Analyzing Minoan Religious Turmoil
Robert Campbell
Missouri Valley Historical Conference
February 16, 2015
1
Abstract
The Minoans are a misunderstood and understudied civilization. The timeframe is murky
and scholars are still trying to theorize the cause of their collapse. Between the Early and Late
Bronze Age there was an enormous amount of communication but not enough to establish an
accurate portrayal of what took place. There needs to be more tangible evidence like artwork,
cylinder seals, and pottery. I intend to undertake appropriate further research to investigate better
angles on this topic. In order to determine whether new approaches are viable, it is necessary to
first establish a methodology. In my initial research I have focused on cylinder seals, ring
impressions and artwork in particular to analyze hybridity of civilizations within the Bronze Age.
During these initial enquiries, I noticed that culture was a trade in itself. After the eruption of
Thera, the changes became more apparent on Crete. The gods were becoming male instead of
female, religious icons being desecrated, and Mycenaean take over leading to possible Minoan
migration. Despite the changes in the Eastern Mediterranean the Minoan race held strong. This
civilizations’ remarkable ability to adapt was the key to their survival regardless of the many
hardships they faced. My research was conducted to understand the Minoan people and attempt
to pursue more factors of their identity. This research not only gave me insight into these people
but also into issues that face scholars conducting relevant studies.
2
Finding Minoan Identity
One of the murkiest areas of history is the Early to Late Bronze age. The Minoans were a
prominent civilization during this period.1 These people lived on Crete, an island in the
Mediterranean north of Egypt, and were experts of the sea and trade. The dates of their existence
varies based on whom you ask. Part of the reason for this is that there is still much to learn from
these people and material access is limited, along with epigraphic sources considering that their
primary language is yet to be fully deciphered. The FUSE research grant from the University of
Nebraska at Omaha provides an opportunity. Using this grant it is possible to research the
influence and religious impact of these ancient people with the aim to further comprehend them.
The beginning of the Minoans is established around 2700 BCE.2 However, the dates tend
to vary depending on the author. Cynthia Shelmerdine uses 2700 BCE as the beginning of the
Minoan civilization beginning to thrive, while Cyprian Broodbank has a chart that indicates the
start was 3000 BCE3, being the start of the Early Bronze Age. At the same time, Egypt and the
Near East were growing. The limitations concerning access to material leave one particular
viable path by which to study these people, that of the archaeology evidence. Using artefacts
such as cylinder seals and pieces of art history we can gain insight into the cultures and
influences that created them in comparison to contemporary material from adjoining cultures.
Nanno Marinitos assert that the Egyptians describe a people as “Keftiu”, a term that represented
the Minoans whom they encountered early on Crete.4 Early trade would have been with ryhtons,
1 Sir Aurther Evans, who founded this civilization, coined the term Minoan. He named these people after King
Minos from the Greek story of Theseus and the Minotaur. 2 Cynthia W. Shelmerdine, The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2008), 80 3 Cyprian Broodbank, The Making of the Middle Sea: A History of the Mediterranean from the Beginning to the
Emergence of the Classical World (London: Oxford University Press, 2013), 13-14 4 Nanno Marinatos, Minoan Kingship and the Solar Goddess: A Near Eastern Koine (Urbana: University of Illinois
Press, 2010), 4
3
jugs, and styles of art. The importance of early trade shows mass amounts of communication
between civilizations.
Dr. De Angelis from the University of British Columbia agrees that further analysis of
Aegean civilizations may be able to enlighten us with early trade measures within the Eastern
Mediterranean. During our meeting, hybridity was mentioned, and not just of the east but
including the west. Trade stretched from Sardinia west to Mesopotamia. The influence was clear
especially in specific areas like Crete and Egypt. Around 1500 BCE, there was common trade
between the two powers. Not only was this common trade in goods, but also in culture and
ideologies. For instance, once the new city of Peru-nefer was rebuilt in 1500 BCE, there was an
abundance of Minoan art inside. The decorations included bull-leaping frescos, with other scenes
that were previously known only on Crete.5
Seals were common in both previously mentioned cultures, and as such can be used to
analyze cultural similarities and religious acceptance between two cultures. Most notably is the
common image of the bull that appears widely in the Mediterranean world and was particularly
associated with the Minoan culture, but also with the Egyptians. Dr. Marinatos relates seals and
scarabs between these cultures in her book, Minoan Kingship.6 The seal that is examined shows
a bull with a double axe about the horns. On the Egyptian scarab, there is what looks to be an eye
of Rah. The religions are not the same, but are taking ideas from one another. She goes on to
compare the idea of bull and ox heads on other seals across the Near East, and establishes an
argument of all having the same mystical belief in the bull.
5 Eric H Cline, 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014), 17 6 Nanno Marinatos, Minoan Kingship and the Solar Goddess, 117
4
“These few examples show that in Anatola, Syria, and Palestine the ox head is a
manifestation of mythical animal and a carrier of the luminaries of heavan.”7
This isn’t a strong argument. The modern view of art is for art sake because it is now
available to the masses. Art in the ancient times probably had greater symbolism because it was a
way to express ideas in illiterate societies or societies with limited literacy. The ox and bull
images are seen across the Aegean and Near East, but nonetheless show imitation and hybridity
among the cultures. Her research brings a great point of early influence among the powers, but
they may not have added the religious belief to their objects.
Cylinder Seals
Viewing cultural change can be as simple as looking at a small object such as a cylinder
seal. On collaboration with Associate Professor Jeanne Reams of the University of Nebraska at
Omaha, we asserted that two cylinder seals, which appear in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
were particularly interesting in establishing a base from which to undertake this study. The seals
reiterate the theory of early communication to establish new concepts by providing a
comparative point between the Minoan and Egyptian cultures. In this case, Egyptians had a
similar form of authentication concerning the use of clay balls called “bullae” that had the
inscriptions on the inside and had to be broken to read.8 This was not the most efficient way of
doing business, but influenced the change in cylinder seals.
Dominique Collon’s book, First Impressions, uses an example of a seal from Crete and
will be used in comparison with two pictures taken from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.9
Collon’s example shows dolphins on the seal, which was a common trend in art during the end of
7 Nanno Marinatos, Minoan Kingship and the Solar Goddess, 119 8 Daniel C. Snell, A Companion to the Ancient Near East (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing 2005), 40 9 All cylinder seal illustrations drawn thank to Ashley Raposo.
5
the 2nd millennium BCE, and is seen in figure C.10 The linear lines stretch from the top to the
bottom, with dolphins at a slight angle with their head and bodies vertical in a row. This is
interesting because sea life was familiar to the Minoans, and adding hunting or mystical
creatures was rarely seen, and was made from cornelian.11 The two pictures from the MET have
no marine life, but have been declared as Minoan.
On analysis of the two seals discussed above, we were able to determine that they were
very different from others found elsewhere on Crete and the pieces were Minoan, but have great
Near Eastern influence. The first seal (Figure A) was from 1650 – 1450 BCE, made by the
Minoans, while the other piece (Figure B) was from 1400 – 1300 BCE, and was Crypto-
Minoan.12 Figure A was made out of marble, while the other is made out of Haematite.13
Haematite was known to the Near East as a strong metal with many applications. These two seals
both show animals, but neither show marine life. The first seal shows birds flying in the wind
and the other shows a mixture of horses. The second seal shows what looks to be a griffin in the
middle. The griffin in the middle helps indicate this was not a Minoan original because the
griffin was not as important to them as it was to cultures in the Near East. This illustrates the
Minoans imitating certain cylinder seals.
10 Dominique Collon, First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East, (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1988), 141 11 Dominique Collon, First Impressions, 149 12 "The Collection Online. The Metropolitan Museum of Art." The Collection Online:The Metropolitan Museum of
Art. Accessed August 27, 2014. http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online. 13 "The Collection Online.” Metropolitan Museum of Art.
6
Not many seals were found on Crete, and the few that have are from Knossos. The
example by Collon shows the use of marine life being around the same time as the Thera
eruption. The piece with the griffin is Crypto-Minoan, which could mean the creator of this seal
received the idea from Near Eastern trade. Once seals were becoming widely accepted in the
Aegean by the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, Cyprus was becoming a centralized entity of
trade. They began to produce cylinder seals quickly and in mass quantities.14 What this may
instigate is the possibility of Minoan knowledge of seals, but choosing not to use them because
they already had a system in place with Linear A seals. Minoan seals were usually imitations of
seals from other civilizations, and the Linear A seals had the text imprinted on the seal
explaining what is being traded. The Linear A seals were mainly used for administrative
purposes. The imitation and influence seen on the seals from the MET help indicate the hybridity
14 Dominique Collon, First Impressions, 141
Fig. A. Sketched example from Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Fig. B. Sketched example from Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Fig. C. Sketched example from Collon’s book of cylinder seals.
7
of this region. The smallest of objects can show a larger story, this type of cultural comradery
was progressing quickly, and may have started earlier than once previously predicted.
Cultural and Historical Context
Objects from the same culture exhibits continuity. The first phase of Cretan artwork was
similar to Mesopotamia, which indicates communication between mainland Mesopotamia and
the Aegean. After looking at the artwork, multiple questions come to mind. How important was
Minoan trade to the Aegean, and in turn, were there influences that helped the Minoans thrive
economically? Did the shift in artwork after the Thera eruption be religious change? All previous
research on the near East and Aegean have allowed historians to answer similar questions, but
now is the time for fresh minds to look for new possibilities.
Minoan trade stretched west to Sardinia, and went as far east as Babylon. Cline mentions
multiple encounters of Minoan goods being traded to Babylon specifically to Hammurabi. The
king of Mari sent a pair of sandals from Crete to King Hammurabi.15 Importing was just as
important as exporting during the peak of Minoan history. The most popular goods were bronze,
pottery, and culture. After reviewing 152 vessels, the most interesting reveals was regarding
marine life. Through this analysis it is clear that, all marine-life artwork was created after the
eruption of Thera in 1628 BCE.16
The Thera eruption was of incredible magnitude, and created a tidal wave that was over
thirty feet, hitting northern Crete.17 This was a major cataclysm that would affect all aspects of
Minoan life. Most historians believe that Thera affected these areas, but not to the point of
collapse. One particular point of analysis indicates internal issues among the Minoans. All signs
15 Eric H Cline, 1177 B.C., 19 16 Cyprian Broodbank, The Making of the Middle Sea, 372 17 Cyprian Broodbank, The Making of the Middle Sea, 372
8
pointed to an issue with administration or possibly religion. The Minoans were strong enough to
handle such destruction, but turmoil during and after is what really weakened them. Dr. De
Angelis agrees with Cline’s conclusions in his book 1177 BC. Thera jump-started the situation
on Crete. Prior to this cataclysm, the Minoans were thriving and had to fend of the Mycenaeans,
but life was flourishing. Once the eruption occurred, religious beliefs were shaken and left a
weak island for the Mycenaeans to take.
Religion played a strong roll in Minoan life on Crete, and the Minoans held beliefs
focusing on the Mother Goddess, who watched of the people. The Goddess has many
interpretations, but the familiar representation was a woman holding a staff standing on a
mountaintop. This is depicted in many different art pieces of the time. Pieces like this provided
the notion of the deity being known as Mother of the Mountain.18 Analyzing the situation of a
Minoan in northern Crete during the eruption helps gain perspective. Someone who worshiped
this Goddess and enduring such a cataclysm would shake their beliefs. After always believing in
a Goddess who protects from harm and keeps prosperity of the land, then losing hard work and
possible family death, staying loyal may have been a challenge. When pursuing multiple
scenarios, two practical options came to mind; one being to show more respect towards the
Mother Goddess, or to disown and start believing in a new God or Goddess. Both are represented
in the artwork of the post-eruption period.
Around 1600 BCE artwork began to show more marine-life on pottery and frescos.
Figures 8.a. and 8.b. are early pieces from Minoan and Mycenaean culture, both showing the sea
and marine-life, but both are after 1600 BCE. The most iconic dolphin and octopus frescos at
Akrotiri were both created after Thera. The sample size is too small to properly provide a
18 Nanno Marinatos, Minoan Kingship and the Solar Goddess, 83
9
definitive analysis, but still provide importance evidence. Marine life art created after the
eruption of Thera was abundant, and so far all the objects looked at in this research point to the
possibility of an ancient form of pietas.
Once the tidal wave crashed on to the northern shore of Crete the people would
theoretically panic. They decided to show respect for the sea and its animals through pottery and
art. This is only a hypothesis due to lack of cache and only having 152 objects available. Reames
suggests a method to solidify this theory. The amount of objects would have to include over one
third of the total cache of artwork and objects.19 We can also consider the point of verifying the
marine art appeasing the Goddess by analyzing each piece. This has not yet been undertaken in
previous scholarship. After all these years with plenty of objects, why has this not been done?
The likeliest of reasons would be scholars are focused on a set area, not wanting to include
multiple regions to study.
Religious Ring Impressions
Showing respect for the Mother Goddess or beginning to worship a different deity are
both possibilities. Ring impressions from Crete can help visualize gods or goddesses being
worshiped at the time. These impressions would be flat ovals attached to the top of a ring. The
common instance was showing the Mother Goddess holding a staff on top of a mountain or
palace.20 She tends to be accompanied by double axes, or horns on buildings on the sides of the
impression. One specific ring from Knossos shows the goddess in the air above two wolves on
each side of her extending up towards her while holding a staff.21 She is facing east, or to the
19 Jeanne Reames, interviewed by Robert Campbell, Omaha, NE, December 20, 2014 20 Ring Impression illustrations drawn by Robert Campbell. 21 Nanno Marinatos, Minoan Kingship and the Solar Goddess, 70
10
right, as she was usually depicted. This seal was found at Knossos, and was created in 1425
BCE.22
Further west, there is an example of a male god found in western Crete, Chania, standing
exactly how the Mother Goddess except his God is facing to the left instead of right, and has the
triangle shape that is familiar to Minoan culture with a bull’s head.23 He is standing on buildings
with bullhorns on the roofs. The God facing west may indicate influence from the Mycenaeans.
With the Mycenaeans having a patriarchal society, the shift from a female to a male goddess on
create is plausible. The impression was from Chania in 1425 BCE. 24 This indicates a greater
chance of Mycenaean influence. This impression is the opposite of the Mother Goddess and
indicates there were other Minoans who were worshiping a new or different deity. The male
could possibly another representation of an object found in Palaikastro.
22 Nanno Marinatos, Minoan Kingship and the Solar Goddess, 83 23 Nanno Marinatos, Minoan Kingship and the Solar Goddess, 75 24 Nanno Marinatos, Minoan Kingship and the Solar Goddess,75
Fig. D. Example of common ring impression of Mother Goddess.
11
There was a discovery of a small icon of a boy made of hippopotamus ivory. The boy is
holding his arms out in fists and is sculpted in such a way that every muscle and many veins can
be identified. The precision of the piece indicates it was used for worship. The object is known
as the Kouros. Bettany Hughes discusses this object in her Ancient World series. She believes
that this statue was a new boy God.25
The face and genitals were removed and the overall body was scorched and burned,
definite signs of desecration. This leads to the idea of a passionate hatred or the possibility of
iconoclasm. The boy figure was found at Palaikastro (eastern Crete), and was found in several
pieces. The 50cm sculpture was the largest Minoan piece ever found and the head, torso, arms
and feet were found scattered in Building 5, while the legs were found in Room 2.26 There was
evidence of a large fire that took place, which was typical because of the materials used to build
the structures. There is a possibility that the destruction was done on purpose because of similar
practices found around the Near East known as iconoclasm from possible religious turmoil.
25 The Minotaur's Island. Performed by Bettany Hughes. Channel Four Television Corp: 2008. Film. 26 Weingarten, Judith. "Measure for Measure: The Palaikastro Kouros and Minoan Society."Aegaeum, no. 12, 15
(1995), 249
Fig. E. Example of ring impression depicting male God.
12
Manifestation of Religious Turmoil
Most textbooks point the origins of iconoclasm to the Near East, in areas such as
Mesopotamia, Babylon, and moves northwest to the Hittite Empire.27 Typically, this type of
event would occur with colliding world ideals, religion, or politics. Petra Goedegebuure
researches Hittite history, and postulates that historians need to consider smaller-scale or
individual instances of iconoclasm.28 Most forms of this action in the Hittite Kingdom were
stealing idols, but rarely were they desecrated. This was considered to be a terrible act, and when
the objects were desecrated, they would mainly be royal sculptures, not deities. The Minoans
may have looked across the sea to two different civilizations; one being contact through the
Hittites, and another being contact through the Mesopotamian trade. Both cultures were trading
with the Minoans early on in the second century BCE, but which had the largest influence?
Further analysis reveals the Hittite royalty communicating with Minoan royalty, or
political cooperation. On the walls of the tomb of Menkheperreseneb, the first prophet of Amun,
images show the Minoan prince in the company of Prince of the Hittite.29 Since it is not clear
exactly when the prophet died, he lived between the time of Thutmose III and Amenhotep II
(roughly 1479 – 1397 BCE).30 Though this is later in the Late Bronze Age, there is still evidence
that would indicate communication between royalties. Marriage between two civilizations was a
regular occurrence because it would open up trade routes and allies in case of war. If this were
the case, there would defiantly be trade between these cultures.
27 Petra M. Goedegebuure, Iconoclasm and Text Destruction in the Ancient Near East and Beyond. Edited by
Natalie Naomi May, (Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 45 2012), 407-408 28 Petra M. Goedegebuure, Iconoclasm and Text Destruction in the Ancient Near East and Beyond, 408 29 Eric H Cline, 1177 B.C., 25 30 Cynthia W. Shelmerdine, The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, 4-5
13
The Minoans were known to trading with Near Eastern cultures, including Mesopotamia,
from 1800 BCE and on.31 This would be one possibility that would lead to iconoclasm on Crete.
Many Mesopotamians believed in specific meanings of signs with hidden meaning, and would
need to speak to a series of oracles to for answers.32 If there was some sort of cataclysm like a
tidal wave, and Mesopotamian influenced Minoan religion, many people may take that as a sign
from the Mother Goddess. Just a little influence like this could stir the pot enough to change the
minds of some people. Mesopotamians and Assyrians would destroy idols after conquering, and
the Hittites would steal religious idols, it is plausible that the Minoans after such a loss would
turn against their Goddess and take ideas from both cultures based on their high level of trade
and royal connection.
Conclusion
Early to Late Bronze Age is one the murkiest areas in history, which gives scholars
freedom to create hypotheses to test. This should make historians and archeologists in this field
excited because there is still much to explore. The next test is to begin re-evaluating the
questions being asked, and try to approach new angles. The Minoans are an understudied
civilization, and this should not be the case, given that they have held their own with the largest
kingdoms of the time. They set trends, traded with dominant kingdoms, known to be the best sea
farers, and survived until the collapse of the Late Bronze Age. Civilizations like the Hittites
didn’t last past the collapse. This research is a great start to a long journey through to uncover
solve more mysteries about these people. The Minoan civilization did not go past the island of
Crete, but they acted as if their boarders were past the sea.
31 Eric H Cline, 1177 B.C., 20 32 Petra M. Goedegebuure, Iconoclasm and Text Destruction in the Ancient Near East and Beyond, 410
14
References
Betancourt, Philip P. Introduction to Aegean Art. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press, 2007.
Betancourt, Philip P. The Final Neolithic through Middle Minoan III Potery. Vol 2 of Kommos:
An excavation of the South Coast of Crete. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.
Broodbank, Cyprian. The Making of the Middle Sea: A History of the Mediterranean from the
Beginning to the Emergence of the Classical World. London: Oxford University Press,
2013.
Chadwick, John. The Mycenaean World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
Cline, Eric H. 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 2014.
Collon, Dominique. First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1988.
Cotrell, Leonard. The Mystery of Minoan Civilization. Chicago: World Publishing Press, 1971.
Evans, Arthur. "The Early Nilotic, Libyan and Egyptian Relations with Minoan Crete." The
Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. (1925): 199-
228.
Goedegebuure, Petra M. Iconoclasm and Text Destruction in the Ancient Near East and Beyond.
Edited by Natalie Naomi May. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago,
2012. 407 - 452.
Higgins, Reynold Alleyne. Minoan and Mycenaean Art. New York: Praeger, 1967.
Hood, Sinclair. The Arts in Prehistoric Greece. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1978.
Hooker, J. T. Mycenaean Greece. London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1976.
Marinatos, Nanno. Minoan Kingship and the Solar Goddess: A Near Eastern Koine. Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 2010.
Marinatos, Nanno. “Minoan – Cycladic Syncretism.” In Hardy et al (1990): 37-377.
Mieroop, Marc. A History of the Ancient Near East, Ca. 3000-323 B.C. Malden, MA: Blackwell
Pubishing, 2004.
15
Nielsen, Inge. The Royal Palace Institution in the First Millennium BC: Regional Development
and Cultural Interchange Between East and West. Athens: Danish Institute at Athens,
2001.
Pelon, Oliver. “Royaute et Iconographi Royale dans the Crete Minoenne.” In Laffineur and
Niemeier (1995): 309-321.
Poursat, Jean-Claude. Catalogue Des Ivoires Meceniens Du Musee National D'Athenes. 1st ed.
Athenes: Ecole Francaise D'Athenes, 1977.
Preziosi, Donald, and Louise Hitchcock. Aegean Art and Architecture. London: Oxford
University Press, 1999.
Shelmerdine, Cynthia W. The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Smith, Richard L. Premodern Trade in World History. London: Routledge, 2008.
Snell, Daniel C., ed. A Companion to the Ancient Near East. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2005.
The Minotaur's Island. Performed by Bettany Hughes. Channel Four Television Corp: 2008.
Film.
"The Collection Online, The Metropolitan Museum of Art." The Collection Online. The
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Accessed August 27, 2014.
http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online.
Weingarten, Judith. "Measure for Measure: The Palaikastro Kouros and Minoan
Society."Aegaeum, no. 12 (1995): 249-64.