Preliminary study on potable water solutions for the rural poor

Technology and Development Supervised Learning (TDSL) Autumn 2014

Report

Preliminary Study on Potable Water Solutions for the Rural Poor

ABHISHEK AGGARWAL

120020048

Safe drinking water is a basic human necessity. Poor rural communities across the world struggle to meet this basic requirement either due to a lack of access to water or due to poor water quality of existing water sources. This study is a preliminary study which focuses on the latter problem - the challenges surrounding water quality. Drinking water quality is an immensely vast field, and challenges vary greatly by geography and local conditions. This study considers the drinking water problems that are common in the hilly regions in north Thane district (now Palghar), and explores possible treatment methods and existing enterprise solutions that may be applied there.

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction .......................4

2. Potable water .......................4

3. Standards and Regulations .......................5-6

4. Common treatment methods .......................7-11

4.1 Boiling ............7

4.2 Activated Carbon ............7-8

4.3 Distillation ............8

4.4 Reverse Osmosis (RO) ............8-9

4.5 KDF ............9

4.6 Ultra-Violet (UV) Radiations ............9-10

4.7 Chlorination ............10-11

4.8 Tabular summarisation of the processes ............11

5. Field visit .......................12-21

5.1 Kashivali .............12-14

5.2 Velpada ............15-16

5.3 Vikramgarh High School(Livinguard set-up) ............17

5.4 Thapapada ............18

5.5 Water Sample Testing using a Jal-Tara kit ............19

5.6 JJ Colony, Sawda Village near New Delhi ............20-21

(“Hub and Spoke" model of Sarvajal)

6. Case Studies .......................22-24

6.1 Livinguard Technologies ............21

6.2 Sarvajal ............22

6.3 SODIS (Solar Water Disinfection) ............23

6.4 Bio-Sand filter ............24

7. Observation ............25

References

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Acknowledgement

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the possibility to

complete this report and the facilities being required. It was a really wonderful learning experience. I

would really like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Miss Janhvi Doshi who allowed me to take

this topic. She has a very friendly nature. Her enthusiasm and constant involvement helped me a lot

throughout. I am thankful for her aspiring guidance, invaluably constructive criticism and friendly

advice.

I express my warm thanks to Mr. Santosh and Ms. Reshma Thakur founder of Astitva (an NGO in

Maharashtra) for their support and guidance. They helped a lot in understanding the ground reality

of potable water in the villages of Maharashtra. I would also like to thanks Deepak Halder, the

representative of Sarvajal at Sawda village near New Delhi for helping us understand their "Hub and

Spoke" model.

I will strive to use gained skills and knowledge in the best possible way,

Thank You

Sincerely Yours

ABHISHEK AGGARWAL

(Under-Graduate student of IIT-B)

Place :IIT-Bombay, Mumbai

Dated: 29th November,2014

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1 INTRODUCTION:

Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. On Earth, 96.5% of the planet's water is found in seas and

oceans but drinking water with high salinity causes dehydration. Only 2.5% of the Earth's water is

freshwater and desalination process is really expensive, but still desalination plants are used in the Middle

East and Western Asia since there is no other source option (Apoprox. 17,000+ such plants worldwide).

Desalinated waters are commonly further treated by adding chemical constituents such as calcium

carbonate or limestone to improve their taste and reduce their aggressiveness to the distribution network

and plumbing materials1. Around 0.3 million2 people out of 7.2 billion3 people depend on this desalinated

water.

“ Water water everywhere, Nor any drop to drink” -- Samuel Taylor

But this report is all about the water quality conditions in rural areas. Studying the business

models catering to underprivileged section of the society and the cheap treatment solutions

available.

2 Potable Water

Drinking/Potable water is the water which doesn’t cause any acute or chronic health effects like

diarrhoea, typhoid, intestinal worms, cancer etc.

Water contamination can be broadly classified in two types of impurities:

1. Biological contamination: Includes certain species of Bacteria (e.g. cholera, typhoid ), Virus(e.g.

hepatitis A, rotavirus), Protozoa and Helminths (Intestinal Parasites).

2. Chemical contamination: It can be further divided into two categories:

(i) Volatile impurities:- Those impurities which have boiling point close to water or less than it and

are generally organic like benzene, toulene etc. These impurities evaporate along with the water.

(ii) Non-volatile impurities:- Other impurities might be considered non-volatile with respect to

water e.g. sodium, calcium, iron, magnese, fluoride, nitrate, lead, arsenic, chlorine, fertilizers, pesticides

etc.

These impurities are not harmful at lower concentration and even some are good for health at low

concentration like fluoride. So, different organizations have different drinking water quality

guideline/standard.

1 WHO Report of Nutrients in Drinking Water (http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutrientsindw.pdf?ua=1 )

2International Desalination Association (http://idadesal.org/desalination-101/desalination-by-the-numbers/ )

3U.S & World Population clock by United States Census Bureau as on 19-11-2014

(http://www.census.gov/popclock/?intcmp=home_pop )

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3 Standards & Regulations:

Standards can be either mere guidelines or can be legally enforced.

There is a difference between pure and safe water. Generally safe water is the term used for water which

is potable. It won't be 100% H2O. Pure water is 100% H2O. Distilled water comes very close to pure water.

But water after distillation process is not 100% H2O. It may still have some volatile organic compounds

dissolved in it. It is not easy to comment on whether distilled is safe to drink or might cause depletion of

minerals from the body. Different groups give absolutely opposing answers. But as per the report of WHO

on “Nutrients in Water” it is clearly mentioned that distilled water should be recharged with the minerals

before drinking it.

It has been determined by different organizations/groups the concentrations at which contaminants

don’t pose acute or chronic danger. They have also found that some of the minerals lying between a

specific concentrations ranges could be beneficial. The list of these concentrations is called standards.

Till now we haven't been able to agree on one set of standards for drinking water worldwide. Different

areas may have different standards which may differ by 10 times. And even then in most nations these

are just mere guidelines. Only a few countries like USA, Europe have drinking water standards are

complied legally.

Table 3-1 Comparison of Drinking Water Standards

Parameter WHO Europe US China India1

Arsenic 10μg/l 10 μg/l 10μg/l 50μg/l 50μg/l Boron 2.4mg/l 1.0 mg/L “ “ 1.0mg/L Cadmium 3 μg/l 5 μg/l 5 μg/l 5 μg/l 3 μg/l Chromium 50μg/l 50 μg/l 0.1 mg/L 50 μg/l (Cr6+) 50 μg/l Copper 2.0 mg/l 2.0 mg/l TT 1 mg/l 1.5 mg/l Cyanide “ 50 μg/l 0.2 mg/L 50 μg/l 50 μg/l Fluoride 1.5 mg/l 1.5 mg/l 4 mg/l 1 mg/l 1.5 mg/l Lead 10 μg/l 10 μg/l 15 μg/l 10 μg/l 10 μg/l Mercury 6 μg/l 1 μg/l 2 μg/l 0.05 μg/l 1 μg/l Nitrate 50 mg/l 50 mg/l 10 mg/L (as N) 10 mg/L (as N) 45 mg/l Selenium 40 μg/l 10 μg/l 50 μg/l 10 μg/l 10 μg/l

*All the parameters are not included. This is just to show the comparison b/w different guidelines. 1 Values for India are taken from its revised drinking water guideline in 2012 published by bureau of Indian Standard i.e. IS 10500 : 2012

Source : http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/9789241548151_annex.pdf?ua=1

If we just consider the case of India itself, we will find different departments of government publishing

their own standards for drinking water. And these standards are just guidelines i.e. They are not legally

enforced.

If we look at the Central level, we will find guidelines by departments like:

1)Bureau Of India (BIS) : IS 10500 (2012) Updated in 2012

Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS) follow these guidelines

2)Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

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3)Central Public Health and Environmental Engg. Organisation (CPHEOO), Ministry of Urban

Development

Even many states in India have their own guidelines e.g. Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal (WBPHED).But

mostly the BIS guidelines are followed by most of the departments/states.

According to UNICEF, 67% of Indian households do not treat drinking water despite the contamination;

and those who do, still rely largely on traditional methods such as boiling water4. Boiling is one of the

methods of purifying the water. Boiling just disinfects the water from most of the biological

contamination but doesn’t decontaminate the chemical impurities. Let’s study some of the common

methods which alone or in combination are used in purifying the water.

4Article by ValueNotes Database Pvt Ltd. on India's Home Water purifier Industry released published on Press Release

(http://www.pr.com/press-release/579155)

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4 Common Treatment Methods:

Following are some of the most common methods used in decontamination of drinking water:

1. Boiling

2. Activated Carbon

3. Distillation

4. Reverse Osmosis (RO)

5. Kinetic Degradation Fluxion (KDF) Process Media

6. UV Radiation

7. Chlorination

The most suitable treatment method for a location would depend on several factors– technological (e.g. is electricity available?), environmental (what natural and human sources of contamination are present?), and socio-economic (how much can a household afford to pay for water treatment?). The location needs to be studied carefully - the water treatment that works in one area may not work in another.

Let’s discuss the above mentioned methods in brief.

4.1 Boiling:

Process: Keep water at its boiling temperature for 15-20 minutes. Effect: Kills micro-organisms such as bacteria, virus or parasites and removes some VOCs Disadvantages:

Cloudy or highly turbid water must be filtered (can use cloth)

Boiling may concentrate the contaminants

Should not be used when toxic metals, chemicals or nitrates are present, since it increase their concentrations

4.2 Activated Carbon:

The Activated Carbon is a form of carbon which has been treated with oxygen to make it porous. Two basic carbon filters: Granulated Activated Carbon(GAC) and Solid Block Activated Carbon(SBAC) Process:

It adsorbs the impurities via electrostatic interaction or chemisorptions. Note: - Treatment with oxygen makes AC porous which results in increase in surface area and bonding sites.

Effect: Removes certain microorganisms and certain organic chemicals, especially pesticides, THMs (chlorine by-product), trichloroethylene (TCE), and PCBs

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Disadvantages:

Can become breeding grounds for the bacteria they trap, thus, it is suggested to run water through it for a few minutes to flush them out before use.

Hot water tends to release trapped contaminants into the water and even damage carbon filter

Doesn't affect heavy metals like lead, mercury, arsenic (unless specially designed to), cadmium, total dissolved solids, hardness(i.e. calcium, magnesium, potassium), nitrates, sulphides, and fluoride

4.3 Distillation:

Process: Water is boiled in a container, which leaves non-volatile impurities behind. Steam is collected in a separate container and condensed

Effect: Kills pathogens, remove salts that carbon filtration cannot remove, like heavy metals, nitrates, chlorides. Used rarely when a large amount of minerals or impurities are to be removed.

Disadvantages:

VOCs(like pesticides) are not removed , so, a post-filter such as granular carbon filter is attached to it

Distilled water is prone to recontamination or bacterial growth.

Distilled water (also referred as aggressive/hungry) have a leaching effect i.e. high tendency to absorb minerals, metals or other materials it touches. To counterbalance this effect mineral supplements are recommended

Due to Distilled water aggressive nature, it easily absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmospheric forming carbonic acid. Therefore, distilled water should be stored in closed container preferably glass because of might be acidic nature.

Maintenance is expensive and is required periodically

4.4 Reverse Osmosis (RO):

Used by most leading water bottling plants. Combining RO and activated carbon filter provides the most efficient treatment against broadest range of water contamination.

RO water tastes like “spring water” since its well oxygenated.

Process: Filters water through a semi- permeable membrane by applied hydraulic pressure which counteracts the osmotic pressure. This membrane rejects the contaminants that are too large to pass through the tiny pores in the membrane.

Effect: Removes microbes, total dissolved solids (TDS), asbestos, lead, chloride, fluoride, nitrates and other toxic heavy metals, radioactive substances (like radium).

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Disadvantages:

Not highly effective in removing organic compounds and some of pesticides, solvents and VOCs are not completely removed, so, a good post-filter like activated carbon filter is recommended.

RO water is essentially mineral-free ,thus, mineral supplements are recommended

Since, some Membrane deterioration can occur due to the bacteria (like coliform), so a pre-filter is also suggested.

4.5 Kinetic Degradation Fluxion (KDF) Process Media:

KDF is a high purity alloy of copper and zinc.

It has a life of more than 6 years and is recyclable.

Used as a pre-filter before finer stage of filtration like RO, deionisation and exchange systems.

Process: It utilizes the principle of redox process (Redox reaction) to eliminate a vast number of water contaminants.KDF extends the life of Granulated Activated Carbon.

The KDF itself creates a miniature electrolytic cell with anode as zinc, cathode as copper and impure water as electrolyte. o Substances such as metals are attracted to the surface of the KDF particles and

adhere with them. o Non-metallic impurities react with the KDF and form oxides, hydroxides, sulphates

and even ozone. These by-products are not dangerous and carried through into the drinking water. Ozone as a by-product forms hostile and desolate environment for micro-

organism like algae, bacteria. Effect:

KDF is known to kill algae and fungi, control bacterial growth, and remove chlorine, pesticides, organic matter, rust, unpleasant taste and odour, hydrogen sulphide, nickel, chromium, cadmium, calcium, aluminium, mercury, arsenic, and other organic.

4.6 Ultra-Violet (UV) Radiation:

Process:

UV radiation (~ 250nm wavelength) is passed through water which alters the DNA of micro-

organisms, disrupting their growth and reproduction.

Effect:

This either kills the pathogens or renders them harmless.

Note:-

● Exposure time and lamp intensity determines the effectiveness of the UV lamp

● As per the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, disinfection systems must have

a minimum exposure of 16 mJ/cm2.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxide

● Turbulent water flow is more effective since it exposes the micro

UV radiation

Disadvantages:

● Since, lamp intensity decreases with use, so it should be replaced at least once a year

● UV is not effective if the

coliform, since the radiation

last stage of a treatment process.

4.7 Chlorination: 5Chlorination is the cheapest means of disinfecting

in transportation of water without re

Process:

In water chlorine stays in equilibrium as:

Cl2 + H2O ↔ HOCl + HCl

And Hypochlorus acid (HOCl) is

equilibrium with hypochlorite ions as:

HOCl ↔ H+ + OCl-

Since, chlorine and HOCl are

thus, easily penetrating the outer membrane of the

pathogens. Also, since these are good

agents, they react with the enzymes and proteins

inside the cell disrupting their growth

reproduction. And thus, either leading t

death or completely harmless

Effect:

This either kills the pathogens or

harmless.

Note:-Disinfection effect drops with increase in pH since, the equilibrium (2) shifts to the right side

i.e. decreasing the concentration of HOCl

Disadvantages:

The presence of organic materials especially humic, fulvic acids (result as degradation of plant

material) and organic substances

chlorine via halo-form reaction

(THMs).

Figure 4.7-1: Centres for disease Control and Prevention

Turbulent water flow is more effective since it exposes the micro-

Since, lamp intensity decreases with use, so it should be replaced at least once a year

the water is very turbid, colored or has very high concentration of

the radiations don’t reach the organism Thus, UV is generally

treatment process.

Chlorination is the cheapest means of disinfecting water. The residual effect of c

of water without re-contamination for long duration.

In water chlorine stays in equilibrium as:

HOCl + HCl ……………(1)

) is in further

with hypochlorite ions as:

…………… (2)

Since, chlorine and HOCl are neutrally charged,

thus, easily penetrating the outer membrane of the

pathogens. Also, since these are good oxidizing

agents, they react with the enzymes and proteins

inside the cell disrupting their growth and

thus, either leading to their

or completely harmless

This either kills the pathogens or renders them

effect drops with increase in pH since, the equilibrium (2) shifts to the right side

i.e. decreasing the concentration of HOCl


substances(e.g. urine, sweat, hair and skin particles)

reaction resulting in the production of carcinogenic

Centres for disease Control and Prevention <http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/publications_pages/chlorineresidual.pdf

4.7-1 Definitions used in process of chlorination

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-organisms completely to

Since, lamp intensity decreases with use, so it should be replaced at least once a year.

high concentration of

, UV is generally used in the

The residual effect of chlorination helps

effect drops with increase in pH since, the equilibrium (2) shifts to the right side


(e.g. urine, sweat, hair and skin particles) combines with free

resulting in the production of carcinogenic Trihalomethanes

http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/publications_pages/chlorineresidual.pdf>

Definitions used in process of chlorination

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The WHO has stated that the "risks to health from these by-products are extremely small in comparison

with the risks associated with inadequate disinfection”

● Higher amount of chlorine needs to be added in turbid water.

● Helminthes are insensitive to chlorination.

● Chlorination introduces bitter taste and unusual smell

● Chlorine evaporates due to its volatile nature, thus, chlorine needs to be regularly added to

prevent biological recontamination

4.8 Tabular summarisation of the processes:

Parameter/ Technology

KDF Activated Carbon

RO UV Chlorination Distillation

Electricity/Heating X X ✓ ✓ X ✓

Expensive X X X X X ✓

Life >6 years ≈ 1year (depending on amount of impurities)

≈ 1year (Annual filter change)

≈ 1year (Annual bulb change)

- No drop in quality with time

Recyclable Technology

✓ ✓ - X X -

Taste of water after processing

(✓)Removes odour and taste

(✓) (✓) Close to Spring water

(X) - No change

(X) (Introduces bitter taste)

(✓) (Flat taste)

Biological Contamination6

X X X (not recommended)

✓ ✓ ✓

Volatile Organic Contaminants (VOCs)

X ✓ X - X X

Residual Disinfecting Effects

✓ X (used at POS, no storage req.)

X X ✓ X

Non-Volatile Chemical Contaminants7

✓ X ✓ X X ✓

Hazardous By-products

X X X X ✓(Tri-Halo

Methanes THMs and haloacetic acids HAAs)

X

6Many germs can no longer be detected in very low concentrations. In these cases, it is not possible to provide scientific

proof of a 100% reduction according to Eawag, the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Sciences and Technology (http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/mikrobio/index_EN) 7Doesn't mean it removes all of them i.e. Ca

2+/Mg

2+/lead/Arsenic/Nickel/Cadmium etc the technology removes most of them.

Before using a technology, see specifically which all contaminants it doesn't remove.

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5 Field Visits:

Visits to few places were made to understand the ground reality. Following visits were made:

5.1 Kashivali (Sept'14)

The first village we visited was Kashivali accompanied by Reshma Thakur working with Astitva Foundation. The living conditions over there are really drastic and no effort is being made by the government to improve the situation. The population of village is 477 (around 70 Households) out of which 246 are males and 231are females. Their houses are built on a land owned by a farmer. He has given them permission to live but don’t allow them to do any more construction on it. There is electricity supply to the village but is mostly used in night while eating dinner.

5.1.1 How they spend their day:

Both males and females work on their farms during monsoon time, able to produce enough to

feed themselves. At other times, the men leave the village in search of work or are recruited from

the village itself. Females stay back in the village. They spend their day in fetching firewood before

the monsoons and collecting water. It takes almost the entire day of the women.

There is no way for them to grind wheat in the village itself. So, they travel to the nearest place

once a week. It almost takes their entire day. They have to spend a lot of amount on

transportation (Rs. 20 for the round trip and Rs. 2/kg for wheat grinding).

5.1.2 Water Condition:

They have two non-perennial wells around 150-200m from the habitation. One of the wells has

developed holes in the lining, so the water is no

longer potable but is used for other activities.

The primary well (Fig.5.1 -1) for drinking

purposes runs dry in February. As the level

depletes, women wait in line for long hours to

get water, sometimes up to 1AM. If someone is

late to collect water than they have to travel 5

km to another village, Valvandi which has a

perennial well. The people of Valvandi think this

will perish their water supply, so resist them

from taking water from their well.

Astitva foundation started a project “Rainwater Harvesting” in 2010. One of the things they do is

to help villages build a pipeline system from a perennial source to their habitation, in order to save

the women the drudgery of collecting water. They tend to all the technological needs like the

motor size, diameter of the pipe, size of the tank etc. They also provide the construction material

Figure 5.1-1 Well used for drinking purposes in Kashivali

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like pipe, storage tank, motor etc for free of

cost. But all the labour work is done by the

people of the village. They have till now

completed 6 such pipelines, at a cost of 2-3

lakhs each, for populations of around 500 or

more.

One such pipeline about 1.5 km long and dug

1.5ft in the ground has been built for Kashivali.

For this a 10x15x15 ft well was dug 1.5km away.

Water is pumped with the help of the motor

and is stored in a 5000L Plastic storage tank (Fig.5.1-2). The project was completed in 15-20 days.

The bill for the electricity used by motor is shared among the households (approximately

1500Rs/month). This year i.e. 2014 was the first time this system was used in this village. It is used

when the wells dry up, and this summer the women did not have to walk to Valvandi to collect

water. The villagers don’t have much knowledge of safe drinking water. The only thing they do is

add TCL tablets provided by the Gram Panchayat in the well every 2-3 days. They just use a filter

after drawing the water from the well to remove any visible impurities.

5.1.3 Education:

A primary school for 1st to 8th classes has been built near the village by the same “sanstha” this

year. School has 10 teachers and 8 staff members Books are provided for free of cost collected

through donation from all around the country. A very small fee is charged i.e. around Rs. 10-20 so

that children don’t skip the school in the middle.

5.1.4 Summary of water condition in Kashivali: 1. Diseases (Symptoms) prevalent in the area:

Monsoon time :Stomach problems, Typhoid

Throughout the year: Pain in Bones & Teeth

2. Sources of drinking water :

(i) Private/Govt./Natural/Other: GOVT.

Description: A well of diameter 20ft and 25ft deep was dug about 10 years ago.

Distance: About 150-200m

Seasonal change: It dries up around feb-march till the start of next monsoon

Picture 5.1-1 Storage tank installed at Kashivali as part of Astitva's Project. The visible black pipe is used for pipeline. also visible

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(ii) Private/Govt./Natural/Other: GOVT.

Description: It was well which was dug up around 6-7 years ago. It has now developed

cracks and water is no longer potable

Distance: About 150-200m adjacent to the previous one


(iii) Private/Govt./Natural/Other: Private(Astitva Foundation)

Description: Astitva dug a 10x15x15 ft perennial well in Valvandi village and connected

it to a 5000L plastic storage tank in the village by a 1.5km pipeline of diameter

1.5inches and kept 1.5ft below the ground

Cost: Cost of project by the foundation but the monthly electricity cost of about 1000-

1500Rs for pumping is shared by all the households

Seasonal change: Used when the water in nearby well dries up

3. Type of land (Agricultural/Industrial/Residential): Agricultural

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5.2 Velpada: (Sept'14)

The next village we visited was Velpada. The conditions are not as drastic as in Kashivali. The population of village is 557 (around 67 Households) out of which289 are males and 262 are females. There is electricity supply to the village. They also have a solar lamp at the centre of the village to keep it lightened during the night time. Men don’t migrate like in Kashivali. If they go for work outside village, than it’s not more than 15-20 days.


They have 1 non-perennial well at a distance of about 500m. It’s functional from the start of

monsoon to feb-march. When the shortage of water starts around February, they start using the

water from a perennial water channel for purposes other than drinking. For the remaining time

they use the water from the perennial well in another village Rhati-pada (situated at a distance of

about 2-3 kms). The water from wells is used both for drinking and other chores.

Astitva also built a pipeline in this village in April, 2012 as in Kashivali. Pipeline is 2 km long and is

dug 1.5ft in the ground. It source of water is from same well in Rhati-pada village and the pumped

water is stored in a 5000L Plastic storage tank. The project was completed in 20 days.

Same as Kashivali, they also just add TCL tablets provided by the Gram Panchayat.

5.2.2 Education:

They don’t discriminate much between male and female. It appears that people over there send

their kids both boy and girl to schools. There is an Anganwadi and school till class 4th in the village

itself. For further they have to go to Vikramgarh around 1.5km away. For doing BA/MA they have

to travel about 12kms to Wada. The amusing thing is there 25 graduates in the village.

5.2.3 Summary of water condition in Velpada:

1. Diseases prevalent in the area:

Monsoon time : Diarrhoea

Throughout the year: Stomach Problems, Cold, Pain in Hands & Feet

2. Sources of drinking water :

(i) Private/Govt./Natural/Other: GOVT.

Description: A Well was dug about 6-7 years ago.

Distance: About 500m


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(ii) Private/Govt./Natural/Other: Private(Astitva Foundation)

Description: Astitva connected a 5000L plastic storage tank with the already existing

perennial well a 2-3km far village, Rhati-pada, by a pipeline of diameter about

1.5inches and kept 1.5ft below the ground

Cost: Cost of project was borne by the foundation but the monthly electricity cost of

about 1000-1500Rs for pumping is shared by all the households.

3. Natural water sources in the nearby area :

(i) Name ( along with type like river/lake: A Water stream (naala)

Description: Its used for other activities other than drinking like washing clothes once

in a week or two

Distance: 1.5-2km

4. Type of land (Agricultural/Industrial/Residential): Agricultural

5.3 Vikramgarh High School

Next place we visited was a Public S

Livinguard Technologies Pvt. Ltd

treatment plant in January, 2014 in the school

and redesigned it again in August. The company

has developed a candle commonly known as

Livinguard candle to disinfect water.

is achieved via a mechanical kill action as opposed

to conventional chemical ones. Candle pierces the

membrane of microorganisms that come in

contact.

The school has around 2200 students. The

number increases to 3200 during examinations.

Now, because of this generosity of the company, the students get safe drinking water. It has led to a

decrease in number of students getting sick and thus, is being seen drastically in the students’

attendance. The students can be seen

village.

Set-up in School:

The water comes from a nearby russet. It has a

very high turbidity, coffee coloured. Before

storing the water in a 1500L overhead tank

first passed through a primary filter to remove

suspended solid particles. Then it is passed

through a sand filter and then a carbon candle.

Then finally before passing through the

Livinguard Candle, it passes through 2 other

filters. Then it is finally stored in a 2500L in

another tank.

Before the start of each day, the sand filter

carbon and Livinguard candle are cl

backwash process. It just takes about 10 minutes.

High School: (Sept'14)

visited was a Public School in Vikramgarh

Ltd. Installed a water

treatment plant in January, 2014 in the school

and redesigned it again in August. The company

has developed a candle commonly known as

ndle to disinfect water. Disinfection

is achieved via a mechanical kill action as opposed

to conventional chemical ones. Candle pierces the

membrane of microorganisms that come in

The school has around 2200 students. The

uring examinations.



attendance. The students can be seen taking water back in water bottles to their homes in the

The water comes from a nearby russet. It has a

very high turbidity, coffee coloured. Before

storing the water in a 1500L overhead tank it’s

first passed through a primary filter to remove

suspended solid particles. Then it is passed

nd then a carbon candle.

Then finally before passing through the

Livinguard Candle, it passes through 2 other

ored in a 2500L in

of each day, the sand filter,

carbon and Livinguard candle are cleaned by

backwash process. It just takes about 10 minutes.

Figure 5.3-1 Livinguard Filter installed in Vikramgarh High School

Figure 5.3-2 Entire Water-purification setHigh School

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taking water back in water bottles to their homes in the

Livinguard Filter installed in Vikramgarh High School

purification set-up in Vikramgarh

18

5.4 Thapapada (Sept'14):

Next we went to Thapapada. There are around 30 households in the village. Just adjacent to the village there is a very large agricultural land owned by big farmer. There is also a water stream.


They have 2 non-perennial wells. One is quite small, not dug quite deep. This one is not used for

drinking purpose. It is used mostly for activities like washing clothes. The other one is situated

right in the middle of the village. It is quite

a big well. It’s functional from the start of

monsoon to feb-march. They told that the

well had blue coloured water (actually it is

green in colour).

They also have a perennial well dug by

Astitva (see fig. 5.4-1 (a) ) foundation right

next to the foremost smaller well i.e.

adjacent to water stream (see fig. 5.4-1 (c)

). They have connected the well with a

pipeline to the tank in the village. People

complained that the water had a brownish

colour; it must be due to rains as it washes

the loose sand. So, for drinking purpose

they were presently avoiding this well and

using the blue water well.

A school is presently constructing quite a big water system (see fig. 5.4-1 (b)) for itself. They have

agreed to provide water to the village as well.

They also add TCL tablets provided by the Gram Panchayat but during monsoons they first boil the

water and then use cloth for filtering it.

They have complained about stomach ache and fever.

5.4.2 Education:

Astitva started a Balwadi here. Care of 17 kids of about 2-5years is taken in it.

Figure 5.4-1 (a) The Well on the left is constructed by Astitva; (b) Construction on the right is being done by athe school and (c) In back "bandana" used for storing Dam water can be seen

19

5.5 Water Sample Testing using a Jal-Tara kit:

Sample 1 -> Water from the well in Kashivali used for drinking

Sample 2-> Water from Plastic Storage tank constructed as part of Astitva Rainwater Harvesting project in

Velpada

Sample 3-> Water from the storage tank before treatment

through Livinguard set-up in Vikramgarh High

School

Sample 4 -> Water after treatment through Livinguard set-

up in Vikramgarh High School

Sample 5-> Water from Plastic Storage tank constructed

as part of Astitva Rainwater Harvesting project

in Thapapada

Sample 6->Water from the well not used for drinking in Thapapada

Sample 7-> Water from the well situated right in the middle of the village of Thapapada which is used for

drinking purpose by the villagers

(1) As given in Jal-Tara Manual (2) Measured by checking the presence of Coliform bacteria (3) pH is within an error of ±1 (4) Residual chlorine is absent; since testing was done almost after 24 hrs after sample collection and villagers even reported

that they are out of TCL tablets for about 2 days and are yet to get the TCL tablets from the Panchayat. (5) Test is unreliable since the amount of silver nitrate added varies with drastically with the amount of ammonia solution

added to solution to change its pH to 7-10. Silver reacts with the NH4OH AgCl + 2 NH4OH -> Ag(NH3)2

+ + Cl

- + 2H2O

* When repeated again it comes out to be 2127 which indicates that chloride test is unreliable

Test/Sample Acceptable

limit(1) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Faecal Contamination(2) Must be -ve +ve +ve +ve -ve +ve +ve +ve

pH(3) 6.5-8.5 6 7 6 6 6 6 6

Turbidity (NTU) 5-10 <10 <10 <10 <10 ≈50 ≈25 ≈25

Residual Chlorine (mg/L)(4) 0.2 (min) Absent (∵ there was no change in colour)

Chloride (mg/L)(5) 250-1000 1418 1467.63 638.1 666.46 709 1205.3 1666.15*

Fluoride 1-1.5 (max) 0.6 mg/L (∵ all showed the same colour)

Hardness (mg/L) 300-600 120 200 144 144 136 144 200

Ammonia (mg/L) 1.5 0.6 mg/L (∵ all showed the same colour)

Figure 5.5-1 Sample in Bacteria Vials in order 1 to 7 (L-R) for 36 hrs. Black Colour denotes presence of Coliform bacteria

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5.6 JJ Colony, Sawda Village near New Delhi / "Hub and Spoke" model of

Sarvajal: (Oct'14)

Visited the Sarvajal establishment in JJ Colony, Sawda village near Delhi. It was established almost a year ago. At Sawda, met with the representative Deepak Halder running the facility. The entire facility is handled by 2 persons i.e. a driver and the representative. In the JJ colony there is no pipeline laid. Sewer line has been built but is not cleaned regularly. Sewer line is not properly built. So, many households have underground tanks in which they store the sewer waste. This waste is collected by a tanker for a fee. Delhi Jal Board also supplies water for free of cost in water tankers but its not potable water. It has been seen to cause skin irritation and gastronomical problem. There are about 8,000 – 9,000 households in the region on an average having 5 members. Around 60-70% people have motors at their homes. 2% households even have installed Kent ROs.

They have a Water Treatment Plant (WTP) in an area of about 100-150 sq.ft and have put about 13 kiosks (see fig. 5.6-1) like an ATM in the radius of about 300-500m. These kiosks (can store about 500L of water like an ATM machine) are recharged with using a CNG operated recharging vehicle which can carry about 800L of water. People are given cards, like Delhi Metro cards, which they recharge at the WTP and then use them at the ATM kiosks to get water. Presently 1000 people have these cards. They call this model as “Hub & Spoke”. All of the kiosks are connected to the server using cloud computing, so the water level is monitored. Whenever the water level falls below a certain level, an SMS is sent to the people at the WTP. It seems to happen on every alternate day. Before recharging the kiosk they dump the water in it into the sewers.

At WTP they store the ground water in an underground 10,000L storage tank so that sedimentation takes place. Then they further pump this water (raw water) into a 1,000L water tank. Before pumping this water through the Reverse Osmosis (RO) membrane, it is subjected to some pre-filtration processes. It is first passed through media filter and then the cartridges. Before storing water in two 3000L (see fig. 5.6.-4) storage tanks, it undergoes UV treatment. Purified water is not stored for more than 76hrs. It is dispensed in the recharge pit, it’s a pit dug in the ground to pour back the waste water back into the ground. TDS of raw water is around 1500 mg/l and after purification it’s around

100-130mg/l. After 6hrs of use they backwash/clean the entire

Figure 5.6-1 Delhi Jal Board Water Tankers

Figure 5.6-3 Sarvajal Water Kiosk with Solar Panel at top

Figure 5.6-2 WTP with a 1000L tank on right.

21

system. It takes about 15min in backwashing and then further 10mins for the rinsing. Electricity bill comes out to be 10,0008 Rupees/month. They pay around 8,0009 Rupees/month each to their 2 employees. The transportation cost comes out to be 3,00010 Rupees/month. The cost of each kiosk is about Rs 40,00011.

8,9,10,11

Tentative figure, unable to confirm withorganisation

Figure 5.6-4 3000L Storage Tanks used to store Purified water for 76 hours

22

6 Case Studies:

I looked at some of the business models of the companies working in potable water sector for poor

people.

6.1 Livinguard Technologies Pvt. Ltd. http://www.livinguard.com/

Block No C-96, 1st Floor, TTC Industrial Area, Turbhe MIDC, Navi Mumbai 400705

+9122-30212509

[email protected]

● Uses a proprietary disinfecting coating material called Livinguard :

o This is coated/impregnated on the entire area of fabric.

o Coating forms tiny knives throughout the fabric which pierce the membranes of

microorganisms that come in contact with the fabric.

o Disinfection is achieved via a mechanical kill action as opposed to conventional

chemical ones.

● Livinguard™ coated textiles are used to make filtration candles

o Used to purify fresh water, tap/municipal water, well water

o Doesn’t require any electricity, thus, become a cost-effective process.

● Cost to Consumers: 2-6 Paise/L.

● Using the Livinguard filtering technology, they have developed a huge line of at different

scales.

o Livinguard Rural Filter

o Livinguard "Matka" Filter

o Livinguard Community Filter

o Livinguard Community Filter

http://www.livinguard.com/

23

6.2 Sarvajal http://www.sarvajal.com/#

Piramal Water Private Limited, ChandanBunglow, OppParitosh Tower, Near Darpana Academy,

Usmanpura, Ahmedabad, Gujarat - 380 013 India

Office - 079 4050 2100; Toll Free - 1800 103 2334

● Product: Water ATM’s , also operate Filtration plants

o Solar powered

o Cloud based remote monitoring system

● Cost to consumer12:Rs 0.30 per litre at ATMs away from filtration centre and Rs 0.15 at the

filtration centre

● Water undergoes :

o Reverse osmosis

o Ultra-violet treatment

o Do not use Ozonisation process : quite expensive

● Claims water quality maintained according to BIS guidelines

6.3 SODIS (Solar Water Disinfection)

http://www.sodis.ch/index_EN

SODIS Ueberlandstrasse 133 P.O. Box 611 8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland

Phone +41 58 765 52 86

[email protected]

Principle: UV-A rays in sunlight kill germs such as viruses, bacteria and parasites (giardia and

cryptosporidia)

● Clear and Transparent (generally PET) bottles are filled with the water and placed in full sunlight

for at least 6 hours (depending on sunlight)

● PET bottles are better than PVC (PVC have a pungent smell and doesn’t burn as easily as possible

whereas PET have)

Restrictions/Requirements:

● Bottles must be transparent, colourless, not heavily scratched

● In order to allow sufficient radiation water must have turbidity less than 30 NTU (which can be

tested by reading newspaper headline through it) and its depth shouldn’t be more than 10 cm

Disadvantages:

● If more than half of the sky is clouded than you might even be required to keep it under sunlight

for 2 days

● Water that has been polluted with chemicals (poisons, fertilisers, etc.) must not be used since

SODIS method change the chemical composition

● Once removed from sunlight, remaining bacteria may again reproduce in the dark

1.

12"Draw Water from ATMs for 30 Paise under Delhi Jal Board’s New Initiative." article by The Indian Express. N.p., 13

May 2014. Web. Aug. 2014. ( http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/draw-water-from-atms-for-30-paise-under-delhi-jal-boards-new-initiative/ )\

http://www.sarvajal.com/

http://www.sodis.ch/index_EN

6.4 BioSand Filter: (Developed by CAWST

90’s

Principle: Based on slow-sand filter

Point-of-use water treatment system

Pathogens and suspended solids are removed by Mechanical trapping in sand, Predation -- Micro-organisms in bio Adsorption -- Stuck to sand grains, Natural death -- lack of food,

Rate of filtration of water : 12

Removes up to 95% of turbidity, bad

Also able to remove Iron and magnesium as well Note: - Separating gravel (0.7-6mm)mm) layer are used only to prevent filtration sand from entering the water flow and plugging the flow.

Restrictions/Requirements:

Chlorinated water should not be used since chl

the filtration sand bed be

-- To ensure attachment and deactivation of viruses

-- 50 cm is the minimum depth at which slow sand filters operate

Flow rate of 0.4 m3/m2/hr

Literature suggests minimum height of layer must be 3 times the mean diameter of grain size. Thus, 5 cm seems safe (2 times this minimum)

Disadvantages: ● Cannot remove most of the ● The water may look clear after filtration but there may still be some bacteria and viruses in the

water. So, the water must be further disinfected. Mostly Chlorination, SODIS or boiling is used.

● Prototype was constructed with Astitva in Wada

The flow rate was 175 mL/min due to smaller crosssection area but it matched the required flow of 0.4 m

It was built at very small level

Its cost was around 500 bucks

Figure

6.4-2 Santosh (R) from Astitva collecting filtered water

BioSand Filter: (Developed by CAWST* co-founder Dr. David Manz in

filter

use water treatment system

Pathogens and suspended solids are removed by Mechanical trapping in sand,

organisms in bio-layer eat them, Stuck to sand grains,

lack of food, air

Rate of filtration of water : 12-18 L/hr

Removes up to 95% of turbidity, bad odour& taste

Also able to remove Iron and magnesium as well

6mm) & Drainage gravel (6-12 layer are used only to prevent filtration sand from entering

the water flow and plugging the flow.

Chlorinated water should not be used since chlorine kills the biolayer

the filtration sand bed be not less than 50 cm in depth

To ensure attachment and deactivation of viruses

50 cm is the minimum depth at which slow sand filters operate

/hr ( i.e. 0.4 L/min for cross-sectional area of 0.06 m

Literature suggests minimum height of layer must be 3 times the mean diameter of grain size. Thus, 5 cm seems safe (2 times this minimum)

Cannot remove most of the chemical impurities The water may look clear after filtration but there may still be some bacteria and viruses in the water. So, the water must be further disinfected. Mostly Chlorination, SODIS or boiling is used.

was constructed with Astitva in Wada:

The flow rate was 175 mL/min due to smaller crosssection area but it matched the required flow of 0.4 m3

It was built at very small level

Its cost was around 500 bucks

Figure

Figure 6.4-3 Prototype Figure 6.4-4 Washed Separation and Drainage gravels

24

founder Dr. David Manz in

orine kills the biolayer

sectional area of 0.06 m2 ) is the target

Literature suggests minimum height of layer must be 3 times the mean diameter of grain size.

The water may look clear after filtration but there may still be some bacteria and viruses in the water. So, the water must be further disinfected. Mostly Chlorination, SODIS or boiling is used.

The flow rate was 175 mL/min due to smaller cross-3/m2/hr

Figure 6.4-1 Components of BSF

Washed

Figure 6.4-5 Measurements for Construction

25

7 Observations:

As observed, the households in most of the villages in India get their water from the dug-up well.

Majorly it’s polluted with biological contamination. Villagers do put chlorine powder in wells which is

fine. But

1. Once all the TCL is used, Gram Panchayat delays the delivery of TCL packets. So, during this

period people drink contaminated water

2. The other point is that the wells are not properly covered so they also have organic substances

like a dead frog (seen in a well during the field visit), leaves from the plants etc which results in

the production of carcinogenic THMs. These bi-products can be avoided:

i. if the wells are properly covered and/or

ii. Instead of directly putting TCL in well they first filter it using activated carbon or sand

filter and then use TCL.

Figure 6.4-1 Kids from Thapa-pada village checking pH for the water

26

References:

1. Assessing Microbial Safety of Drinking Water: Improving Approaches and Methods. Paris: OECD, 2003. Web. Aug. 2014.

2. "CAWST." Biosand Filter. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct.-Nov. 2014. <http://www.cawst.org/en/resources/biosand-filter>.

3. "Chlorine Residual Testing." Chlorine Residual Testing Fact Sheet, CDC SWS Project (n.d.): n. pag. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. Web. Nov. 2014. <http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/publications_pages/chlorineresidual.pdf>.

4. "Different Water Filtration Methods Explained." Apec Water Free Drinking Water. N.p., n.d. Web. Aug.-Sept. 2014. <http://www.freedrinkingwater.com/water-education/quality-water-filtration-method.htm>.

5. "Draw Water from ATMs for 30 Paise under Delhi Jal Board’s New Initiative." The Indian Express. N.p., 13 May 2014. Web. Aug. 2014. <http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/draw-water-from-atms-for-30-paise-under-delhi-jal-boards-new-initiative/>.

6. "Drinking Water Filters -- A Complete Guide." Pure Water Network. N.p., n.d. Web. Aug.-Sept. 2014. <http://www.pwn.com/guide2.html>.

7. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: First Addendum to the Third Edition, Volume 1: Recommendations. Geneva: WHO: n.p., 2006. Web. Aug. 2014.

8. "IDA." IDA. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2014. <http://idadesal.org/desalination-101/desalination-by-the-numbers>.

9. Livinguard™. N.p., n.d. Web. Aug. 2014. <http://www.livinguard.com/>. 10. "Microbiology." SODIS:. To Eawag, the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Sciences and Technology,

n.d. Web. Aug.-Sept. 2014. <http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/mikrobio/index_EN>. 11. Nutrients in Drinking Water. Geneva, Switzerland: Water, Sanitation, and Health Protection and the

Human Environment, World Health Organization, 2005. Web. Nov. 2014. 12. PG, Brian Oram. "Chlorination of Drinking Water." Water Research Centre. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov.

2014. <http://www.water-research.net/index.php/water-treatment/tools/chlorination-of-water>. 13. Randy Johnson. "Drinking Water Treatment Methods." Drinking Water Resources. N.p., 2005. Web.

Aug.-Sept. 2014. <http://www.cyber-nook.com/water/Solutions.html>. 14. Randy Johnson. "Effectiveness of Water Treatment Methods." Drinking Water Resources. N.p., n.d.

Web. Aug.-Sept. 2014. <http://www.everythingyoualwayswantedtoknow.com/watertreatment/treatment-table.html>.

15. "Simple Methods for the Treatment of Drinking Water." Centre for Ecological Sciences. Ministry of Environment and Forests, India, n.d. Web. Nov. 2014. <http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/water/paper/drinkingwater/simplemethods/disinfection.html>.

16. SODIS. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct. 2014. <http://www.sodis.ch/index_EN>. 17. "Ultraviolet Radiation for Disinfecting Household Drinking Water." Water Treatment Notes; Cornell

Cooperative Extension, College of Human Ecology (1993 Updated 2004): n. pag. Web. Nov. 2014. <http://waterquality.cce.cornell.edu/publications/CCEWQ-10-UVWaterTrtforDisinfection.pdf>.

18. "United States Census Bureau." Population Clock. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2014. <http://www.census.gov/popclock/?intcmp=home>.

19. "ValueNotes Database Pvt Ltd." India’s Home Water Purifier Industry to Grow at a CAGR of 22% Till 2019. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct. 2014. <http://www.pr.com/press-release/579155>.

20. "Water For All." ..::Sarvajal ::..N.p., n.d. Web. Aug. 2014. <http://www.sarvajal.com/>.