore, mass per batch: 0.347kg2batch = 0.174kg/batch

The water required to steam generator for one day:

1kg = 4kg

0.347kg = x kg

x = 0.347kg∗4kg1kg = 1.4kg

Therefore the amount of water converted to steam by steam

generator can be calculated as:

1.4kg*0.65 = 0.91kg

The amount of steam required for one batch is: 0.91kg2batch =

0.455kg/batch

m10 (spent ginger)

40

0.174kg

hydro distillation m9

3% oil X oil

(1-x) water

Steam = 0.455kg

Overall material balance:

0.174kg +0.455kg = m9 +m10…………………………. (4)

Oil balance:

0.03 *0.174kg = x*m9………………………... (5)

Balance on spent ginger, on oil part (m10):

0.97*0.174kg = m10

m10 = 0.17kgSubstitute m10 into equation (4):-

0.174kgkg + 0.455kgkg = m9 + 0.17kg

m9 = 0.46kg

From equation (5): x = 0.03∗0.174kg0.46kg = 0.0113

41

Material balance on oil/water separator:

0.46kg oil separator m11

0.0113

m12

Assume the separator efficiency is 95%.

Overall material balance:

0.46kg = m11 + m12………………………………………. (6)

Oil balance:

0.95*0.0113*0.46kg = m11

m11 = 0.005kg

Substitute m11 into equation (6): 0.46kg – 0.005kg = m12

m12 = 0.455kg

The amount oil produced per batch is 0.005kg/batch.

So, the amount of oil produced per day = 0.005kg*2 = 0.01kg/day

5.2 Material and energy balance at industry scale:

Basis: Taking 1day of operation

Working time per year=330 days

Attainment= operatinghour∈yeartotalhour∈year

∗100 = 90.4%

Attainment is must be between 90%-95 % so, our working day is

acceptable.

6000kg water

42

3000kg Drum m1

5% impurity Washing x% impurity

m2

6000 kg water

Assume the efficiency of drum washer is 95% in removing theimpurity from fresh ginger.

Overall material balance on washer

3000kg= m1+ m2 …………….. (1)

Impurity removed (m2) = 3000*0.95*0.05

=

142.5kg

The impurity in the fresh ginger =0.05*3000kg

=150kg

So, the impurity remain after washing =150kg-142.5kg

= 7.5kg

Substitute m2 to equation (1)

3000kg=m1 +142.5kg

m1=3000kg-142.5kg

= 2857.5kg

43

X = 7.5kg2857.5kg*100 = 0.26%

Balance on water soaking

4308kg water

2857.5kg

Water soaking m3

m4

4308kg water

Assume the soaking processes removes 99% of the impurity remained in the ginger.

Overall balance on water soaking:

2857.5kg = m3 + m4……………….. (2)

Impurity removed (m4) = 0.99*0.0026*2857.5kg

= 7.35kg

Substitute m4 to equation (2), 2857.5kg = m3 + 7.35kg

m3 = 2850.15kg

The impurity remained in the fresh ginger =0.0026*2857.5kg–7.35kg = 0.0795kg

Material balance on lime soaking:

201kg lime 44

2850.15kg lime soaking

0.005% m5

201kg m6

Lime

Here all the remaining impurity removed from fresh ginger. So,

m5 = 2850.07kg m6 = 0.0795kg

If 2% lime is required for soaking. So, the amount of CaO

required by distilled water to make lime can be calculated as:

2kg = 100kg

X kg = 2850.07kg

x = 2kg∗2850.07kg100kg = 57kg. Therefore, 57kg calcium oxide is

required to make lime with distilled water.

Material balance on dryer

From the literature review the fresh ginger after drying lose its

weight from 60-70%.

Taking the average 65% weight loses.

2850.07kg

Dryer m7

45

m8

Over all material balance:

2850.07kg = m7 +m8…………………….. (3)

Weight lose after drying (m8) = 0.65*2850.07kg

= 1852.546kg

Substitute m8 equation (3): 2850.07kg-1852.546kg = m7

m7= 997.52kg

Material balance on steam distillation

Here we assume for 1kg dried and sliced ginger 15 kg water is

required to generate steam.

65% of the water that enter to steam generator converts to

steam and the remaining water left in the steam generator.

The process runs six hours per batch. So, we have four batches

per a day.

Therefore, mass per batch: 997.52kg4 = 249.38kg/batch

The water required to steam generator for one day:

1kg = 15kg

997.52kg = x

So, the amount of water required to steam generator = 14962.8kg.

Therefore the amount of water converted to steam by steam

generator can be calculated as:

14962.8kg *0.65 = 9725.82kg

The amount of steam required for one batch is:-

46

9725.82kg4 = 2431.455kg/batch

m10 spent ginger

249.38kg

steam distillation m9

3% oil

X oil

(1-x) water

Steam = 2431.455kg

Overall material balance:

249.38kg + 2431.455 = m9 + m10 …………………… (4)

Oil balance:

0.03 *249.38kg = x*m9………………………………. (5)

Balance on spent ginger, on oil part (m10):

0.97 *249.38kg = m10

m10 = 242kg

Substitute m10 to equation (4):

249.38kg +2431.455kg = m9 + 242kg

m9 = 2438.84kg

From equation (5), x = 0.03∗249.38kg2438.84kg = 3.1*10-3

47

Material balance on oil/water separator:

2438.84kg oil separator m11

0.0031

0.9969 m12

Assume the separator efficiency is 99.5%

Overall material balance:

2438.84kg = m11 + m12…………………………….. (6)

Oil balance:

0.995*0.0031*2438.84kg = 7.52kg

Substitute m1 to equation (6), 2438.84kg – 7.52kg = m12

m12 = 2431.32kg

The amount of oil produced per batch is 7.52kg/batch.

So, the amount of oil produced per day = 7.52kg*4

= 30.08kg/day

The amount of oil produced annually = 30.08 kg/day*330day/year

= 9926.4 kg/year oil

5.3 Energy balance calculation:

Balance on steam distillation:

During energy balance calculation we have to account sensible

heat of feed (Hf ), sensible heat of distillate (Hd), sensible 48

heat of spent ginger (Hd), heat lost in the condenser (Qc) and

heat supply by the steam (Qs). Let base temperature is at room

temperature i.e. 25oc. if the temperature of feed, distillate,

and bottom product will be 23oc, 100oc and 25oc.

Hd

25℃

27℃

F = 0.174kg Hf Steam Distillation

Qc

Qs

Hb 94℃

For 99.69% water /ginger oil composition specific latent heat is

2256kJ/kg. To find heat lost balance around the condenser must be

done.

49

Heat of vaporization of the vapor is the sum of latent heat of

the vapor and sensible heat to raise the temperature to the

boiling point. Sensible heat of the distillate is zero because it

is in liquid phase and exists in the base temperature i.e. ∆T=0.The specific heat capacity of ginger oil is 2000J/kg oc and

specific heat capacity of water is assumed to be 4200J/kg oc.

average water oil specific heat capacity is calculated as;

Cpavg = 0.9969*4200J/kg.℃ +0.0031*2000J/kg℃ = 4193.18J/kg ℃Sensible heat to raise the temperature at the boiling point of 97

℃ is calculated as; mdCpavg∆T=2438.84Kg*4193.18J/kg℃*(97-25)℃ = 736307648J

= 736.3MJ

Since we assumed no reflux, mvapor = mdistillate

Hv = latent heat of vaporization at boiling point + sensible heat

to raise liquid to the boiling points.

Hv = 736307.648kJ +2256kJ/kg*2438.84kg =6238.3MJ/batch

Hv= Hd+ Hl+ Qc where Hl=heat of reflux. Hd = Hl= 0

Therefore, Hv= Qc = 6238.3MJ/batch.

Assume, since it is non-reacting mixture, if all amount of

supplied heat to the steam distillation is librated at the

condenser (approximately 100% efficiency) and the steam

distillation is well insulated, therefore amount of heat supplied

will be equal to the amount of heat removed per batch.

Therefore, Qs = 6238.3MJ/batch.

50

5.4 EQUIPMENT SIZING

Sizing on drum washing unit:

6000kg water

3000kg fresh ginger Drum washer

V =?

Before calculating the capacity of drum washer it’s better to

calculate the capacity of the raw material.

Fresh ginger capacity (Vginger) = Mass of gingerdensity of ginger

ρginger = 1020kg/m3

Mass of ginger = 3000kg

= 3000kg1020kg /m3

= 2.94m3

Water volume (VWater) = Massofwater

densityofwater , mass of water =

6000kg

Density of water

= 1000kg/m3

51

Water volume (Vwater) = 6000kg

1000kg /m3 = 6m3

Vdrum washer = Vginger + Vwater

= 2.94m3 +6m3

= 8.94m3

Take volume of drum washer 9m3.

Sizing on water soaking unit: 3/2 (2857.5kg)

Water soaking

2857.5kg

Fresh ginger

V =?

Volume of fresh ginger = 2857.5kg1020kg/m3

= 2.80m3

Volume of water = 32

(2857.5kg)

1000kg/m3 = 4.3m3

Volume of soaking = Vwater + Vginger

= 4.3m3 +2.80m3

= 7.1m3

Take volume of soaking = 8m3

Sizing on lime soaking unit: 52

Before calculating the capacity of lime soaking it’s better to

calculate lime preparation unit.

57kg CaO

Lime

2850.07kg Preparation

V=?

Density of CaO = 3350kg/m3

Mass of CaO = 57kg

Volume of CaO = MassofCaODensityofCaO

= 57kg3350kg /m3 = 0.02m

3

Volume of distilled water = massofdistilledwaterdensityofdistilled water =

2850.07kg1000kg/m3

= 2.85m3

Volume of liming tank = volume of CaO + volume of distilled water

= 0.02m3 +2.85m3

= 2.87m3

Take 3m3

Sizing on lime soaking unit:

3m3

53

Lime soaking

2850.15kg unit

V=?

Volume of ginger = massofgingerdensityofginger

= 2850.15kg1020kg/m3 = 2.79m3

Volume of lime soaking unit = volume of ginger + volume of lime

tank

= 2.79m3 + 3m3

= 5.79m3

Take, 6m3

CHAPTER 6

PROFITABILITY AND COST ANALYSIS 54

6.1 Estimation of purchased equipment cost: - Estimation of

purchased equipment cost from websites of

http://matche.com/EquipCost/index.htm (Matches: Prices in 2014)

Table 2: List of purchased equipment cost

Type of

Equipment

Quant

ity

Capaci

ty

Material

of

constructi

on

Unit

of

cost($)

Total

cost ($)

Drum washer

tank

1 9m3 Carbon

steel

15800 15800

Soaking tank 1 8m3 Carbon

steel

14900 14,900

Liming soaking

tank

1 6m3 Carbon

steel

12100 12,100

Tray dryer 1 4m2 Carbon

steel

13200 13,200

Air compressor 1 125hp Carbon

steel

44600 44,600

Coarse grinder 1 D-1.5m Carbon

steel

148200 148,200

Slicer 1 D-1.5m Carbon

steel

609 60

9Cyclone cleaner 1 56m3/

min

Carbon

steel

28400 28,400

Belt conveyer 2 D-

1.5m,L

Carbon

steel

41500 83,000

55

-6mSteam

Distillation

1 2m2, L-

4m

Stainless

steel

15424 15424

Storage tank 1 11.25m3 Carbon

steel

3700 3700

Total 379,933

6.2 Total Capital Investment TCI = FCI + WC (6)

Estimation of fixed capital investment:

Purchased equipment, E=$379,933

Purchased equipment installation 30%E = $113,980

Installation include insulation & paint 25% E = $94,983

Instrumentation (installed), 15%E = $56,990

Electrical installed, 20% E = $75,987

Piping (installed), 20%E = $75,987

Buildings including services, 35 % E = $132,977

Yard improvement and Service facilities installed, 45%E =

$170,970

Land, 4% E = $15,197

Total direct plant cost (D) = $1,117,004

Indirect costs

Engineering and Supervision, 10 % of D = $111,700

Construction expenses & Contractors fee’s 12% of D =$134,040

Contingency, 6% of FCI = $0.06FCI

Total indirect plant cost (I) =$111,700+ $134,040+ $ 0.06FCI

56

Total direct and indirect cost, D+I =$1,117,004+ $111,700+

$134,040+ $ 0.06FCI

Fixed capital investment = D+I

FCI = $1,362,744 + $ 0.06FCI

=> FCI – 0.06FCI = $1,362,744

FCI = $1,362,7440.94 = $1,449,728

Therefore total indirect cost = $111,700+ $134,040+ $ 0.06FCI

= $111,700+

$134,040+0.06 *$1,449,728

= $332,724

TCI=FCI+WC, since working capital cost= (10-20) % of total

capital investment

TCI =FCI+0.12TCI

TCI=FCI/0.88 =$1,449,7280.88 = $1,647,418

WC = TCI – FCI

= $1,647,418 - $1,449,728

= $197,690

6.3 Total Product CostManufacturing cost

Manufacturing cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges +

Plant overhead cost.

A. Fixed Charges: (10-20% total product cost)

57

i. Depreciation: (depends on life period, salvage value and

method of calculation-about 10% of FCI for machinery and

equipment and 2-3% for building value for buildings)

Consider depreciation = 10% of FCI for machinery

= 0.1*

$1,449,728 = $144,973

ii. Local Taxes: (1-4% of fixed capital investment) Consider

the local taxes of 2% of fixed capital investment i.e.

Local Taxes = 0.02×$1,449,728 = $28,995

iii. Insurances: (0.4-1% of fixed capital investment) Consider

the Insurance = 0.6% of fixed capital investment i.e.

Insurance = 0.006×$1,449,728 = $8,698

Thus, Fixed Charges =depreciation +local taxes

+insurance

Fixed Charges = $144,973+$28,995+$8,698

= $182,666

B. Direct Production Cost:

Let, the total product cost be TPC

Raw Materials: (10-50% of total product cost). Consider the cost

of raw materials = 12% of total product cost

Raw material cost = $0.12TPC

Operating Labor (OL): (10-20% of total product cost).

Consider the cost of operating labor = 12% of total product cost

=

$0.12TPC

Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labor (DS & CL): (10-25% of OL).

58

Consider the cost for Direct supervisory and clerical labor = 10%

of OL

Direct supervisory and clerical labor cost = $0.10* TPC

Utilities: (10-20% of total product cost).

Consider the cost of Utilities = 10% of total product cost.

Utilities cost =$0.10 * TPC

Maintenance and repairs (M & R): (2-10% of fixed capital

investment).

Consider the maintenance and repair cost = 3% of fixed capital

investment.

Maintenance and repair cost (M &R) = 0.03*FCI

= 0.03*$1,449,728

= $43,492

Operating Supplies: (10-20% of M & R or 0.5-1% of FCI)

Consider the cost of Operating supplies = 12% of M & R

Operating supplies cost = 0.12*$43,492 = $5,219

Laboratory Charges: (10-20% of OL) Consider the Laboratory

charges = 10% of OL

(OL = 0.12TPC)

Laboratory charges = $0.012TPC

Patent and Royalties: (0-6% of total product cost).

Consider the cost of Patent and royalties = 1% of total product

cost

Patent and Royalties cost = $0.01 * TPC

Thus, Direct Production Cost (DPC) = Operating Labor (OL)

($0.12TPC) + Direct supervisory and clerical labor cost ($0.10*

59

TPC) +Utilities cost ($0.10 * TPC) +Laboratory charges

($0.012TPC) +Patent and Royalties cost ($0.01 * TPC) + raw

materials cost (0.12TPC) + operating supply cost + M&R

DPC = 0.12TPC + 0.1TPC +0.1TPC + 0.012TPC + 0.01TPC + 0.12TPC +

$5,219 + $43,492

= 0.462TPC +$5,219 + $43,492

= 0.462TPC + $48,711

Plant overhead Costs:

(50-70% of Operating labor, supervision, and maintenance or 5-15%

of total product cost); includes for the following: general

plant upkeep and overhead, payroll overhead, packaging, medical

services, safety and protection, restaurants, recreation,

salvage, laboratories, and storage facilities.

Consider the plant overhead cost = 5-15% of total product cost

Plant overhead cost = $0.06 * TPC

Thus, Manufacturing cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges

+ Plant overhead costs.

Manufacturing cost = 0.462TPC + $48,711 + $182,666 +

$0.06 * TPC

= 0.522TPC +$231,377

General expenses:

General expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and

selling costs + research and development costs

Administrative costs :( 2 – 6% of total product cost)

Consider the Administrative costs = 3% of total product cost

Administrative costs = 0.03 * TPC

60

Distribution and Selling costs: (2-20% of total product cost);

this includes costs for sales offices, salesmen, shipping, and

advertising. Consider the Distribution and selling costs = 4% of

total product cost.

Distribution and selling costs = 0.04 * TPC

Research and Development costs :( about 5% of total product

cost).

Consider the Research and development costs = 5% of total product

cost.

Research and development costs = 0.05 * TPC

General expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and

selling costs + research and development costs.

General Expenses = 0.12TPC

Total Product cost = Manufacturing cost + General Expenses

TPC = 0.522TPC +$231,377 + 0.12TPC

TPC = $231,3770.358 = $646,304

Gross earning/ income Total Income =unit selling price × Quantity of product

manufactured

Quantity of product manufactured = 9926.4kg/year

sp. gravity of essential oil = 0.882

Density of E.oil = 882kg/m3

Quantity of product manufactured = 9926.4kg/yr882kg/m3

61

=

11.25442m3/yr (11254.42Lit/yr)

Total Income = $100/Lit × (11254.42Lit /yr)

= $1,125,442

Gross income = Total Income – Total Product Cost

= $1125, 442- $646,304

= $479,138

Gross income including depreciation = Gross income –

depreciation

Depreciation = (FCI–Salvagevalue,VS)Lifeperiod assume VS = 0 and life

period = 10 yrs

Depreciation = $1449728−010 = $144,973

Gross income including depreciation =$479,138 - $144,973

=

$334165

Let the Tax rate be 35%

Net Profit = Gross income including depreciation (1- Tax rate)

Net Profit =$334,165(1 – 0.35)

= $217,207

Average net profit = (1 /N)∑1

11Npi

= (1/10)10*$217,207

= $217,207

6.4 Profitability standard 62

a. Minimum acceptable rate of return (MAR)

Minimum acceptable rate of return (MAR) for new capacity with

established corporate with low levels of risk =12%

b. Rate of Return on investment:

Rate of return = ( NetprofitTotalproductinvestment×100

Rate of Return = $217,2071,647,418×100

Rate of Return = 13.2%

Since ROI≥MAR ↔13.2% ¿ 12%, the project is feasiblec. Pay back and Pay back reference

Pay back

Pb = depreciableFCI

avgnetprofit /yr+avgdepreciation/yr

Pb =(FCI−VS)

avgnetprofit /yr+avgdepreciation/yr

Pb= ($1449728–0)

$217,207+$144,973 = 4yrs.

Pay back reference:

Pbref = 0.85

MAR+0.85/n

= 0.850.12+0.85/10

= 4.15year

Therefore, Pbref¿Pb, 4.15¿ 4, so the project is acceptable

d. Net present worth (NPW)

NPW = ∑1

10(1+i)n(NPj + dj +recj) – TCI

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NPjavg = $217,207 & djavg = $144,973

Annual cash flow(R) = NPjavg + djavg

R = $362,180

P =R(1+i)n−1i(1+i)n

+ recovery ((1+i)−n

recj =salvage value + working capital

= 0 + $197,690

= $197,690

P = $362,180(1+0.12)10−10.12(1+0.12)10

+ $197,690 (1+0.12)−10 ,

where i = MAR = 12%

P = $3,018,164+ $63,651

= $3081815

Therefore NPW = P– TCI = $3,081,815 -$1,647,418

= $1,434,397

Since the value is positive the investment is

acceptable and feasible.

6.5 PLANT LOCATION

We want to erect the plant on the southern nation’s nationalities

regional state (SNNRS) capital city of Hawassa.

The reasons what we selected this place is due to the following:-

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Cheap and high availability of raw material.

High availability of water supply.

High availability of labor force.

Accessibility of transportation.

Availability of land.

Good climate

6.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS

During the extraction of essential oil there are some gaseous and

liquid wastes those may harm the environment. These emissions are

to be arising from unit operations of raw material preparation

and steam distillation.

The major emissions found in extraction of ginger essential oil

plant are:

The volatile of spent ginger arise from distiller and

Waste water from many unit operations

It is better to use pollution control system to reduce the

volatile of spent ginger from the extraction process. And also

waste water has to be controlled by waste water treatment method.

A more sophisticated form of process control involves using a

continuous monitoring system and feedback control. In such a

system, process parameters are monitored, and the information is

sent to a computer. The computer is then used to calculate ginger

consumption rates through material balance techniques.

This type of system is feasible, but it is difficult to design

and implement.

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Such enhanced process control measures can suppress spent ginger

formation from 75 to 95 percent. This is the best option to take

measure to prevent environmental pollutants not to be occurring

than using end of pipe measurements after they formed.

Generally the environmental impact assessment of this plant has

many advantages including addition of value from recovered the

ginger left during extraction which has high starch, some amount

of protein and fibers content which are mainly use as animals

feed, and implementation of environmentally friendly plant which

don’t violates the environmental laws and regulations.

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 CONCLUSION

The significance of ginger essential oil is for physiological

activity, medicinal, cosmetics and fragrances. Therefore, the

ginger essential oil has broad prospects for application in food

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and cosmetics industries. In other hand, the ginger flavor is

containing aromatic and pungent component which is important in

the flavor industries.

Steam distillation is the most common method of extracting oils

and it is the preferred method for all essential oils produced in

large quantity. Direct steam distillation is the most efficient

method. The steam extracts most of the essential oil and hence,

this method is most economical and quick.

The recovery of both aromatic and pungent component is at the

same time has not been possible by conventional separation

process. To recover both components steam distillation is used.

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7.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

From the limitations of the equipment stated, we here by

recommend the following:

To get enough ginger oil, steam distillation should be

functioned.

To analyses the essential oil from raw material by GC should

be available and with other quality parameters like specific

density, acidic value etc.

The next generations who are volunteers to keep their project on

the similar topic to use this paper as corner stone for their

work should improve our limitations to erect this type of plant

for the fulfillment of the current needs of societies.

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REFERENCES

1. Microsoft Encarta, 2008

2. Wikipedia 2010

3. Nooramiza Binti Amiril ,”(Kurt,2006)”,Optimization

of essential oil extraction, October 2006

4. McCabe, Smith & Harriott, 2001

5. Richard M. Felder, Elementary principles of

chemical process, 3rd edition, 81-89.

6. Max S.Peters, Klauss D. Timmerhaus, Plant design and

economics for Chemical Engineers, 4th edition, 150 – 295.

7. http://matche.com/EquipCost/index.htm (Matches: Prices in

2014)

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