Theory of designModule 2

Principles of design

• Proportion• Scale• Balance• Rhythm• Symmetry• Hierarchy• Axis

A ratio refers to the quantitative comparison of two similar things,

Ratio Proportion While proportion refers to the equality of ratios

It can be represented asEg10:5 , 10/5, 10 to 5.

Examples.

Aspect ratio. Ratio in size of a door or window

It can be represented asEg 10/5 = 2/1

Examples.

Proportion btw hands to whole body Golden proportion

Proportion Proportion refers to the proper or harmonious relation of one part to another or to the whole

Proportioning systems go beyond the functional and technical determinants of architectural form and space to provide an aesthetic rationale for their dimensions.

They can visually unify the multiplicity of elements in an architectural design by having all of its parts belong to the same family of proportions. They can provide a sense of order in, and heighten the continuity of, a sequence of spaces. They can establish relationships between the exterior and interior elements of a building.

Theories of Proportion:• Golden Section• Classical Orders• Renaissance Theories• Modular• Ken• Anthropometry

Golden sectionoriginate from the Pythagorean concept of “all is number” and the belief that certain numerical relationships manifest the harmonic structure of the universe.

1:1.618

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and 34.

The number of petals in a flower consistently follows the Fibonacci sequence.

Pinecones

Similarly, the seed pods on a pinecone are arranged in a spiral pattern. Each cone consists of a pair of spirals, each one spiraling upwards in opposing directions. The number of steps will almost always match a pair of consecutive Fibonacci numbers. For example, a 3-5 cone is a cone which meets at the back after three steps along the left spiral, and five steps along the right.

Tree branchesThe Fibonacci sequence can also be seen in the way tree branches form or split. A main trunk will grow until it produces a branch, which creates two growth points. Then, one of the new stems branches into two, while the other one lies dormant. This pattern of branching is repeated for each of the new stems. A good example is the sneezewort. Root systems and even algae exhibit this pattern.Shells

The unique properties of the Golden Rectangle provides another example. This shape, a rectangle in which the ratio of the sides a/b is equal to the golden mean (phi), can result in a nesting process that can be repeated into infinity — and which takes on the form of a spiral. It's call the logarithmic spiral, and it abounds in nature.

Spiral Galaxies

Not surprisingly, spiral galaxies also follow the familiar Fibonacci pattern. The Milky Way has several spiral arms, each of them a logarithmic spiral of about 12 degrees. As an interesting aside, spiral galaxies appear to defy Newtonian physics. As early as 1925, astronomers realized that, since the angular speed of rotation of the galactic disk varies with distance from the center, the radial arms should become curved as galaxies rotate. Subsequently, after a few rotations, spiral arms should start to wind around a galaxy. But they don't — hence the so-called winding problem. The stars on the outside, it would seem, move at a velocity higher than expected — a unique trait of the cosmos that helps preserve its shape.

Seed heads

The head of a flower is also subject to Fibonacci an processes. Typically, seeds are produced at the center, and then migrate towards the outside to fill all the space. Sunflowers provide a great example of these spiraling patterns.

Golden ratio in art and architecture

Classic ordersTo the Greeks and Romans of classical antiquity, the Orders representedin their proportioning of elements the perfect expression of beauty andharmony. The basic unit of dimension was the diameter of the column. Fromthis module were derived the dimensions of the shaft, the capital, as well asthe pedestal below and the entablature above, down to the smallest detail.

Renaissance Theory Pythagoras discovered that the consonances of the Greek musical system could be expressed by the simple numerical progression—1, 2, 3, 4—and their ratios, 1:2, 1:3, 2:3, 3:4. This relationship led the Greeks to believe they had found the key to the mysterious harmony that pervaded the universe.

He squared and cubed the simple numerical progression to produce the double and triple progressions, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 1, 3, 9, 27. For Plato, these numbers and their ratios not only contained the consonances of the Greek musical scale but also expressed the harmonic structure of his universe.The architects of the Renaissance, believing that their buildings had to belong to a higher order, returned to the Greek mathematical system of proportions.

These series of ratios manifested themselves not only in the dimensions of a room or a facade, but also in the interlocking proportions of a sequence of spaces or an entire plan.

PROPORTION & SCALE / 327Seven Ideal Plan Shapes for Rooms

Seven Ideal Plan Shapes for Rooms.

Modular Le Corbusier developed his proportioning system, the Modulor, to order “thedimensions of that which contains and that which is contained.” He saw themeasuring tools of the Greeks, Egyptians, and other high civilizations asbeing “infinitely rich and subtle because they formed part of the mathematicsof the human body, gracious, elegant, and firm, the source of that harmonywhich moves us, beauty.” He therefore based his measuring tool, the Modulor,on both mathematics (the aesthetic dimensions of the Golden Section andthe Fibonacci Series), and the proportions of the human body (functionaldimensions).

Facade Detail, Unité d’Habitation,

KenThe traditional Japanese unit of measure, the shaku, was originally imported from China. It is almost equivalent to the English foot and divisible into decimal units. Another unit of measure, the ken, was introduced in the latter half of Japan’s Middle Ages. Although it was originally used simply to designate the interval between two columns and varied in size, the ken was soon standardized for residential architecture. Unlike the module of the Classical Orders, which was based on the diameter of a column and varied with the size of a building, the ken became an absolute measurement.

• Refers to the measurement of the size and proportions of the human body.

• Its applicability to the design process is seen in thephysical fit, or interface, between the human bodyand the various components of space.

• anthro=man, pometry=measure

Anthropometric

Scale Scale refers to how we perceive or judge the size of something in relation to something else.

Human scale to the court buildingLarge mural and human

Scale related to unitsThe entity an object or space is being compared to may be an accepted unit or standard of measurement.

1m

3.28 ft

Scale related to ratiosScale model of a building

Scale model of a scooter

Visual scalewhich refers not to the actual dimensions of things, but rather to how small or large something appears to be in relation to its normal size or to the size of other things in its context.

Visual scale

Relation between window size and facade

Many building elements have sizes and characteristics that are familiar to us and which we use to gauge the sizes of other elements around them. Such elements as residential window units and doorways help give us an idea of how large a building is and how many stories it has.

The entrance portico of the library at the University of Virginia, modeled after the Pantheon in Rome, is scaled to the overall building form while the doorway and windows behind it are scaled to the size of the spaces within

the building.

Reims Cathedral

Human scale doorsMonumental scale entry

Human scaleHuman scale in architecture is based on the dimensions and proportions of the human body.we can use elements that have human meaning and whose dimensions are related to the dimensions of our posture, pace, reach, or grasp.

A space that is intimate in scale describes an environment in which we feel comfortable,

While something that is monumental in scale makes us feel small in comparison,

Axis The axis is perhaps the most elementary means of organizing forms and spaces in architecture. It is a line established by twopoints in space, about which forms and spaces can be arranged in a regular or irregular manner.

Axis line of Qutub minar

Axis line

Axis line

Salk institute

Axis line

Axis line

Axis in town plan

Madura meenakshi temple

Chinese courtyard houses

Balance Parts of the design are equally distributed to create a sense of stability. Both physical and visual balance exist.

Types•Symmetrical or formal balance•Asymmetrical or informal balance•Radial balance•Vertical balance•Horizontal balance

The elements within the design are identical in relation to a centerline or axis.

The Taj Mahal MausoleumAgra, Uttar Pradesh, India

©iStockphoto.com

Symmetrical or Formal Balance

Parts of the design are not identical but are equal in visual weight.

Chateau de ChaumontSaone-et-Loire, France

Wikipedia.org

Asymmetrical or Informal Balance

Radial Balance

Design elements radiate outward from the center.

Microsoft Office clipart

Galleria Vittorio Emanuele IIMilan, Italy

Dresden FrauenkircheDeresden, Germay

The top and bottom parts are equal.

Vertical Balance

Balance in plan

Symmetry A symmetrical condition requires the balanced arrangement of equivalent patterns of form and space on opposite sides of a dividing line or plane, or about a center or axis.

Lateral symmetry

Radial symmetry

Radial symmetry

Lateral symmetry

Hierarchy The value system by which relative importance is measured will of course depend• on the specific situation, • needs and desires of the users• decisions of the designer.

The values expressed may be individual or collective, personal or cultural

• Exceptional size• Unique shape• Strategical position

Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet (China), 17th century

Location of castle in hills

View of Florence illustrating the dominance of the cathedral over the urban landscape

Champs-Élysées, Paris, France

Eiffel tower, Paris

datumA datum refers to a line, plane, or volume of reference to which other elementsin a composition can relate.

It organizes a random pattern of elements through its regularity, continuity, and constant presence.

Datum line

Philip Exeter Academy Library, Exeter, New Hampshire, 1967–1972, Louis Kahn

datum

Rhythm Rhythm refers to any movement characterized by a patterned recurrence of elements or motifs at regular or irregular intervals.

Cube house designRotterdam, Netherlands

Repetition

Unity is achieved by the consistent use of lines, color, material, and/or texture within a design.

Unity

©iStockphoto.com

©iStockphoto.com

The feature in a design that attracts one’s eye – the focal point• Emphasis can be achieved through size, placement, shape, color, and/or use of lines

Mosque - Egypt

Microsoft Office clipart

Wikipedia.orgEmphasis

Ceiling mosaic in Park Gruell

Noticeably different

Can be created with• Color• Proportion and scale• Shape• Texture• Etc.

©iStockphoto.com

Contrast

The pleasing agreement of parts or combination of parts in a composition --Harmony involves the selection/design of elements that share a common trait, however, Harmony becomes monotony without Variety.

Common traits orientation colors or values shape/size, materials, variety: the extent of the differences in design elements -- visual interest is enhanced by introducing dissimilar elements and spatial arrangements.

Harmony

Emphasis / Dominance

‘Dominance’ is an important principle of design that relates to the visual weight of an architectural composition, while ‘Emphasis’ refers to the object or element which first catches the attention of the viewer. An architect needs to create an area of emphasis or a focal point, which is considered as the visual starting point from which the eye will begin the journey of recognizing the whole architecture work.

FluidityA sense of moment or action in design using line s and forms